Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for information
exchange. Communication is simply the process of conveying message at a distance or communication is the
basic process of exchanging information. Generally communication can be classified into two types.
(1) Communication within line of sight
(2) Communication beyond line of sight between point to point.

COMMINCATION PROCESS AND ITS COMPONENTS

Communication systems

Process of information Transmission Reception

Encoding
Processing Decoding Storage Interception
Collection Storage of
of Data of Data information
In Communication engineering, the physical message such as sounds, words, pictures etc. are
converted into equivalent electrical values called signals.
This electrical signal is conveyed to a distance place, through a communication media, and at receiving
end, this electrical signal is reconverted back into the original message through same media.
NOTE: Different electronic equipment’s which are used for communication purpose, are called
communication equipment’s. Different communication equipment’s when assembled together form a
communication system.

ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

In general, communication involves the transmission of information from one point to another through
a succession of process i.e.,
(1) The generation of a thought pattern or image in the mind of an originator.
(2) The description of that image.
(3) The encoding of these symbols.
(4) The transmission of the encoded symbols to destination.
(5) Decoding and reproduction of the original symbols.
(6) The recreation of the original through pattern or image.
The purpose of communication system is to transmit an information bearing signal, from a source
located at one point to a user or destination, located at another point some distance away.
The block diagram of general communication system (or) elements of communication system.
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VEC, KAVALI
Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

Fig: Block diagram of Communication System

INFORMATION SOURCE:
A communication system serves to communicate a message or information. This message or
information originates in the information source. The function of information source is to produce required
message which has to be transmitted.
INPUT TRANSDUCER
A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. The message from
which the information source may or may not be electrical in nature. In case when the message produced by
the information source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is used to convert it into a time varying
electrical signal.
TRANSMITTER
The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects. In long
distance radio communication or broadcast, signal amplification is necessary before modulation. Modulation
is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is super imposed upon the high
frequency carrier signal. Simply, inside the transmitter, signal processing such as restriction of range of
frequencies, amplification and modulation are achieved.
THE CHANNEL AND THE NOISE
The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to
receiver. The function of the channel is to provide a physical connection between the transmitter and the
receiver. There are two types of channels, namely point to point channel and broadcast channels. Examples of
point to point channels are wire lines, microwave links and optical fibers.
During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced in
the system. Noise is an unwanted signal which tend to interfere with the required signal. Noise signal is always
random in character. Noise has its greatest effect on the signal in the channel.
RECIEVER
The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the
distorted received signal. The reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as
demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out at the transmitter.

DESTINATION
Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into original form.
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 Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Communication system

Analog Hybrid Digital

communication communication communication

Continuous wave Pulse modulation PCM DM DPCM

modulation

AM PM FM PAM PWM PPM

ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

It is designed to transmit analog information using analog modulation schemes. Such as Amplitude
modulation and Angle modulation.
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
It is designed to transmit digital information using digital modulation schemes. Such as PCM, DM,
DPCM etc.
HYBRID COMMUINCATION SYSTEM
It is designed to use digital modulation schemes for transmitting sampled and quantized value of analog
signals.
MESSAGES
Messages are digital or analog. Digital messages are constructed with a finite no of symbols. For
example printed language consists of 26 letters, 10 numbers, a space and a several punctuation marks. Thus a
text is a digital message constructed from about 50 symbols. Human speech is digital message, because it is
made up from a finite vocabulary in a language. A digital message constructed with M-symbols is called as
M-ary message.
Analog messages are characterized by data whose values vary over a continuous range. For example
temperature or the atmospheric pressure of a certain location can vary over a continuous rage and can assume
an infinite no of possible values.
SIGNALS
Digital messages are transmitted by using a finite set of electrical waveforms. For example in the Marse code,
a mark can be transmitted by an electrical pulse of amplitude +A/2 and a space can be transmitted by a pulse
of amplitude –A/2. In an M-ary case, M-distinct electrical pulses are used. Each of M-pulses represents one
of the M possible symbols. The task of the receiver is to extract a message from a distorted and noisy signal
at the channel output.
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION
Communication engineering is further divided into two categories depending on the transmission
media (or) channel used, such as
(1) Line communication (2) Radio communication
LINE COMMUNICATION
In line communication, the medium of transmission is a pair of conductors called transmission line.
This is also called as line channel. This means that in line communication, the transmitter and receiver are
connected through a wire or lines.
The main problems associated with the line communication are
(1) Installation and maintenance of transmission line is costly and it overcrowds open space
(2) Transmission capability is limited.
WIRLESS OR RADIO COMMUNICATION
In wireless and radio communication, a message is transmitted through open space by electromagnetic
waves called a radio wave. Radio waves are radiated from the transmitter in open space through a device
called antenna. A receiving antenna intercepts the radio waves at the receiver. The advantages of wireless
communication are cost effectiveness, possible long distance communication and simplicity.
The radio frequency spectrum is classified into seven service bands and its uses are,
Type of signal Frequency Range Applications
Very low frequency(VHL) 3 to 3KHz Long distance, point-to-point
communication.
Low frequency (LF) 30KHz to 300 KHz Radio Navigation
Medium frequency (MF) 300KHz to 3 MHz Broadcasting, Marine
applications
High frequency (HF) 3 MHz to 30MHz Radio Telephony
Very high frequency(VHF) 30MHz to 300MHz FM broadcasting, TV, Mobile
radio, radio navigation
Ultra high frequency (UHF) 300MHz to 3000 MHz FM broadcasting, TV, Mobile
radio, radio navigation
Extremely high 30GHz to 300GHz Multichannel telephony links,
frequency(EHF) Radar, satellite communication

MODULATION
Modulation may be defined as the process by which the characteristics of a signal called carrier are
varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of another signal called Modulating signal. The modulating
signal consists of information and this information bearing signal is also called as Baseband signal. The
frequency of carrier signal is greater than modulating frequency. The signal resulting from the process of
modulation is called modulated signal.
The receiver recreates the original message signal from a degraded version of the transmitted signal
after propagation through the channel is called demodulation.
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 Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

MODULATION METHODS (OR) TYPES OF MODULATION

Modulation is basically of two types
(i) Continuous wave modulation: When the carrier is continuous in nature, the modulation process is known
as continuous wave modulation or analog modulation.
(ii) Pulse modulation: When the carrier wave is pulse type waveform, the modulation process is known as
pulse modulation. In pulse modulation, the carrier consists of a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses. Pulse
modulation can be of analog or digital.

Modulation

Continuous or
analog Pulse Modulation Digital Modulation
communication
ASK

PSK
Pulse Digital
Amplitude Angle Pulse Analog
PAM FSK
modulation Modulation

DSB-SC QAM
SSB-SC PTM
Frequency Phase QPSK
VSB
DPSK
PPM PWM OR PDM
WBFM NBFM

NEED OF MODULATION (OR) BENEFITS OF MODULATION

The various aspects why we should modulate the message signal are
(a) For easy transmission (or) To reduce antenna height:
If the communication medium is the free space, then antenna are needed to radiate and receive the
signal. The antenna radiates effectively when its height is of the order of wave length of the signal to be
transmitted.
For example: For a frequency of 1 KHz, the height of the antenna required for effective radiation would be
half the wavelength,

 C 3  108
i.e., Antenna height    150km
2 2 f 2  1  10 3

Where  = Wavelength of the signal to be transmitted

C = Velocity of light
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

f = Frequency of the signal to be transmitted.

But it is highly impractical to construct and install such an antenna. So, the height of the antenna can be
reduced by modulation technique and it achieves effective radiation.
The process of modulation provides frequency shifting or frequency translation i.e., audio frequency (AF)
signals are translated into Radio frequency (RF). These RF signals act as carrier signal and AF signals act as
message signals. Hence height of the antenna very much reduced. Here, the 1 KHz baseband signal is
translated into a high frequency signal of 1MHZ

 C 3  108
Hence the height of antenna    150m
2 2 f 2  1  10 6
This height of the antenna is practically achievable.

(b) Avoids mixing of signals

All sound signals are concentrated within the range of 20Hz to 20 KHz. The transmission of baseband
signals from various sources causes the mixing of signal and then it is difficult to separate at the receiver end.
In order to separate the various signals, it is necessary to translate them to different portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum (channel0, each must be given its own bandwidth commonly known as channel
bandwidth. This can be achieved by taking different carrier frequencies for different signal source. Once the
signals have been transmitted, a tuned circuit at the receiver end selects the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum it is tuned for. Therefore modulating different signal sources by different carrier frequencies avoid
mixing of signals.
(c) Increases the range of communication
At low frequencies radiation is poor and signal gets highly attenuated. Therefore baseband signals
cannot be transmitted directly over long distance. Modulation effectively increases the frequency of the signal
to be radiated and thus increases the distance over which signals can be transmitted faithfully.
(d) Allows multiplexing of signals
The modulation permits multiplexing. Multiplexing means transmission of two or more signals
simultaneously over the same channel. The common examples of multiplexing are the number of TV channels
operating simultaneously or number of radio stations broadcasting the signal in MW and SW band
simultaneously.
(e) Improves quality of reception
The signal communication using modulation techniques such as frequency modulation, pulse code
modulation reduce the effect of noise to great extent. Reduction in noise improves the quality of reception.

APPLICATIONS OF MODULATION
1. FM Broadcasting
2. Radio navigation
3. Telephone communication
4. Mobile communication
5. TV communication
6. Radar communication
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7. Satellite communication
8. Frequency division multiplexing

BASEBAND AND CARRIER COMMUNICATION:

In baseband communication, baseband signals are transmitted without modulation, i.e., without any
shift in the range of frequencies of the signal. Communication that uses modulation to shit frequency spectrum
of a signal is known as carrier communication.
In carrier communication, one of the basic parameters (i.e. amplitude, frequency or phase) of a
sinusoidal carrier of high frequency are varied in proportion to the baseband signal.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Amplitude modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of the carrier signal in accordance
with the amplitude of a modulating signal. Frequency and phase of the carrier signal are not altered during
this process.
Let the modulating signal and carrier signal can be written as

V m t   V m sin  m t (1)

V c t   V c sin  c t (2)

According to the definition, the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed after modulation.

