IMPACT OF ACID TREATMENT ON RECYCLED CONCRETE

AGGREGATE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

by

Pinkesh Sanjaykumar Modi (210490714012)

Under Guidance of

Dr. Yazad B. Jabbar

M.E. (C.E.M.)

Assistant Professor Civil Engineering Department

S.N.P.I.T & R.C, Umrakh, Bardoli

A Dissertation Phase-I (2730003) report submitted to

Gujarat Technological University in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the

Master of Engineering Degree in Construction Engineering and Management

December 2024

S. N. PATEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & RESEARCH CENTRE

UMRAKH (A Vidyabharti Trust Institution)
 Certificate
This is to certify that this Dissertation Phase-I work embodied in this report entitled
“IMPACT OF ACID TREATMENT ON RECYCLED CONCRETE
AGGREGATE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH” was
carried out by Mr. PINKESH SANJAYKUMAR MODI (230490714012) at S. N.
Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh (049) for partial
fulfilment of M.E. (Construction Engineering &Management) degree to be awarded by
Gujarat Technological University. This research work has been carried out under our
supervision and is to our satisfaction.

Date:

Place:

Signature of Guide Signature of Principal

Dr. Yazad C. Jabbar Dr. Piyush S. Jain

M.E. (C.E.M.) S.N.P.I.T & R.C,

Assistant Professor Civil Engineering Department Umrakh, Bardoli

S.N.P.I.T & R.C, Umrakh, Bardoli

Seal of Institute
 Acknowledgement
I would like to extend thanks to the many people, who so generously contributed to the work
presented in this research work.

Special mention goes to my enthusiastic mentors, Dr. Yazad C. Jabbar My Master in

Engineering has been an amazing experience and I thank Ms. Neetu B. Yadav
wholeheartedly, not only for her tremendous academic support, but also for giving me so
many wonderful opportunities. I would also like to thank Dr. Neetu Yadav, Asst. Prof.
Keyur Shah, Prof. Rushi Patel and Dr. Bankim Joshi of Civil Department, S.N.P.I.T.&
R.C., Umrakh for helping me during the dissertation work. And all Teaching Staff
Members and Non- Teaching Staff Members.

From my classmates I would like to thank Mann Bhagwate, Vishal Chaudhari, Tanu
Varma, Jeny Patel, Komal Bhoya for the support throughout the completion of the thesis
work.

Finally, I thanks to Mom-Dad for almost unbelievable support. They are the most important
people in my world.

PINKESH SANJAYKUMAR MODI

230490714012

ME- Construction Engineering & Management

iii
 Contents
Contents
Certificate.......................................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................................... iii
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... x
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................2
1.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................2
1.2 OBJECTIVES ..........................................................................................................................................3
1.3 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................................................3
2. LITRATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................................................................5
2.1 List of literatures..................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Literatures Review ............................................................................................................................ 10
3. MATERIALS FOR RECYCLED AGGREGATE MANUFACTURING........................................ 44
3.1 Introduction of C & D Waste ............................................................................................................ 44
3.2 Production of Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) from Construction and Demolition
Waste...................................................................................................................................................... 44
3.3 Production Plant to Produce RA ....................................................................................................... 47
3.4 List of Parameters............................................................................................................................. 48
3.4.1 Acid Types .................................................................................................................................49
3.4.2 Acid Concentration ..................................................................................................................50
3.4.3 Soaking Time ............................................................................................................................53
3.4.4 Aggregate Size...........................................................................................................................53
3.4.5 Ball mill parameters .................................................................................................................54
3.4.6 Percentage Replacement ..........................................................................................................55
3.4.7 Selection of Mix design .............................................................................................................57
3.5 Test of Physical Test of RA ................................................................................................................ 57
3.5.1 Water absorption ......................................................................................................................57
3.5.2 Specific Gravity ........................................................................................................................57
3.5.3 Adhered mortar content ..........................................................................................................58
3.5.4 Gradation ..................................................................................................................................58
3.6 Test of Mechanical Properties RCA .................................................................................................. 59
3.6.1 Compressive Strength ..............................................................................................................59
3.6.2 Tensile Strength ........................................................................................................................62
3.6.3 Flexural strength ......................................................................................................................65