V AM  V c  V m t   V c  V m sin  m t

 V 
 V c 1  m sin  m t   V c 1  m a sin  m t 
 Vc 
Vm
ma   Modulation index (or) depth of modulation
Vc
The shape of the modulating signal is called as AM envelope, because it contains all frequencies that make up
the AM signal and it is used to communicate the information through the system.
The instantaneous amplitude of modulated signal or AM envelope can be written as,

V AM t   V AM sin  c t
Substitute the value of VAM in above equation

V AM t   V c 1  m a sin  m t  sin  c t

 V c sin  c t  m a V c sin  m t . sin  c t

1
Since sin  m t . sin  c t  cos  c   m t  cos  c   m t 
2
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

maVc
VAM t   Vc sin c t 
2
 
cosc  m t  cos c  m t 
The graphical representation of amplitude modulation wave is

It is important to note that,

(i) If message signal is absent the output is simply the carrier signal
(ii) The shape of the envelope is identical to shape of modulating signal.
The equation of amplitude modulated signal consists of three terms, the first terms of RHS represents
the carrier wave. The second and third terms are identical which are called as lower sideband (LSB) and upper
sideband (USB).

Fig. Frequency spectrum of AM with carrier

From above fig, the range of frequency between  c  m  is known as LSB and  c   m  is known
as USB. The spacing between these two bands w.r.t carrier is  m . The band width of AM can be determined
by using these sidebands. Hence “BW” is twice the frequency of modulating signal.
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COEFFICIENT OF MODULATION (OR) PERCENT MODULATION (OR) MODULATION

INDEX:
The modulation index used to describe the amount of amplitude change occurred in AM envelopes.

From above fig,

2 V  mod ulating  max  V max  V min

Vmax  Vmin
Vm  Vmod ulating  max 
2
And V carrier  max  V max  V m

V V 
 Vmax   max min 
 2 

Vmax  Vmin

2
Vm Vmax  Vmin
 ma  
Vc Vmax  Vmin

V max  V min
%ma   100
V max  V min
There are three degrees of modulation depending upon the amplitude of the message signal relative to carrier
amplitude
(i) Under modulation (ii) critical modulation (iii) Over modulation
UNDER MODULATION

In this case modulation index ma  1,Vm  Vc . From the figure the envelope of AM signal does not
reach the zero amplitude axis. This is known as “under modulation”.
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CRITICAL MODULATION

In this case modulation index m a  1, Vm  Vc . From the figure the envelope of AM signal just
reaches the zero amplitude axis. This is known as “critical modulation”.

OVER MODULATION

In this case modulation index m a  1, Vm  Vc . From the figure the envelope of AM signal is
greater than carrier amplitude. Therefore the portion of envelope of modulating signal crosses zero axis. This
is known as “over modulation”. Due to this envelope detector provides distorted message signal.

POWER DISTRIBUTION
The modulated wave contains three terms such as carrier, LSB and USB. Therefore the modulated
wave contains more power than the carrier had before modulation.
The total power in modulated wave will be,

Pt  Pc  PLSB  PUSB
2
Vcarrier V2 V2
Pt   LSB  USB
R R R
Where Vcarrier = RMS value of carrier voltage
VLSB = VUSB = RMS value of upper and lower side band voltages
R = Resistance
2
 Vc 
2
Vcarrier   V2
 2
Pcarrier    c
R R 2R
2
 maVc 
V 2  2  2 2
/// ly PLSB  PUSB  SB     maVc
R R 8R
Vc = maximum carrier wave amplitude

maVc
VSB =  maximum amplitude of sidebands
2

Wkt, Pt  Pc  PLSB  PUSB

Vc2 ma2Vc2 m a2Vc2
  
2R 8R 8R

Vc2 Vc2 m a2 Vc2  m a2 

 Pt    1  
2R 4R 2R  2 

 m2 
Pt  Pc 1  a 
 2 
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

p t  m a2 
  1  
Pc  2 

If ma = 1, for 100% modulation, Pt  1.5 Pc

CURRRENT RELATION AND EFFICIENCY

 m2 
Wkt, Pt  Pc 1  a 
 2 

Pt  I t2 R and P c  I c2 R

 m a2  ma2
Hence I t2  I c2 1   or I t  I c 1 
 2  2

Where It = total or modulated current, Ic = carrier current

% Efficiency: It can be defined as the ratio of power in sidebands to total power, because sidebands only
contain useful information

power in sideband
%   100
totalpower

m a2V c2 m a2V c2

P LSB  PUSB 8 R 8 R  100
%   100  2
Ptotal Vc  m a2 
1  
2R  2 

m a2 Pc
2 m a2
%   100   100
 m a2  2  m a2
Pc 1  
 2 

1
If ma=1 then %   100  33.3%
3
From this we conclude that only 33.3% of energy is used and remaining power is wasted by the carrier
transmission along with sidebands.

GENERATION OF AM SIGNALS:
The device which is used to generate an amplitude modulated wave is known as Amplitude
Modulator.

SQUARE LAW DIODE MODULATION:

Definition: square law diode modulation circuit make use of nonlinear current voltage characteristics of diode.
This method is suited at low voltage levels because of the fact that current voltage characteristic of a diode is
highly nonlinear particularly in the low voltage region.
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From the fig, carrier and modulating signals are applied across the diode. When two different
frequencies are passed through a nonlinear device, the process of amplitude modulation takes place. Different
frequency terms appear at the output of the diode. These different frequency terms are applied across the tuned
circuit which is tuned to the carrier frequency and has a narrow bandwidth just to pass two sidebands along
with the carrier and reject other frequencies.

Fig: V-I characteristics of diode.

Carrier voltage is expressed as

Vc  Vc cos  c t

Modulating voltage Vm  Vm cos  m t

Where  c = carrier frequency  m = modulating frequency

The total ac voltage across the diode is given by

Vs  Vc  Vm
(1)
Vs  Vc cos  c t  Vm cos  m t

The non linear relationship between voltage and current for a diode is expressed as

i  a  bV s  cV s2 (2)

Where a,b,c are constants

i = current through the diode
Vs = voltage across the diode.
Substitute the value of Vs from equation (1) in equation (2) we get,
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2
i  a  bV s  cV s2  a  b V c cos  c t  V m cos  m t   c Vc cos  c t  V m cos  m t 

i  a  bVc cosc t  bVm cosmt  cVc2 cos2 c t  cVm2 cos2 c t  2cVcVm cosc t cosm t
 1 1  1 1 
i   a  cVc2  cVm2   bVc cosc t  bVm cosm t   cVc2 cos 22 t  cVm2 cos 2m t  
 2 2  2 2 
cVcVm cosc  m t  cVcVm cosc  m t (3)
Equation (3) consists of six terms, term(1) is dc term, (2) is the carrier signal , (3) is the modulating signal, (4)
consists of harmonics of carrier and modulating signals, (5) is the upper sideband, (6) is the lower sideband.
In the diode modulation circuit, the load impedance is a tuned circuit which is tuned to carrier
frequency. Therefore, this tuned circuit responds to a narrow band of frequencies centered about the carrier
frequency. Thus the frequency components which are actually developed in the output are terms of frequency
ωc, (ωc+ωm) and (ωc-ωm). The rest of the frequency components are rejected by the tuned circuit.
The requires expression of output current will be

i0  bVc cos c t  cVcVm cos c   m t  cVcVm cos c   m t

i0  bVc cos  c t  2cVcVm cos  c t cos  m t
 2cVm 
i0  bVc 1  cos  m t  cos  c t
 b 
i0  bVc 1  ma cos  m t  cos  c t ( 4)

2cVm
Where m a  , is the modulation index and equation (4) is the required expression for AM current.
b
DEMODULATION OF AM SIGNALS
The process of extracting a modulating or baseband signal from the modulated signal is called demodulation
or detection. (OR) demodulation or detection is the process by which the message is recovered from the
modulated signal at receiver.
The detectors are categorized as,
(i) Square law detectors
(ii) Envelope detectors

SQUARE LAW DECTECTOR/RECTIFIER DETECTOR:

The square law detector circuit is used for detecting modulated signal of small magnitude (i.e. below
1 volt). The circuit is very similar to square law modulator. The only difference lies in the filter circuit. In a
square law modulator, the filter used is a band pass filter where as in a square law detector a LPF is used.
From the circuit, the operation is limited to the non-linear region of the diode characteristics, the lower
half portion of the modulated waveform is compressed. This produces envelope applied distortion. Due to this,
the average value of the diode current is no longer constant, rather it varies with time.
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Fig: Square law detector

The distorted output diode current is expressed by the non liner V-I relationship (i.e., square law) as

i  aV  bV 2 where V = input modulated voltage

The AM wave is V  A1  m a cos  m t  cos  c t

By substituting ‘v’ in above equation

i  aA1  ma cos  c t  cos  c t   bA1  ma cos  m t  cos  m t 

2

If the above expression is expanded, we get frequencies like 2 c , 2 c   m ,  m and 2 m besides input
frequency terms. Hence, the diode current ‘i’ containing all these frequency terms is passed through a LPF
which allows to pass the frequencies below or up to ωm and reject the other frequency components.
Therefore, the modulating or baseband signal with frequency ωm is recovered from the input modulated
signal.

LINEAR DIODE OR ENVELOPE DETECTOR:

A diode operating in a linear region of its V-I characteristics can extract the envelope of an AM wave.
This type of detector is known as envelope detector or linear detector
From the fig, in the input portion of the circuit, the tuned transformer provides perfect tuning at the desired
carrier frequency. RC network is the time constant network. If the magnitude of the modulated signal at the
input of the detector is ‘1’ volt or more, the operation takes place in the linear portion of the V-I characteristic
of diode
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

.
Fig: Linear diode detector.

Fig: Characteristics of linear diode detector.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
Let us assume that the capacitor is absent, in this case the detector current will work as a half-wave
rectifier. Therefore, the output waveform would be a half rectified modulated signal. Let us consider that the
capacitor is introduced in the circuit. For the positive half cycle, the diode conducts and the capacitor is charged
to peak value of the carrier voltage. So, for a negative half cycle the diode is reverse biased and doesn’t
conduct. This means that the input carrier voltage is disconnected from the R-C circuit. Therefore the capacitor
starts discharging through the resistance ‘R’ with a time constant   RC .

If the time constant is suitably chosen, the voltage across the capacitor ‘C’ will not fall during the
small period of negative half cycle and by that time the next positive cycle appears. This positive cycle again
charges the capacitor ‘C’ to the peak value of the carrier voltage and thus this process repeats again and again.
Hence, the output voltage across the capacitor ‘C’ is the spiky modulating or baseband signal. We can reduce
these spikes to a negligible amount by keeping the time constant RC large so that the capacitor ‘C’ discharges
negligible small. Therefore, the time constant is an important consideration for envelope detector.