iv
4. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................... 68
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 72

v
 List of tables
Table 1: Literature paper - 1.......................................................................................................... 10
Table 2: Literature paper – 2 ......................................................................................................... 11
Table 3: Literature paper – 3 ......................................................................................................... 12
Table 4: Literature paper – 4 ......................................................................................................... 13
Table 5: Literature paper – 5 ......................................................................................................... 14
Table 6: Literature paper – 6 ......................................................................................................... 15
Table 7: Literature paper – 7 ......................................................................................................... 16
Table 8: Literature paper – 8 ......................................................................................................... 18
Table 9: Literature paper – 9 ......................................................................................................... 19
Table 10: Literature paper – 10 ..................................................................................................... 20
Table 11: Literature paper – 11 ..................................................................................................... 22
Table 12: Literature paper – 12 ..................................................................................................... 23
Table 13: Literature paper – 13 ..................................................................................................... 24
Table 14: Literature paper – 14 ..................................................................................................... 26
Table 15: Literature paper – 15 ..................................................................................................... 28
Table 16: Literature paper – 16 ..................................................................................................... 30
Table 17: Literature paper – 17 ..................................................................................................... 31
Table 18: Literature paper – 18 ..................................................................................................... 32
Table 19: Literature paper –19 ...................................................................................................... 34
Table 20: Literature paper – 20 ..................................................................................................... 35
Table 21: Literature paper – 21 ..................................................................................................... 37
Table 22: Literature paper – 22 ..................................................................................................... 38
Table 23: Literature paper – 23 ..................................................................................................... 39
Table 24: Literature paper – 24 ..................................................................................................... 40
Table 25: Literature paper – 25 ..................................................................................................... 41
Table 26: Acid Type ..................................................................................................................... 49
Table 27: Acid Concentration ....................................................................................................... 51
Table 28: Soaking Time ................................................................................................................ 53
Table 29: Aggregate Size .............................................................................................................. 54
Table 30: Ball mill parameters ...................................................................................................... 55

vi
Table 31: Percentage Replacement ............................................................................................... 56

vii
 List of figures
Figure 1: Production of Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) from Construction and
Demolition Waste Flow chart ....................................................................................................... 45

Figure 2: Process of RA (Source: Influence of acetic acid soaking and mechanical grinding
treatment on the properties of treated recycled aggregate concrete - Abhishek Verma) .............. 47

Figure 3: Pre-soaking treatment procedures for RCA. (Source: Mechanical and fracture
properties of concrete with recycled concrete aggregates treated with acids and addition of
aluminum sulphate - Forero, J.
A.)…………………………………………………………………………..……………………48

Figure 4: Relationship between amount mortar loss and molarity of acid RA (Source:
Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for structural applications)
(21). ............................................................................................................................................... 52

Figure 5: Relationship between amount mortar loss and age of treatment RA (Source:
Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for structural applications)
....................................................................................................................................................... 52

Figure 6: Maximum Utilization – IS 383 -2016 ........................................................................... 56

Figure 7: Percentage passing Coarse Aggregate – IS 383 -2016 .................................................. 59

Figure 8: Satisfactory Failure of cube Specimens ........................................................................ 60

Figure 9: unsatisfactory Failure of cube Specimens ..................................................................... 61

Figure 10: Satisfactory Failure of cylindrical Specimens ............................................................. 61

Figure 11: Jig For Splitting cylinder and cube.............................................................................. 64

Figure 12: alternate apparatus For Splitting cubes ....................................................................... 64

Figure 13 plane of loading ............................................................................................................ 64

Figure 14: test Setup .................................................................................................................... 66