OTHER TYPES OF AM:

The amplitude modulation is also called as the “Double sideband full carrier system (DSB-FC). There
are some other types of AM are
Amplitude Modulation

DSB-FC DSB-SB SSB-SC (Single ISB (Independent VSB (Vestigial

sideband suppressed sideband system) sideband system)
carrier)
)
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DISADVANTAGES OF DSB-FC (STANDARD AM):

(i) Power wastage in DSB-FC transmission:
The carrier signal in the DSB-FC system does not convey any information. The information is
contained in the two sidebands only. But, the sidebands are images of each other and hence both of them
contains same information. Thus all the information can be conveyed by only one sideband.
Total power transmitted by an AM wave,

ma2 m2
Pt  Pc  PUSB  PLSB  PC  Pc  a Pc
4 4
The carrier component does not contain any information and one sideband is redundant. Hence, out of the
 ma2 
P
total power t  P 
c 1 
 , the wasted power is
 2 

ma2  m2 
Power wastage  Pc  Pc  1  a  Pc
4  4 

(ii) Bandwidth Requirement of DSB-FC

The bandwidth of DSB_FC system is 2fm. This is due to simultaneous transmission of both the
sidebands, out of which only one is sufficient to convey all the information. So, the bandwidth of DSB-FC is
double than actually required. Therefore, DSB-FC is a bandwidth inefficient system.
(iii) Effect of Noise:
When the AM wave travels from the transmitter to receiver over a communication channel, noise gets
added to it. The noise will change the amplitude of the envelope of AM in a random manner. So, the noise
will contaminate the information contents in the AM. Hence, the performance of AM is very poor in presence
of noise.

APPLICATION OF AM:
(i) Radio broadcasting
(ii) Picture transmission in a TV system.

DOUBLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER AM (DSB-SC-AM):

Two important parameters of a communication system are transmitting power and band width. Hence
saving of power and band width are highly desirable in a communication system.
In AM with carrier scheme, there is wastage in both transmitted power and band width. In order to
save the power in amplitude modulation the carrier is suppressed, because it does not contain any useful
information. This scheme is called as double side band suppressed carrier amplitude modulation(DSB-SC-
AM).It contains only LSB& USB terms and BW=2fm.

Let the modulating signal v m t   v m cos  m t

and carrier signal vc t   v c cos  c t

When multiplying both the carrier and message signal, the resultant signal is the DSB-SC-AM signal.

vt DSBSC  vt m v c t 

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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

 v t DSBCSC  v m cos  m t.vc cos  c t

vm vc
v t DSB  SC  cos  m   c t  cos  m   c t  -------------- (1)
2

Here the product of vc t  and vm t  produces the DSB-SC –AM signal. Thus we require product modulator
to generate DSB SC signal.
We know that,

ma vc
v t  AM  v c cos  c t  cos  c   m t  cos  c   m t 
2

When the above equation is compared with equation of DSB-SC, the unmodulated term vc cos  c t is
missing and only two side bands are present. Hence the eq (1) is called DSB-SC-AM.

Fig: Frequency spectrum of DSB-SC-AM

Fig: DSB-SC modulated signal

POWER CALCULATION:
We know that, the total power transmitted in AM is

pt  p carrier  p LSB  pUSB

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
v m v m v v c  mc 
 c  a c  a c  1  
2R 8R 8R 2 R  2 

 m 2
pt  pc 1  a 
 2 
2
vc
Where p c 
2R
Hence the carrier is suppressed, then the total power transmitted in DSB-SC-AM is,
1
pt  p LSB  pUSB
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

We know that,
2 2
mc vc
p LSB  pUSB 
8R
2 2 2
1
2
m v
2 2
m v
2
ma  vc  ma
 pt  a c  a c =   pc
8R 8R 2  2 R  2
1
pt  pt
Power saving =
pt

 ma 2  1 2 
1   pc   ma pc 
 2  2  p
 
 ma 2   ma 2 
1   pc 1   pc
2  2 
   
1 2
 Powersaving  2
*100  2
*100
 ma  2  ma
1  
 2 
 
2
If m a  1 then power saving = * 100  66.7%
3
i.e:66.7% of power is saved.
Due to suppression of the carrier wave, the power saving is increasing from 33.3% to 66.7%.

GENERATION OF DSB-SC:
The expression for DSB-SC signal is given as,

st   xt  cos  c t

Where xt  =Base band signal & cos  c t =carrier signal

From this expression, a DSB-SC signal is basically the product of the modulating or base band signal and
carrier signal.

 A circuit to achieve the generation of DSB-SC signal is called a product modulator.

 We have two types of product modulators namely, the balanced modulator and the ring modulator. 18
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

BALANCED MODULATOR USING TWO AM MODULATORS:

The above figure shows the balanced modulator circuit. It consists of two standard amplitude modulators
arranged in a balanced configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave. Here, the two modulators are identical,
except for the sign reversal of the modulating wave applied to the input of one of them. Therefore, the outputs
of two modulators can be given as,

s1 (t )  Ac 1  k a m(t )cos 2f c t

s 2 (t )  Ac 1  k a m(t )cos 2f c t

Subtracting s2(t) from s1(t) ,we obtain

s(t)= s1(t)- s2(t
=2kaAccos(2Пf ct)m(t)
Hence, except for the scaling factor 2ka, the balanced modulator output is equal to the product of the m (t) and
carrier

RING MODULATOR OR CHOPPER MODULATOR:

Below figure shows the circuit diagram of a diode ring modulator. It consists of four diodes, an audio
frequency transformer T1 and RF transformer T2. The carrier signal is assumed to be a square wave with
frequency ‘fc’ and it is connected between center taps of the two transformers. The DSB-SC output is obtained
at the secondary of RF transformer T2.
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

Fig: A diode ring modulator

WORKING OPERATION:

The operation is explained with the assumptions that the diodes act as perfect switches and that they
are switched ON and OFF by the RF carrier signal. This is because the amplitude and frequency of the
carrier is higher than that of the modulating signal. The operation can be divided into different modes
without the modulating signal and with modulating signal follows.

(1) Mode1:Operation in absence of modulating signal

To understand how carrier suppression takes place, let us assume that the modulating signal is
absent and only the carrier signal is applied. Hence x (t)=0

OPERATION IN THE POSITIVE HALF CYCLE OF CARRIER:

In this mode, let us assume that the modulating signal is zero, and only the carrier signal is applied

The equivalent circuit for this mode of operation is as shown in figure. The diodes D1 and D2 are forward
biased. Diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased.

Fig: Equivalent circuit in mode 1

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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

Let us observe the directions of currents flowing through the primary windings of output transformer T2, they
are equal and opposite to each other. Therefore, the magnetic fields produced by the currents are equal and
opposite and cancel each other. Hence induced voltage in the secondary winding is zero. Thus, the carrier is
supposed in the positive half cycle.

OPERATION IN NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE OF THE CARRIER:

In this mode also the modulating signal is zero. In the negative half cycle of the carrier, the diodes
D3 and D4 are forward biased and diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased.

In figure the currents flowing in the upper and lower halves of primary winding of T2 are again equal
and opposite directions. This is going to cancel the magnetic fields as explained in mode 1. Thus the output
voltage in this mode is also zero. Thus the carrier is suppressed in the negative half cycle as well. The perfect
cancellation of carrier will take place if and only if the characteristics of diodes are perfectly matched.

Fig: Equivalent circuit in mode 2

(2). Mode 2: Operation in presence of modulating signal

When RF carrier and the modulating signal both are applied

(A)OPERATION IN THE POSITIVE HALF CYCLE OF MODULATING SIGNAL:

(a)As we apply the low frequency modulating signal through the input audio transformer T1, there are many
cycles of the carrier signal, in the positive half cycle of the modulating signal.

(b)In the positive half cycle of the carrier, D1 and D2 are ON and secondary of T1 is applied as it is across the
primary of T2. Hence during the positive half cycle of the carrier, the output of T2 is positive as shown in fig
(a).

(c)In the negative half cycle of the carrier, D3 and D4 are turned ON and the secondary of T1 is applied in a
reversed manner across the primary of T2 as shown in equivalent circuit of fig (b). Thus, the primary voltage
of T2 is negative and output voltage becomes negative.
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Fig: Equivalent circuit in the half cycle of m (t) carrier positive

Fig: Equivalent circuit in the half cycle of m (t) carrier negative

(B) OPERATION IN THE NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE OF MODULATING SIGNAL

When modulating signal reverses the polarities, the operation of the circuit is same as that in the
positive half cycle. Now, the only difference is that the diode pair D3D4 will produce a positive output voltage.
Whereas D1D2 will produce a negative output voltage as shown in figure.

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DEMODULATION OF DSB-SC SIGNAL:

COHERENT DETECTION OF DSB-SC MODULATED WAVES:

The modulating signal m (t) is recovered from a DSB-SC wave s(t) by first multiplying s(t) with a locally
generated sinusoidal wave and then the low pass filtering the product.
For faithful recovery of modulating signal m(t), the local oscillator output should be exactly coherent or
synchronized, in both frequency and phase with the carrier wave c(t) used in the product modulator to generate
s(t). This method of demodulation is called coherent detection or synchronous detection.

Fig: Coherent detection DSBSC modulated wave

From figure, the product modulator output is,

v(t )  cos( 2f c t   ) s(t )

 Ac cos(2f c t ) cos(2f c t )m(t )

1 1
v(t )  Ac cos m(t )  Ac cos 4 f c t   m(t )
2 2
The output consists of two terms;
Scaled version of message signal and unwanted term. The unwanted term is removed with the help of low
pass filter. The overall output v 0(t) is therefore given as,

1
v 0 (t )  Ac cos  m(t )
2
Where phase error ‘Φ’ is constant, the demodulated signal v 0(t) is proportional to m (t). It is maximum when
Φ=0 and minimum, when Φ=±П/2. The zero demodulated signal, which occurs for Φ=±П/2, represents the
“quadrature null effect” of the coherent detector.
Because of phase error Φ, the detector output is attenuated by factor cosΦ. As long as phase error
(cosΦ) is constant, the detector output provides an undistorted modulating signal m (t). Generally cosΦ is not
constant, it varies randomly. Therefore, it is necessary to provide additional circuitary to maintain the local
oscillator in perfect synchronism, in both frequency and phase with the carrier wave used to generate the DSB-
SC modulated wave in the transmitter.
Note: Coherent detector is a combination of “AM DSB-SC modulator+filter”.
It is also called synchronous or homodyne detector.
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PHASOR DIAGRAMS:
AM (DSBFC):

ma vc
V AM (t )  Ac cos  c t  cos  c   m t  cos  c   m t 
2

Fig: The phase representation of AM with carrier

Here vc is the carrier wave phasor, taken as reference phasor. The two sidebands having a frequency of
(ωc+ωm) and (ωc-ωm) are represented by two phasors rotating in opposite directions with angular frequency of
‘ωm’. The net or resultant phasor is s(t). It depends on the position of the sideband phasor and carrier wave
phasor.