Figure 15: types of Failure pattern ................................................................................................ 66

viii
 Abbreviations

RC Recycled Concrete
RCA Recycled Concrete Aggregates
CRCA Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregates
h Hours’
AMC Adhered Mortar Content
AM Adhered Mortar
% Percentage

ix
 Abstract
This research explores the impact of acid beneficiation on coarse recycled concrete
aggregates (CRCA) and its subsequent influence on the strength of concrete. The study aimed
to select the optimum acid treatment parameters, including acid type, concentration, and
soaking duration, to improve CRCA properties and concrete performance. The CRCA will
be treated with hydrochloric acid (HCl) at 0.8 M concentration for 24 hours, followed by ball
milling to remove adhered mortar. Treated aggregates will be characterized for water
absorption, specific gravity, adhered mortar content, and gradation. Concrete specimens
(M25 mix) will be prepared using both beneficiated and un-beneficiated aggregates, with
adjustments to water content to accommodate the absorption capacity of treated aggregates.
Comprehensive testing is expected to reveal significant reductions in adhered mortar content
and water absorption in beneficiated aggregates. Hardened concrete properties, including
compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths, are anticipated to demonstrate notable
improvements when acid-treated CRCA is utilized. The findings will aim to highlight the
potential of acid beneficiation as a sustainable approach to enhance RCA quality and
performance, contributing to the development of durable and eco-friendly concrete. This
research is expected to provide critical insights for optimizing recycled aggregate usage in
construction, aligning with sustainable infrastructure goals.

x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1
 CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Concrete is the premier construction material across the world and the most widely used in
all types of civil engineering works. The use of concrete as a construction material is evident
from history by as early as Roman Empire. The fact that it could be easily molded to desired
shape and strength makes it much more effective within the industry. With the passage of
time and modifications, concrete has become the most exhaustively used construction
material.

Concrete was once routinely trucked to landfills for disposal or piled up on the road side, but
recycling has a number of benefits that have made it a more attractive option in this age of
greater environmental awareness, stringent environmental laws, and the desire to keep
construction costs down. Recycling of concrete basically involves crushing, sizing and
blending to meet the required product mix. Various methods are available for crushing and
sieving of C & D waste, however generally it is done using mobile or stationary recycling
plants. Separate concrete and asphalt recycling plants are used to process natural sand or
gravel. Construction waste contains metal and other waste materials that must be screened
and removed at the start of processing by manual picking or mechanically. (1)

The use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition wastes are showing
eventual application in construction industry as a good substitute to virgin (natural)
aggregates as it conserves natural resources, reduces carbon emission and also reduces the
space required for the landfill disposal. But due to the presence of adhered mortar on the
surface of Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) which eventually increases the water
absorption of concrete, it has been discussed from past studies that the beneficiation of
recycled concrete aggregates must be carried out prior to their application in new
construction works.

Various beneficiation methods or techniques have been developed by different researchers

in order to remove the adhered mortar from aggregate particles such as thermal beneficiation,

2
mechanical beneficiation, thermal mechanical beneficiation, chemical beneficiation,
chemical mechanical beneficiation and microwave assisted beneficiation. However, the
quality of aggregate particles produced thereafter is influenced by many factors such as the
type of method employed, the efficacy of technique and quality of demolished concrete
waste. This study investigates 4 beneficiation methods to treat recycled concrete aggregates
and thereafter the concrete mixes prepared from these treated aggregates.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this research are:
• To analyze the optimal acid treatment parameters for enhancing the performance of
CRCA in concrete strength.
• To investigate the effects of acid treatment on the water absorption, specific gravity,
adhered mortar content and gradation of the CRCA.
• To compare the performance of acid-treated CRCA (beneficiated) with untreated
CRCA (un-beneficiated) in terms of concrete strength.

1.3 SCOPE
• Identify various acid types, concentrations, and treatment durations, percentage of
virgin aggregate replacement with CRCA, ball-mill parameters, mix-design of
concrete that enhances the CRCA properties for improved concrete strength.
• Analyze the changes in water absorption, specific gravity, adhered mortar content, and
gradation between acid-treated (beneficiated) and untreated (un-beneficiated) CRCA.
• Compare compressive, flexure and tensile strength of concrete using acid-treated
(beneficiated) and untreated (un-beneficiated) CRCA.