DSB-SC-AM:

ma vc
s (t ) DSB  SC 
2

cos( c   m )t  cos( c   m )t 

Fig: Phasor Diagram of DSB-SC-AM

Let, the carrier phasor is the reference phasor and oriented in horizontal direction as shown in figure, by
the dotted line (because it is suppressed after modulation).
The USB term mavc/2cos(ωc+ωm)t rotates at an angular frequency ‘ωm’ in anti-clockwise direction and the
LSB term mavc/2cos(ωc-ωm)t rotates at an angular frequency of ‘ωm’ in clockwise direction. Hence the resultant
amplitude of modulated wave at any point is the vector sum of the side bands.

FREQUENCY MIXER OR CONVERTER:

A frequency mixer or frequency converter, used to change the carrier frequency of a modulated signal
mt  cos  c t by 2 cos  mix t .Where  mix   c   I or  c   I , and then band pass filtering the product.

The product x (t) is

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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

xt   2mt  cos  c t cos  mix t

= mt cos c   mix t  cos c   mix t 

If we select  mix   c   I

xt   mt cos  I t  cos2 c   I t 

If we select  mix   c   I

xt   mt cos  I t  cos2 c   I t 

In either case, a band pass filter at the output, turned to  I , will pass the term mt  cos  I t . Thus the carrier
frequency has been translated to  I from  c .

The operation of frequency mixing or frequency conversion is identical to the operation of modulation
with a modulating carrier frequency (the mixer oscillator frequency  mix ) that differs from the incoming
carrier frequency by  I .

When we select the carrier frequency  mix   c   I , the operation is called up-conversion, and when we
select  mix   c   I , the operation is called down-conversion.

Fig: Frequency mixer or converter

SINGLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER AM (SSB-SC-AM):

In AM with carrier both the transmitting power and bandwidth are wasted. Hence the DSB-SC scheme has
been introduced in which power is saved by suppressing the carrier component but band width remains the
same i.e; BW= 2 m .
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

To increase the saving of power is possible by eliminating one side band in addition to carrier component,
because the USB and LSB are uniquely related by symmetry about the carrier frequency. So either one side
band is enough for transmitting as well as recovering the useful message.
In addition to that, transmission bandwidth can be cut into half, one side band is suppressed along the carrier.
This scheme is known as “SSB-SC-AM’

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM:

From the definition AM, the AM signal,

Ac m a
V Am t   Ac cos  c t  cos  c   m t  cos  c   m t 
2

By the definition of SSB-SC, carrier signal and one side band is suppressed. From the frequency spectrum
of SSB-SC,

m a Ac
V SSB  SC t   cos  c   m t
2

Fig (a): Spectrum of base band signal (b): Spectrum of DSB-SC

(c): Spectrum of SSB-SC wave with upper side band transmitted

(d) Spectrum of DSB-SC wave with lower side band transmitted

POWER CALCULATION:

Power in SSB-SC-AM is
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Continuous Wave Modulation Communication Systems

2
 ma
pt  p SB  pc
4

Power saving with respect to AM with carrier


p  pt
powersaving  t
pt

Where Pt =total power transmitted

 ma 2   ma 2   2

1  p
 c  pc  ma
2   1  

powersavin g    4    4   100
2
 ma 2   ma 
 1  p
 c  1  
 2  2

Therefore, for 100% modulation i.e., ma=1 then,

% Power saving=1.25/1.5=83.3%

Saving of power in SSB-SC-AM w.r.t DSB-SC-AM

1 2 1 2
1  ma p c  m a p c
Pt  Pt 1
 1
 2 4   100
pt 1 2 2
ma p c
2

Therefore %power saving=50%.

Frequency spectrum of SSB-SC-AM is as shown in figure.

It shows that only one side band signal is present, the carrier and other (upper) side band signal are
suppressed. Thus the bandwidth required reduces from 2ωm to ωms i.e; bandwidth requirement is reduced to
half compared to AM and DSB-SC signals.

bandwidth   c   c   m    m

Graphical representation of SSB-SC-AM is

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TIME DOMAIN DESCRIPTION OF THE SSB-SC WAVE:

Let us consider a single tone modulating signal is

xt   cos  m t

The frequency spectrum of this modulating signal consists of two pulses located at ω=±ωm as shown in
figure (a). If this modulating signal, modulates a carrier signal cosωct, then resulting spectrum of DSB-SC
signal is shown in fig (b).

To get SSB-SC wave form, we have to eliminate one of two side bands. From fig (c), the spectrum of
SSB-SC wave with lower side bands, corresponds to a time domain signal cosωc t

Because the frequency spectrum of cosine function contains two impulses in its frequency domain.i.e; a
SSB-SC wave with lower side band may be expressed as,

cos c   m t  cos  m t cos  c t  sin  m t sin  c t      (1)

Similarly, when upper side band may be expressed as,

cos c   m t  cos  m t cos  c t  sin  m t sin  c t        (2)

Since,

 
sin  c t  cos   c t  
 2

 
sin  m t  cos   m t  
 2

i.e; the sine terms may be obtained using the corresponding cosine terms simply by giving phase shift of (-
П/2).

Combining eq (1) and (2) we get,

st SSB  cos  m t cos  c t  sin  m t sin  c t

x (t) may be expressed as a continuous sum of sinusoidal signals.

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Hence,

s t SSB  xt  cos  c t  x n t  sin  c t

Where x (t)=signal obtained by shifting the of every component present in x(t) and (-П/2).

Fig: (a) Frequency spectrum of modulating signal

(b) Frequency spectrum of DSB-SC wave

(c) Spectrum of SSB with USB

(d) Spectrum of SSB with LSB

GENERATION OF SSB-SC SIGNALS:

SSB-SC signals may be generated by two methods,

(a) Frequency discrimination method or filter method

(b) Phase discrimination method or phase shift method

(A)FREQUENCY DISCRIMINATION METHOD:

In a frequency discrimination method, firstly a DSB-SC signal is generated simply by using an ordinary
product modulator. After this, form the DSB-SC, signal one of the two side bands is filtered out by a suitable
band pass filter (BPF).
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Fig: Frequency Discrimination Method

The design of band pass filter is quite critical and puts same limitations on the modulating or baseband and
carrier frequencies.

The limitations for frequency discrimination method,

(a) The frequency discrimination method is useful only if the baseband signal is restricted at its lower edge
due to which the upper and lower side bands are non-overlapping.
(b) Another restriction of the frequency discrimination method is that the baseband signal must be
appropriately related to the carrier frequency. The design of the BPF becomes difficult if the carrier
frequency is quite higher than the bandwidth of the band pass signal.

PHASE SHIFT METHOD FOR SSB-SC GENERATION:

The above system is used for the suppression of upper side band. This system uses two balanced modulators
M1 and M2. The output of the wideband 900 phase shifter is x^(t)
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The output of the carrier oscillator is applied to modulator M1. Whereas it is passed through a 900 phase
shifter and applied to the modulator M2.

Output of M1 is,

xt vc cos2f c t 

Output of M2 is,

x t vc sin 2 f c t 

The outputs of M1 and M2 are applied to an adder. The negative sign for the quadrature path. And the adder
output is,

 xt v c cos2 f c t   xt v c sin 2 f c t 

 
 vc  xt  cos2 f c t   xt  sin 2 f c t 
 

This represents the SSB signal with only LSB i.e., it rejects USB.

DEMODULATION OF SSB-SC SIGNALS:

COHERENT DETECTION OF SSB-SC WITHOUT CARRIER:

Fig: Coherent detector

The SSB-SC signals can be coherently demodulated.


VSSB t   m(t ) cos  c t  m(t ) sin  c t
1 1 
VSSB (t ) cos  c t 
2
 2

m(t ) 1  cos 2 t  m(t ) sin 2 c t

1 1 

VSSB (t ) cos  c t  m(t )  m(t ) cos 2 c t  m(t ) sin 2 c t 
2 2 

Thus, the product v SSB (t)cosωc t yields the baseband signal and another SSB signal with a carrier 2ωc. A
low pass filter will suppress the unwanted SSB terms, giving the desired baseband signal m (t)/2. Hence the
demodulator is identical to the synchronous demodulator used for the DSB-SC. Thus any one of the
synchronous DSB-SC demodulators can be used to demodulate an SSB-SC signal.
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ENVELOPE DETECTION OF SSB SIGNALS WITH A CARRIER:

Fig: Envelope detection

Let us consider SSB signals with an additional carrier (SSB+C). Such a signal is expressed as,

V SSB  C (t )  A cos  c t  [ m (t ) cos  c t  m (t ) sin  c t ]

Although m(t) can be recovered by synchronous detection (multiplying VSSB+c by cosωct) of A, the carrier
amplitude is enough, m(t) can also be recovered from VSSB+C by envelope or rectifier detection, this can be
shown by rewriting VSSB+C as,

V SSB  C  [ A  m (t )] cos  c t  m (t ) sin  c t  E (t ) cos(  c t   )

Where E (t), the envelope of the VSSB+C is given by,

1
 2
 
E (t )  [ A  m(t )] 2  m(t ) 
 
1
  2  2

 2m(t ) m 2 (t ) m (t ) 
 A 1  
 A A2 A2 
 

If A>>m (t), then in general, A>>‫׀‬m^(t)‫ ׀‬and the terms m2(t)/2 and m^2(t)/A2 can be ignored. Thus,
1
2
 2m(t ) 
E (t )  A1 
 A 

Using binomial expansion and discarding higher order terms (because m (t)/A<<1), we get

 m (t ) 
E (t )  A 1 
 A 

 A  m(t )

It is evident that for a large carrier, the SSB+C can be demodulated by an envelope detector.
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SSB-SC PHASOR DIAGRAM:

The SSB-SC signal with lower side band,

1
s(t ) SSB  Ac Am cos( c   m )t
2

The signal represents a single sinusoid with an amplitude 1/2AcAm and a frequency (ωc-ωm). Therefore the
phasor diagram consists of a single phasor and there will be no amplitude fluctuation in the modulated wave.

Fig: Phasor diagram for SSB-SC

VSB TRANSMISSION (VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION):

The stringent frequency response requirements on the side band filter in SSB-SC system can be relaxed
by allowing a part of the unwanted sideband (called as vestige) to appear in the output of the modulator. Due
to this, the design of the sideband filter is simplified to a great extent. But the bandwidth of the system is
increased slightly.

For the generation of VSB signal, we have to first generate a DSB-SC signal and then pass it through
a sideband filter. This filter will pass the wanted sideband as it is along with a part of unwanted sideband.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN DESCRIPTION:

Frequency spectrum: The spectrum of VSB is as shown in figure. The spectrum of message signal x(t) has
also shown. In the frequency spectrum it is assumed that the upper sideband is transmitted as it is and the
lower sideband is modified into vestigial sideband.

Fig (a): Spectrum of message signal

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Fig (b): Spectrum of VSB signal

From figure the transmission bandwidth of VSB modulated wave is given by,

B= (fm+fv) Hz

Where fm=message signal bandwidth & fv=width of VSB

(1) The main advantage of VSB modulation is the reduction in bandwidth. It is almost as efficient as the
SSB.
(2) Due to allowance of transmitting a part of LSB, the constraint on the filters have been relaxed. So,
practically easy to design filters can be used.

GENERATION OF VSB MODULATED WAVE:

Fig: Generation of VSB signal

The modulating signal x (t) is applied to a product modulator. The output of carrier oscillator is also
applied to the other input of the product modulator is given by,
m(t )  x(t ) * c(t )  x(t ) * vc cos( 2f c t )

This DSB-SC signal is then applied to a sideband shaping filter. The design of this filter depends on the
desired spectrum of the VSB modulated signal. This filter will pass the wanted sideband as it is and the
vestige of the unwanted sideband.
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DEMODULATION OR DETECTION OF VSB WAVE:

The VSB modulated wave is passed through a product modulator where it is multiplied with the
locally generated synchronous carrier. Hence the output of the product modulator is given by,
m(t )  s(t ) * c(t )  s (t ) cos( 2f c t )

Fig: Synchronous detection of VSB

If we want to obtain the undistorted message signal x (t) at the output of the demodulator, then V0
should be scaled version of x(t) .

THE EFFECT OF FREQUENCY AND PHASE ERROR IN DEMODULATION OF DSB-SC

WAVE SYNCHRONOUS DETECTOR:
FREQUENCY ERROR:
In the demodulation of DSB-SC signal using synchronous detector, the phase and frequency of local
oscillator should be similar to the phase and frequencies of the carrier used in DSB-SC signal generation. The
error which occurs due to the same phase and different frequency of local oscillator with respect to carrier is
known as frequency error.

Let the carrier signal used in the generation of DSB-SC signal is ' Ac cos 2f c t ' and local oscillator
signal be " Ac' cos 2  f c  f t" . Here f represent the frequency shift between the local oscillator signal
and the carrier. Then, the output of product modulator becomes as

S c t   S t   Ac' cos 2  f c  f t

  Ac mt  cos 2f c t Ac' cos 2  f c  f t

Ac Ac' mt 
 2 cos 2  f c  f t cos 2f c t 
2
A A1mt 
 c c cos 2  f c  f t  cos 2ft 
2
A A ' mt  A A ' mt 
 c c cos2 2 f c  f t   c c cos 2ft
2 2
The signal obtained by passing S c t  through LPF of cutoff frequency fc is
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Ac Ac' mt 
S o t   cos 2ft 
2
If f   then, the resultant signal cannot represent the required message signal. However, f is a small
variation in f c . Such that f c   , which means f comparable with ω.

After demodulation process, the resultant signal does not contain actual frequency components present in the
message signal. This lead to distortion in the message signal.
PHASE ERROR:
The error which occurs due to the same frequency and different phase of local oscillator with respect
to the carrier (at the transmitter) is known as phase error.

Let the carrier signal used in the generation of DSB-SC signal be ' Ac cos 2f c t ' and local oscillator
signal be Ac' cos 2f c t    . Here  represents the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and
the carrier. Then the output of product modulator is

S c t   S t   Ac' cos 2f c t   

 Ac mt  cos 2f c t Ac' cos2f c t   

Ac Ac' mt 
 2 cos2f c t    cos 2f c t 
2
A A1 mt 
 c c cos4f c t     cos  
2
A A ' mt  A A ' mt 
 c c cos4f c t     c c cos 
2 2
The signal obtained by passing the signal S c t  through a LPF of cutoff frequency f c is

Ac Ac' mt 
S o t   cos 
2
From the above equation it is evident that output of demodulator is proportional to message signal for
constant phase error 

Ac Ac' m t 
For   0 , S o t  
2
i.e., Maximum amplitude of the demodulated signal is obtained


For    , S o t   0
2
i.e., Minimum amplitude of the demodulated signal is obtained. This zero output is referred as
“Quadrature Null Effect “of synchronous detector.
Thus the demodulator output completely depends on the factor ' cos  ' . The output is a distorted version of
actual message signal till the phase error  is made constant.
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FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:

Freq. division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique for transmitting multiple
messages simultaneously over a wideband channel by first modulating the message signals
on to a several sub carriers and forming a composite baseband signal that consists of the sum
of these modulated sub carriers.
This composite signal may then be modulated on to the main carrier. Any type of
modulation such as AM, DSB, SSB, PM, FM and so on can be used. The types of modulation
used on the sub carriers, as well as the type used on the main carrier, may be different from
figure (b), the composite signal spectrum must consists of modulated signals that do not have
over lapping spectra otherwise crosstalk will occur between the message signal at the receiver
output. The composite baseband signal then modulates a main transmitter to produce the
FDM signal that is transmitted over the wideband channel.

The receiver FDM signal is fast demodulated to reproduce the composite baseband signal
that is passed through filters to separate the individual modulated sub carriers then the sub
carriers are demodulated to produce the message signals m1(t), m2(t),... .
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ANGLE MODULATION &DEMODULATION

Angle Modulation is the process by which the angle (i.e., Frequency or Phase) of the
carrier signal is changed in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating or
message signal. It is also known as "Exponential modulation" but the amplitude of the
carrier remains constant.
This is an advantage over AM since, all natural internal and external noises consist
of electrical amplitude variations. The receiver cannot distinguish between amplitude
variations that represent noise and those that represent designed signal.
CONCEPT OF INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY:
The time dependent angular frequency ωi of the phasor φ provides a time
varying instantaneous frequency fi of the carrier wave φ (t). This implies that frequency of
the carrier wave changes from one cycle to another. The instantaneous frequency fi may vary
with some function of time. Figure (a) shows a variation in the frequency of a carrier. The
variation is linear with time from a value ω0 and 2ω0. Figure (b) shows the corresponding
waveform of the carrier with varying frequencies. The frequency is maximum at t=t1 and t3
and minimum at 0 and t2.

Fig: Concept of Instantaneous Frequency: (a) variation of ω with Time, (b)

waveform of a carrier wave with varying frequency.

GENERALIZED CONCEPT OF ANGLE MODULATION:

Angle modulation is a method in which either the phase or frequency of the carrier
wave is varied according to the message signal. In this method of modulation the amplitude
of the carrier wave is maintained constant.

“Angle Modulation is a method of modulation in which either Frequency or Phase of

the carrier wave is varied according to the message signal.”

The Angle modulation can be broadly classified into two types such as
1. Frequency Modulation
2. Phase Modulation.

Let VFM (t) =Vc cos(c t+  (t)) = Vc cos Ø (t)

Where VFM (t) = Angle modulated wave
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Vc = Maximum amplitude of carrier signal

c = Angular frequency of carrier signal= 2πfc

 (t) = Instantaneous phase deviation
Ø (t) = [c t+  (t)] = phase angular of carrier
In angle modulation, the phase angle of carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of message signal.

 We know that Ø (t) =ct+  (t) , whenever the frequency of carrier is varied, and vice
versa thus FM&PM both occur even if either of the terms are varied. As a result
direct FM modulation cause indirect PM& vice versa.

Instantaneous phase (Ø (t)):

It can be defined as the phase of the carrier at any instant of time.

Instantaneous phase deviation  (t):

It is defined as the change in phase of the carrier at any instant of time with respect
to its reference phase.

Instantaneous frequency (i):

It is the frequency of the carrier at any instant of time i.e.
i (t)= d/dt ø (t) = d/dt [ct+  (t)]

=ct+ 1(t)

Instantaneous frequency deviation 1(t):

It is the change in frequency of the carrier. It can be defined as the first time
derivation of instantaneous phase deviation.

Deviation Sensitivity:
The deviation sensitivity provides relationship between o/p parameter changes in
respect to input parameters, for FM, the output frequency is varied in accordance with the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
∆
i.e., Kf = =

Similarly for PM, the o/p phase is varied w.r.t. amplitude of modulating signal.
∆
i.e., Kp = or ∆= Kp* V .
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FREQUENCY MODULATION:
Frequency Modulation can be defined as the process by which the frequency of the
carrier wave is altered in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating or
message signals. The mathematical representation of frequency modulation is obtained as
follows,

Let the message signal Vm (t)= Vm cosmt ………….(1) and

The carrier signal Vc(t) = Vc cos(ct+ )………….(2)

Vm =Maximum Amplitude of message or modulating signal.

Vc = Maximum Amplitude of carrier signal.

m = angular frequency of modulating signal.

c =angular frequency of carrier signal.

Ø = total instantaneous phase angle of carrier.

Ø = (ct+ )

Vc(t)= Vc cosø = Vc sin(ct+ )…………...(3)

To find angular velocity, differentiate the eq. (3) w.r.t

ø
i.e., = c = 1 (t).

The frequency of the carrier after modulation is,

i = c + Kf Vm(t) = c +KVm cosmt …………...(4)

Where k= constant of proportionality.