3
CHAPTER 2
LITRATURE REVIEW

4
 CHAPTER
2. LITRATURE REVIEW
2.1 List of literatures

Sr.
Title Author Journal Year
No.
1 Mechanical And Fracture J.A. Forero, J. De Construction And 2024
Properties of Concrete with Brito, L. Evangelista, Building Materials
Recycled Concrete Cl´ Audio H.F.
Aggregates Treated with Pereira(2)
Acids and Addition of
Aluminum Sulphate
2 Optimal Replacement Ratio Linfeng Lu(3) MDPI - 2024
of Recycled Concrete MATERIAL
Aggregate Balancing
Mechanical Performance
with Sustainability: A
Review
3 Efficacy of Various Aojoy Kumar Shuvo, Journal Of 2024
Accelerated Carbonation Prabir Kumar Sarker, Building
Techniques to Improve Faiz Uddin Ahmed Engineering
Recycled Concrete Shaikh(4)
Aggregates
4 Sustainable Development Babu Lal Chauhan, Construction And 2023
of Recycled Concrete Gyani Jail Singh(5) Building
Aggregate Through Materials
Optimized Acid-
Mechanical Treatment: A
Simplified Approach

5
5 Influence Of Pre-Treatment Kai Ouyang, Jianhui Resources, 2023
Methods for Recycled Liu, Songhui Liu, Conservation &
Concrete Aggregate on The Baixing Song, Hui Recycling
Performance of Recycled Guo, Genshen Li,
Concrete: A Review Caijun Shi(1)
6 Utilizing Recycled Elmira Brooshan, Cleaner Materials 2023
Concrete Aggregate for Tommi Kauppila,
Treating Acid Mine Małgorzata Szlachta,
Drainage Mohammad
Jooshaki(6)
7 Improvement Of the Quality Javier A. Forero, MDPI - 2023
of Recycled Concrete Jorge De Brito, Luís MATERIAL
Aggregate Subjected to Evangelista, Cláudio
Chemical Treatments Pereira(7)
8 Use of Recycled Aggregate Ram Prasad Journal Of Asian 2023
Concrete in Structural Neupane, Architecture and
Members: A Review Thanongsak Imjai, Building
Focused on Southeast Asia Natt Makul, Reyes Engineering
Garcia, Boksun Kim
& Sandeep
Chaudhary
9 Different Influence of Yi-Cun Chang, Yu- Structures 2022
Replacement Ratio of Yin Wang, Huan
Recycled Aggregate on Zhang, Jie Chen, Yue
Uniaxial Stress-Strain Geng(8)
Relationship for Recycled
Concrete with Different
Concrete Strengths

6
10 Thermomechanical Rohit Prajapati, Construction And 2021
Beneficiation of Recycled Ravindra Gettu, Building
Concrete Aggregates (RCA) Surender Singh(9) Materials

11 Environmental Benefits of V.G. Ram A, Kumar Journal Of 2020

Construction and C. Kishore, Cleaner
Demolition Debris Satyanarayana N. Production
Recycling: Evidence from Kalidindi(10)
An Indian Case Study Using
Life Cycle Assessment
12 Comparison Of Recycled Jiangang Wang, Jinxi Construction 2020
Aggregate Treatment Zhang, Dandan Cao, And Building
Methods on The Haixiao Dang, Bo Materials
Performance for Recycled Ding(11)
Concrete
13 Mechanical And Fracture F. Kazemian, H. Construction And 2019
Properties Of Concrete Rooholamini, A. Building
Containing Treated And Hassani(12) Materials
Untreated Recycled
Concrete Aggregates

14 Properties Enhancement of Yongjae Kim, Asad Journal Of 2018

Recycled Aggregate Hanif, Syed M.S. Cleaner
Concrete Through Kazmi, Muhammad Production
Pretreatment of Coarse J. Munir, Cheolwoo
Aggregates E Comparative Park(13)
Assessment Of Assorted
Techniques