The instantaneous phase angle of modulated signal integrate eq. (4)

Øi =∫i dt= ∫(c + KVm cosmt)dt

= c t + sinmt + 1


1 = Integration constant, it is neglected because it plays no role in modulation process.

The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal is given by,
V(t)FM = Vc cosøi
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= Vc cos(c t + sinmt)……….(5)


V(t)FM = vc cos(c t +mf sinmt)…………..(6)

Where mf = =modulation index of FM.



General Expression for FM is given by

SFM(t) = vc cos(c t +mf sinmt)………… in terms of modulation index

SFM(t) = vc cos(c t +Kf ∫vm(t) dt)………… in terms of deviation sensitivity

From eq. (4) the instantaneous angular frequency of FM signal is ,

i = c + KVm cosmt
The maximum and minimum value of cosine term is ±1. Hence the maximum value of
angular frequency is given by max = c + KVm.

The minimum value of angular frequency is min = c - KVm.

Then frequency deviation is

d = max - c = c - min = KVm

Fig: Graphical representation of FM wave

The modulation index of FM system can be defined as the ratio of max. Frequency
deviation to the modulating frequency.

i.e., mf = ωd ∕m = KpVm ∕m

ωd = KpVm = Maximum frequency deviation

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FREQUENCY DEVIATION:
It is defined as the change in frequency of the carrier w.r.t. amplitude of modulating
signal, it can be written as ∆ω = where Kf =Deviation sensitivity in terms of
modulation index,

mf =∆ω ∕m = ∆f∕fm or ∆f =mffm.

SINGLE TONE FREQUENCY MODULATION:

The general expression for FM wave is given as,

S(t) =Vc cos [ct + Kf ∫Vm(t) dt]

In general expression of FM wave, a modulating or baseband signal Vm(t) which may
consist of any no. of frequency components.
A single tone frequency modulation is that type of frequency modulation (FM) in which the
modulating or baseband signal contains a single frequency.

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION:
Let the expression for carrier signal is VC(t) =VC cosct.

Let the modulating signal is Vm(t) =Vm cosmt.

Let the expression for FM wave is S(t) =VC cos Ø i.

Where Ø i = Instantaneous phase angle of modulated wave

Instantaneous frequency of modulated signal is i = C + Kf Vm(t)

= C + Kf Vm cosmt.

But frequency deviation, ∆ = Kf Vm

∴ i = c + ∆ cosmt.
The total phase angle øi of the modulated wave is given as,

Ø i = ∫idt = ∫ [c + ∆cosmt]dt

= ct + ∆ ∕m sinmt.

Since modulation index, mf =∆ ∕m.

∴ Ø i = ct +mf sinmt.

The expression for single tone frequency FM wave as,

S (t) = VC cos øi.

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S (t) = VC cos[ct +mf sinmt].

MULTI TONE MODULATION:

Modulation done with more than one message signal is called "Multi Tone
Modulation".
Let us consider the message signal as

Vm(t) = Vm1 cosm1t + Vm2 cosm2t.

Let the carrier signal be

VC (t) =Vc sin (c t +) = Vc sinØ

Let (c t +) = Ø and angular velocity c = d Ø /dt

The instantaneous frequency is

i = c + Kf Vm(t)

= c + Kf [Vm1 cosm1t + Vm2 cosm2t]

= c + Kf Vm1 cosm1t + Kf Vm2 cosm2t

The frequency duration will be maximum when cos wm1 = ±1, cos wm2 = ±1.
The frequency deviation is Proportional to amplitude of modulating signal.

i = c + Kf Vm1 cosm1t + Kf Vm2 cosm2t

i = c +∆ω1 cosm1t + ∆ω2 cosm2t

The instantaneous phase in Ø i = ∫i dt

Ø i = ∫ (c +∆ω1 cosm1t + ∆ω2 cosm2t ) dt

= c t +∆ω1/m1 (sinm1t) + ∆ω2/m2 (sinm2t)

Ø i = c t +∆f1/ fm1 (sinm1t) +∆f2/ fm2 (sinm2t)

After frequency modulation,

VFM(t) = VC sin øi

VFM(t) = VC sin [c t +∆f1/ fm1 sinm1t +∆f2/ fm2 sinm2t]

VFM(t) = VC sin [c t +mf1 sinm1t + mf2 sinm2t]

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If α1 = mf1 sinm1t, α2= mf2 sinm2t,

Then VFM(t) = VC sin [c t +( α1 + α2 )]

= VC [sin ct cos (α1 + α2) +cos wC t sin (α1 + α2)]

= VC { sin ct [cos α1 cos α2 - sin α1 sin α2]+

cos ct [sin α1 cos α2 + cos α1 sin α2 ]}

In order to simplify the above eq. the Bessel function can be used hence the resultant
equation:

VFM(t) = Vc ∑ (α1 ) (α2 ) (cos t± n t ± n t)

From the above eq., it has four frequency terms.

(i) Carrier frequency component with an amplitude [J0 (1). J0 (2)]

(ii) A set of side bands corresponding to first tone w1.the side bands have
amplitude Jn(α1). J0( α2 ) and frequency (1+ n2) where n =1,2,3,…………

TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF FM:

The bandwidth of FM signal depends upon the value of modulation index mf. With
the increase of modulation index mf, more and more no of sidebands acquire significant
amplitudes and thus bandwidth is increased.

 The separation between the two extreme significant side frequencies on the two sides
of the carrier is known as effective bandwidth of FM.
 For large value of ‘ ’, the bandwidth of FM is slightly greater than the total frequency
excursion (2∆ ) where as for small value of ‘ ’. The bandwidth approaches to ‘2fm’.

Hence, the bandwidth of FM signals can be

B = 2∆f + 2f = 2(∆f + f )

= 2∆f(1 + )
∆

CARSON’S RULE:
The bandwidth of a signal tune wide band FM can be determined by using Carson’s
rule according to the Carson’s rule the bandwidth of FM signal is

BW = 2(∆ω + ) = 2∆ω(1 + )
∆
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BW = 2(∆ω + ) = 2∆ω 1 + Radians/sec

BW = 2∆f 1 + Hz (Or)

BW = 2ω [1 + β] Rad/sec
(i) If ∆ ≪ i.e., m (or)β ≪ 1 as in the case for narrowband FM,
then BW = 2 .
(ii) If ∆ ≫ i.e., β>>1 as in the case for wideband FM, then BW =2β
But βω = ∆ω
Therefore B = 2∆ω

CARRIER SWING:
The total variation in frequency from the lowest to highest point is called “Carrier
Swing”.
The carrier swing = 2*frequency deviation =2*∆ω

PERCENT MODULATION:
It is used in reference to FM refers to the ratio of actual frequency deviation to the
maximum allowable frequency deviation.
∆
Percent modulation, M= *100
∆

BANDWIDTH OF ANGLE MODULATED WAVES:

TYPES OF FREQUENCY MODULATION:
Depending on modulation index ‘β’, the FM can be classified into two types. If the
value of the modulation index ‘β’ is very small compared to one radian, it is called “Narrow-
Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM)”.
If the modulation index values very large compared to one radian, it is called “Wide-
Band Frequency Modulation (WBFM)”.
NOTE:
For NBFM
 Modulation index, β ≪ 1
 Narrow B.W which is equal to twice the message bandwidth

For WBFM
 Modulation index, β ≫ 1
 Large B.W which is ideally infinite
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NARROW BAND FREQUENCY MODULATION (NBFM):

Let the message signal, V (t) = V Cos(ω t)
Carrier signal, V (t) = V cos(ω t) then
FM signal is S(t)= V cos[ω t + β sin(ω t)]
W.K.T cos(a + b) = cos a cos b − sin a sin b then
S(t) = V [cosω t + cos(β sin t ω ) − sin ω t sin(β sin ω t)]
Since the value of β is very small for NBFM,
Therefore, cos(β sin(ω t)) = 1 [where cos θ = 1 if θ is small]
sin(β sin(ω t)) = β sin(ω t) [Where sin θ = θ if θ is small]
Substitute the above approximations,
S (t) =V [cos ω t − sin ω t(β sin ω t)]
With the help of above equation, we can set an arrangement for generating NBFM signal

Fig: Block Diagram for Generation of NBFM

The message signal Vm (t) is fed into the integrator and it follows to one input of the
product modulator. The other input to the product modulator is obtained from the 90° phase
shifter circuit; the input to the 90° phase shifter circuit is the carrier signalV cos ω t . The
output of the product modulator is inverted and it is given to one input of the adder, the other
for the adder is carrier signal. The output of the adder is nothing but the Narrow Band FM
signal.
∴ Input signal,V (t)= kV (cos(ω t))

After integration, ∫ V (t) = k sin(ω t)

This integration output is multiplied with the 90° phase shifting of carrier signal

Product modulator output = k sin(ω t)*V sin(ω t)

=V sin ω t(β sin ω t)

Product modulator output is subtracted from carrier signal,
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S(t) = V [cos ω t − sin ω t(β sin ω t)]

This is the resultant NBFM signal

FREQUENCY DOMAIN REPRESENTATION OF NBFM:

S(t) = [δ(f − f )+δ(f + f )] + FT{[cos 2π(f + f )t − cos 2π(f − f )t]}

= [δ(f − f ) + δ(f + f )] + [δ(f − f − f ) + δ(f + f + f )]

- [δ(f − f + f ) + δ(f + f − f )]

= [δ(f − f ) + δ(f + f )] + [δ(f − f +f ) + δ(f + f + f )]

Bandwidth of NBFM = 2fm

This narrow band FM is somewhat similar to corresponding one defining an AM
wave i.e.
μV μV
S(t) = V cos 2πf t + cos 2π(f + f )t + cos 2π(f − f )t
2 2
 If we compare NBFM with single tone AM, the basic difference between an AM
wave and NBFM is that the sign of the lower side frequency in the narrow band FM
is reversed.
 A narrow band FM wave requires essentially the same transmission bandwidth (i.e.,
2 fm) as the AM wave.

PHASOR DIAGRAM OF NFBM AND AM:

S(t) = V cos 2πf t + cos(2π(f + f )t) − cos 2π(f − f )t

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μV μV
S(t) = V cos 2πf t + cos 2π(f + f )t + cos 2π(f − f )t
2 2

Fig: Phasor Diagram of NFBM and AM

WIDE BAND FREQUENCY MODULATION (WBFM):
If the value of the modulation index (β) is very large, then the resulting FM modulation
is wide band FM. The bandwidth of WBFM signal is ideally infinite.
The FM signal is given by,
S (t) =VC cos(2 πfCt + β sin(2πfmt))
S (t) = VC Re [e ( ( ))
]
= Vc Re [e e ]……………..1
The envelope of the FM signal S (t) is
( )
S(t) = V [e ]…………………………2

Since the envelop is complex in nature substitute equation 2 equation 1

S (t) = Re [S(t)e ]…………………….……..3

The complex envelop S(t) is a periodic function of time with a fundamental frequency fm.
Since it is periodic function it can be represented with the help of the complex Fourier
series i.e.
S(t) = ∑ c e ……………………....4

Where Cn is the complex Fourier coefficient. The value of Cn

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Cn =fm [∫ S(t) e dt ]………………...5

Substitute equation 2 in 5

Cn = Vc fm ∫ e( )
dt…………6

The Bessel function of nth order is given by

Jn(β)= ∫ e( )
dx………………………...7

From equation 6 the complex Fourier coefficient Cn is

Cn = Vc [f ∫ e( )
dt ]

Take u=2πf t => du = 2πf dt and

Limits: if t= -1/2f => u=-π
if t=1/2f =>u=π
Substitute the new variables ‘u’ in equation, we get

Cn = V c [ ∫ e( )
du ]……………….8

Substitute J (β) in equation 8

C = V J (β)……………………………………..9
Substitute the equation 9 in equation 4
S(t) = ∑ V J (β)e ……………….….10
Substitute equation 10 in equation 3
S (t) = V R [∑ J (β)e e ]
( )
=V R [∑ J (β)e ]……….11
=V ∑ J (β) cos[2π(f + nf )t]……12
Equation 12 gives the Fourier series representation of FM signal S (t)
Expanding equation 12 we get
S (t) =V J (β) cos 2πf t + V J (β) cos(2π(f + f )t)+. . . + V J (β) cos(2π(f −
f )t) + V J (β) cos(2π(f − 2f )t) …………………….....13
Properties of Bessel functions

For even values of ‘n’ J (β) = J (β)

For odd values of ‘n’ J (β)=(−1) J (β)

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By using the properties of Bessel function equation 13 can be written as

S (t) =V J (β) cos(2πf t) − V J (β)[cos(2π(f − f ) t) − cos(2π(f + f )t)] +

V J (β)[cos(2π(f − 2f )t) + cos(2π(f + 2f )t]+………

The variation of the Bessel function Jn (β) which determines the amplitude of various
side band frequency component of WBFM has been plotted against the modulation index β
for different values of ‘n’.

Fig: Plots of Bessel Functions

For small values of β, J0 (β)= 1, J (β) = , J (β) = 0 for n > 2

Substituting, so that the FM signal is effectively composed of a carrier and a single side
band frequencies at f ± f for small values of ‘β’.

PHASE MODULATION:
Phase modulation can be defined as the process by which changing the phase of the
carrier signal in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. The
amplitude and frequency remains constant even after the modulation process.
Let the message signal Vm (t)= Vm cosmt ………….(1) and
The carrier signal Vc(t) = Vc sin(ct+ )………….(2)
Where  = Phase angle of carrier signal. It changed in accordance with amplitude of the
message signal Vm (t)
 = KpVm(t) = Kp Vm cosmt
Where Kp = Phase deviation sensitivity
After phase modulation the instantaneous voltage is
VPM(t) = Vc sin(ct+ )
= Vc sin(ct+ Kp Vm cosmt)
∴ VPM(t) = Vc sin(ct+ mp cosmt)
Where mp = Kp Vm, modulation index of phase modulation
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PHASE DEVIATION AND MODULATION INDEX:

W.K.T VPM(t) = Vc sin(ct+ mp cosmt)
= Vc sin(ct+ (t))
Where (t)= instantaneous phase deviation
= mp cosmt
If the modulating signal is single tone sinusoid, then the phase angle of carrier varies from
its unmodulated signal is known as phase deviation.

The modulation index of FM system can be defined as the ratio of Maximum

frequency deviation to the modulating frequency.

i.e., mf = ωd ∕m = KpVm ∕m ωd = KpVm = Maximum frequency deviation

For PM :
The modulation index depends on modulating signal, i.e., mp = KpVm

Where Kp =Deviation sensitivity.

BANDWIDTH OF PM:
The PM bandwidth as per Carson’s rule (BW) = 2∆ω = 2K V ω
Thus the B.W of PM signal varies tremendously with a change in modulating
frequency ω .

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHASE MODULATION (PM) AND

FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM) :
The Angle Modulation Wave Is S (T) = V CosØi

Where V = Amplitude, Øi = Instantaneous total phase angle

The expression for PM wave is S (t) =V cos [ct + KpVm(t) ]

FM wave is S(t) =Vc cos [ct + Kf ∫Vm(t) dt]

From the above equations that Phase Modulation (PM) and Frequency
Modulation (FM) are closely related to each other because in both the cases there is a
variation in the total phase angle.

 In PM the phase angle varies linearly with baseband signal Vm(t).where as in

case of frequency modulation , the phase angle varies linearly with the integral
of baseband signal Vm(t).
 This means that FM wave may be obtained by using PM and vice versa.
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CONVERSION OF PM TO FM OR FREQUENCY MODULATION:

Frequency modulation wave can be obtained from PM This is done by
integrating the modulating signal before applying it to the phase modulator it is shown
in fig .

Fig: Conversion of PM to FM (or) Frequency Modulator

Let Vm (t) = Vm cosmt.

After integration, ∫ Vm (t) = ∫ Vm cosmt.dt = Vm /m sinm t

After phase modulation, θ ∝ ∫Vm (t)

θ =K ∫Vm (t) = K Vm /m sinm t

The instantaneous value of modulated voltage in given by

VFM (t) = Vc sin (c t + θ )

= Vc sin (c t + K Vm /m sinm t)

= Vc sin (c t + mf sinm t)

Where mf = ∆f/fm = k Vm /wm

∴ VFM(t) = Vc sin [c t + mf sin wm t ]

This is expression for FM wave.

CONVERSION OF FM TO PM (OR) PHASE MODULATOR:

The PM wave can be obtained from FM by differentiating the modulating
signal before applying it to the frequency modulator is shown in fig.
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Fig: Conversion of FM to PM (or) Phase Modulator

We know that, Vm (t) = Vm cosmt.

After differentiation, d/dt Vm (t) = - m Vm sinmt.

After frequency modulation, i = c + K d/dt Vm (t)

= c + K (- m Vm sinmt)

We know that the instantaneous phase angle of FM signal is

Øi = ∫i dt = ∫( c - m Vm sinmt)dt
 Vm
=c t + cosmt


Øi = c t + K Vm cosmt

The instantaneous voltage after modulation, VPM (t) = Vc sin Øi

VPM (t) = Vc sin (c t + K Vm cosmt )

VPM (t) = Vc sin (c t + mp cosmt )

This is expression for PM wave.

FEATURES OF ANGLE MODULATION:

The important features of angle modulation are:

(i) The process of angle modulation is non-linear in nature.

(ii) The spectral components of angle modulated wave are completely different from that
of message spectrum.
(iii) The bandwidth of angle modulated wave is higher (usually double) than that of
message wave.
(iv) The improved signal-to-noise ratio at the o/p of the receiver compensates the
complexity and bandwidth of an angle modulator system.
(v) This type of modulation is immune to noise and effectively- rejects the interference
of undesired signals.
(vi) It is also immune to the propagation induced selective fading.
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(vii) Angle modulated permits the efficient use of transmitters and greater dynamic range
of modulating signal.
(viii) Due to the non-linear property of angle modulation, it supports the exchange of
signal power for transmission bandwidth.

GENERATION OF FM SIGNALS:
Frequency modulated signals can be generated by two methods,
1. Direct method 2. Indirect method

INDIRECT METHOD (ARMSTRONG METHOD) OF FM

GENERATION:
In the direct methods of generation of FM, LC oscillators are to be used. The crystal
oscillators cannot be used. The LC oscillators are not suitable enough for the communication
or broadcast purpose. Thus, the direct methods cannot be used for the broadcast applications.
The alternative method is to use the indirect method called as Armstrong method of FM
generation. In this method, the FM is obtained through phase modulation. A crystal oscillator
can be used hence the frequency stability is very high. The Armstrong method uses the phase
modulator to generate a frequency modulated wave.

Fig: Block Diagram of Armstrong Method for Generating WBFM Signal

In this method of FM generation the modulating signal is integrated and it is phase
modulated by crystal oscillator to get narrow band FM signal which later passed to a
frequency multiplier to get a wideband FM signal.
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The crystal oscillator provides frequency stability. The value of ′β′ is kept small to
produce narrow band FM signal. The frequency multiplier consists of a memory less
nonlinear device followed by a band pass filter.

Fig: Block diagram frequency multiplier

If FM input signal is S(t), then output V (t) of memory less nonlinear device is given.
V (t) = a S(t) + a S (t) +…………..a S (t)
Where a , a , … … … … … , a are the coefficients determined by the operating point of the
device and ‘n’ is the higher order of non linearity.
The input S(t) = V cos[ω t + k ∫ V (t)dt ]
The instantaneous frequency, ω(t) = ω + k V (t)
Consider the maximum non linearity term then the instantaneous frequency nf (t) is
nf (t) = nf + nk V (t)
Therefore new wideband FM is given by

S (t) = V cos[nω t + nk V (t)dt]

Where V = nV
From this it is clear that the frequency of FM signal can be varied by varying the value of ‘n’.

DIRECT METHOD OF FM GENERATION:

In the direct method of FM, the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the
input baseband signal. In direct method of FM generation, the message is first integrated and
their phase modulated to get a frequency modulated signal. The basic requirement of a
frequency modulated system is a variable output frequency with the variation proportion to
the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
The FM signal can be generated by a no. of ways. One way of FM generation is by varying
the capacitance or inductance of an LC oscillator circuit or tank circuit, frequency modulation
of some form will be generated. If the capacitance or inductance of the tank circuit is varied
proportionately to the voltage of the modulating signal, then FM signal is generated.
Several devices are existing which provides a variation of capacitance according to
change in voltage. If such a voltage variable reactance circuit is connected across the tank
circuit and the tank circuit is tuned to the carrier frequency signal. If the reactance of the
voltage variable reactance circuit is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating
signal, the frequency of the tank circuit is changed. The change in frequency of the tank
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circuit is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. The most common voltage
variable reactance circuits are reactance modulators.

REACTANCE MODULATOR:
In the direct FM generation, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is changed
directly in proportion with the message signal. For this advice called voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO) is used. A VCO can be implemented by using a sinusoidal oscillator with a
tuned circuit having a high value of ‘Q’. The frequency of this oscillator is changed by
incremented variation in the reactive components involved in the tuned circuit. If the ‘L’ or
‘C’ of a tuned circuit of an oscillator is changed in accordance with the amplitude of
modulating signed then FM can be obtained across the tuned circuit.

Fig: Principle of Reactance Modulator

A two or three terminal device is placed across the tuned circuit. The reactance of the
device is varied proportional to the modulating signal voltage. This will vary the frequency
of the oscillator to produce FM. The devices used are FET, transistor or varactor diode. The
direct FM is shown in the figure which uses a Hartley oscillator along with varactor diode.
The varactor diode is reverse biased. Its capacitance is dependent on the reverse voltage
applied across it
Frequency of oscillation of Hartley oscillator is

f = ( ) ()

Where C (t)=C+C . This means that C(t) is the effective capacitance of the fixed
tuned circuit capacitance C and the varactor diode capacitance C
Let the relation between the modulating voltage x(t)=0 and the capacitance C(t) is represented
as
C(t) = C − k x(t)
Where C= total capacitance when x (t) =0 and k is the sensitivity of the varactor
capacitance to change in voltage.
Substituting expression for C (t) in f (t)

1
f (t) =
2π (L + L )(c − k x(t))

f (t) =
56

( ) ( ) ( )
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But, let ( )
= f , which is the oscillator frequency in absence of the modulating
signal[x (t) = 0]

Therefore f (t) = f [1 − x(t)]

If the maximum change in the capacitance corresponding to the modulating wave,

f (t) = f 1 + x(t) = f + x (t)

Let = k => f (t) = f + k x(t)

Where k = frequency sensitivity

DEMODULATION OF FM WAVES:
The demodulation process of FM wave is exactly opposite to that of the frequency
modulation. After demodulation, we get the original modulating signal at the demodulation
output. The input to the demodulator is the FM wave. The FM demodulator (detector)
operates on an altogether different principle then AM detector. The AM detector is basically
a rectifier. But FM demodulator is basically a frequency to amplitude converter. It is used to
convert the frequency variations in FM wave at its input into amplitude variations at its output
to recover the original modulating signal.
Classification of FM Demodulators

FREQUENCY DISCRIMINATOR:
SIMPLE SLOPE DETECTOR:
The circuit diagram of a simple slope detector is
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Fig: Simple Slope Detector

The output voltage of the tank circuit is then applied to simple diode detector with an RC
load with proper time constant. The detector is identical to the AM diode detector. Even
though the slope detector circuit is simple it has the following drawbacks.
(i) It is inefficient.
(ii) It is linear only over a limited frequency range.

An advantage of the basic slope detector circuit is its simplicity .To overcome the
drawback of the simple slope detector, a balanced slope detector is used.

Fig: Characteristics of Slope Detector

BALANCED SLOPE DETECTOR (BALANCED FREQUENCY

DETECTOR):

Fig: Balanced Slope Detector

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The circuit diagram shows that the balanced slope detector consists of two slope
detector circuits. The input transformer has a center tapped secondary. Hence, the input
voltages to two slope detectors are 180° out of phase. There are three tuned circuits. The
primary tuned to I i.e.f .
The upper tuned circuit of the secondary (T1) is tuned above ′f ′ by ∆f i.e., its resonant
frequency is (f + ∆f). The lower tuned circuit of the secondary is tuned below ′f ′ by ∆f
i.e., at (f − ∆f). R1C1 and R2C2 are the filters used to bypass the RF ripple. VO1 and VO2 are
the output voltages of the two slope detectors. The final output voltage VO is obtained by
taking the subtraction of the individual output voltages VO1 and VO2 i.e. VO = VO1 - VO2

WORKING OPERATION OF THE CIRCUIT:

The circuit operation by dividing the input frequency into three ranges as follows.
(i) = : When input frequency is instantaneously equal to , the induced voltage in
the ‘T1’ winding of secondary is exactly equal to that induced in the winding T2.Thus
the input voltage is to both the diodes D1 and D2 will be the same. Therefore, their DC
output voltage VO1 and VO2 will also identical but they have opposite polarities. Hence
net voltage output VO = 0
(ii) fc < fin < (fc + ∆f): In this range of input frequency, the induced voltage in the winding
T1 is higher than that induced in T2. Therefore, the input to the D1 is higher than D2.
Hence, the +ve output ‘VO1’ of ‘D1’ is higher than –ve output VO2 of D2.Therefore the
output voltage is VO is +ve. As the input frequency increases towards the +ve output
voltage increases as shown in the fig.

If the output frequency goes outside the range of (fc - ∆f) to (fc + ∆ f), the output
voltage will fall due to reduction in the tuned circuit response.

Fig. Characteristics of Balanced Slope Detector

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ADVANTAGES:
(i) This circuit is more efficient than simple slope detector.
(ii) It has better linearity than the simple slope detector.

LIMITATIONS:

(i) Even though linearity is good, it is not good enough.

(ii) This circuit is difficult to tune since the three tuned circuits are to be
tuned at different frequencies, fc , (fc - ∆f) and (fc+ ∆ f)
(iii) Amplitude limiting is not provided.

PLL-FM DEMODULATOR:
A phase locked loop (PLL) is primarily used in tracking the phase and frequency of
the carrier component of an incoming FM signal. PLL is also useful for synchronous
demodulation of AM-SC (i.e., Amplitude Modulation with suppressed carrier) signals (or)
waves with few cycles of pilot carrier. PLL is also useful for demodulating FM signals in
presence of large noise and low signal power. A phase locked loop (PLL) is basically a
negative feedback system. It contains of three major components.

Fig: Block diagram of Phase Locked Loop

These components are multiplier, a loop filter and a voltage controlled oscillator
(VCO) connected in the form of a feedback loop. A VCO is a sine wave generator whose
frequency is determined by the voltage applied to it from an external source.

WORKING OPERATION:
The operation of a PLL is similar to any other feedback system. In any feedback
system the feedback signal tends to follow the input signal. If the signal feedback is not equal
to the input signal the error signal will change the value of the feedback signal until it is equal
to the input signal. The difference signal between s(t) and b(t) is called an error signal.
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A PLL operates on a similar principle except for the fact that the quantity feedback is
not the amplitude, but a generalized phase Φ(t). The error signal or difference signal e(t) is
utilized to adjust the VCO frequency. In such a way that the instantaneous. Phase angle comes
close to the angle of the incoming signal s(t). At this point, the two signals s(t) and b(t)are in
synchronism and the PLL is locked to the incoming signal s(t).
SUPER HETERODYNE AM RECEIVER:

Fig: Super Heterodyne AM Receiver

In super heterodyne receiver, the incoming RF signal freq. is combined with the local
oscillator signal freq. through a mixer and is converted into a signal of lower freed freq. the lower
fixed freq. is known as intermediate freq. However, the intermediate freq. signal is same modulation
as the original signal. The intermediate freq. signal is now amplified and demodulated to reproduce
the original signal.
The word heterodyne stands for mixing. Here we have mixed the incoming signal freq.
with a local oscillator freq. therefore this receiver is called super heterodyne receiver.
In a super heterodyne receiver, a constant freq. difference is maintained between the local
oscillator signal freq. and incoming RF signals freq. through the capacitance tuning in which the
capacitance are ganged together and operated by a common control knob. The intermediate freq. (IF)
amplifier generally contains a number of transformers is consisting of a pair of mutually coupled
tuned circuits. The IF amplifier determines the sensitivity and selectivity of the super heterodyne
receiver. The IF amplifier works at a fixed IF freq., the design of this system is quite easy to provide
high gain and constant bandwidth. Because of its narrow band width, the IF amplifier rejects all over
the frequencies except intermediate freq. (IF).
After the IF amplifier, the signal is applied to the input of demodulated which extracts
the original modulating signal. The audio signal is amplified by the audio amplifier to get a particular
voltage level. This amplifier freq. audio signal is further amplified by a power amplifier to get a
specified power level so that it may activate the loud speaker. The loud speaker is a transducer which
converts their audio signal into audio sound signal and thus the original signal is reproduced ie., the
original transmission is received.
The advantages of the super heterodyne receiver moves it the most suitable for the
majority of radio receiver applications like M, FM, communications, single sideband, television and
even the radar receiver, all use super heterodyne principle.
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SUPER HETERODYNE FM RECEIVER:

The FM receiver is used to receive the FM signal from an FM transmitter and then convert
it into the original modulating signal.

Fig: Block diagram of Super Heterodyne FM Receiver

RF AMPLIFIER:
RF amplifiers are used in FM receiver to minimize the noise figure and to match the input
impedance of the receiver with the impedance of antenna. This amplifier increases the strength of the
signal to a satisfactory level and feeds the amplified output to the receiver.
LOCAL OSCILLATOR:
The local oscillator used in FM receiver generates carrier waves if frequencies lower than the
input signal frequency.
MIXER:
A mixer is used to combine the RF amplified output with the output of the local oscillator to
produce a high intermediate frequency (IF). This high IF helps in attaining effective image rejection
capability of the receiver.
IF AMPLIFIER:
IF amplifiers are used for amplifying intermediate frequency. These amplifiers provide high
gain and larger band width of the order of 150 KHz.
LIMITER:
Limiter is a form of clipping device, in which the output remains constant irrespective of the
variations in the input signal. FM receiver uses an amplitude limiter to clip off the amplitude variation
present in the signal. As a result, noise gets reduce without affecting the information content of the
signal. The constant frequency modulated carrier is than applied to a discriminator circuit.
DISCRIMINATOR:
Discriminator or an FM detector, applied next to the limiter circuit, extracts the original
audio frequency from the frequency modulated receiver.
DE-EMPHASIS NETWORK:

A De-emphasis network is employed to reduce the high audio frequencies which are
directly proportional to the frequency of the transmitter. These circuits also help in reduce in the
frequency modulated noise which enters the front end of the receiver.
AF AND POWER AMPLIFIER: The audio frequency power amplifier accepts input from
the de-emphasis network, amplifiers the audio signal to a desired level. This amplified output is
then fed to the loud speaker at the receiver end.
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