7
15 Properties Of Recycled Kho Pin Veriana, Resources, 2018
Concrete Aggregate and Warda Ashraf, Conservation &
Their Influence in New Yizheng Cao(14) Recycling
Concrete Production
16 Influence of Acid Aleksandar Radevi, Chemical 2018
Treatment and Carbonation Iva Despotovi, Industry &
on The Properties of Dimitrije Zaki, Chemical
Recycled Concrete Marko Oreškovi, Engineering
Aggregate Dragica Jevti(15) Quarterly
17 An Environmentally Liang Wanga, Jialai Construction And 2017
Friendly Method to Improve Wangb, Xin Qianb, Building
the Quality of Recycled Peiyuan Chenb, Ying Materials
Concrete Aggregates Xua, Jinxing
Guoa(16)
18 Evaluation of Various Hanaa Khaleel Construction 2016
Treatment Methods for Alwan Al-Bayati, And Building
Enhancing The Physical Prabir Kumar Das, Materials
And Morphological Susan L. Tighe,
Properties of Coarse Hassan Baaj(17)
Recycled Concrete
Aggregate
19 Performance Enhancement Caijun Shi, Yake Li, Journal Of 2016
of Recycled Concrete Jiake Zhang, Wengui Cleaner
Aggregate E A Review Li, Linlin Chong, Production
Zhaobin Xie(18)
20 Influence Of Treatment Revathi Concrete 2015
Methods on The Strength Purushothaman, Structures and
and Performance Ramesh Ruthirapathy Materials
Characteristics of Recycled Amirthavalli and
Aggregate Concrete Lavanya Karan(19)

8
21 Strength And Durability Sherif Yehia, Kareem Concrete 2015
Evaluation of Recycled Helal, Anaam Structures and
Aggregate Concrete Abusharkh, Amani Materials
Zaher, And Hiba
Istaitiyeh(20)
22 Engineering Properties of Sallehan Ismail, Construction And 2013
Treated Recycled Concrete Mahyuddin Building
Aggregate (RCA) For Ramli(21) Materials
Structural Applications
23 Removal Of Cement Mortar Vivian W.Y. Tama, Resources 2007
Remains from Recycled C.M. Tamb, K.N. Conservation &
Aggregate Using Pre- Lea(22) Recycling
Soaking Approaches
24 Effect of Microstructure of C.S. Poon, Z.H. Shui, Construction And 2004
ITZ n Compressive Strength L. Lam(23) Bu
of Concrete Prepared with ilding Materials
Recycled Aggregates
25 Behavior Of Concrete with N.K. Bairag, Kishore Resources, 1993
Different Proportions of Ravande and V.K. Conservation and
Natural and Recycled Pareek(24) Recycling
Aggregates

9
2.2 Literatures Review
Table 1: Literature paper - 1

LITRATURE PAPER (2)

Title Mechanical And Fracture Properties of Concrete with Recycled
Concrete Aggregates Treated with Acids and Addition of
Aluminium Sulphate
Author, J.A. Forero, J. De Brito, L. Evangelista, Cl´ Audio H.F. Pereira -
2024
Year
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials HCl and H₂SO₄ and RCA

• Low concentrations of acids (0.3M HCl and H₂SO₄) improve
the RCA surface by removing adhered mortar, resulting in
enhanced interfacial transition zones (ITZ).
• Higher concentrations of H₂SO₄ (1M and 3M) lead to
decreased mechanical performance, likely due to continued
degradation of RCA.
Finding • HCl treatments were more effective than H₂SO₄ in
improving compressive strength and fracture energy.
• Treated RCA resulted in better compressive strength and
tensile strength than untreated RCA but remained inferior to
natural aggregate concrete.

10
 Table 2: Literature paper – 2

LITRATURE PAPER (3)

Title Optimal Replacement Ratio of Recycled Concrete Aggregate Balancing
Mechanical Performance with Sustainability: A Review
Author, Linfeng Lu - 2024
Year
Journal MDPI - MATERIAL

Materials RCA, HCl and H₂SO₄

• The paper discusses the environmental benefits of using RCA,
including reduced waste and lower carbon emissions associated
with traditional concrete production.
• It identifies an optimal replacement ratio of recycled concrete
stone aggregate (RCSA) between 20% and 35%, based on a
combined analysis of strength and cost.
Finding • The authors propose guidelines for achieving optimal
performance in concrete applications, emphasizing the need for
updated standards and comprehensive testing.
• The paper ultimately aims to contribute to the sustainable
development of construction materials by promoting the effective
use of recycled aggregates.
• The review synthesizes various experimental studies and
theoretical analyses, highlighting the mechanical properties of
concrete made with RCA, including compressive strength, tensile
strength, and durability.
• Key findings indicate that the 28-day compressive strength of
recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) exhibits significant variation
with different replacement ratios, with a replacement ratio of 11–
20% yielding the highest mean compressive strength.

11
 Table 3: Literature paper – 3

LITRATURE PAPER (4)

Title Efficacy Of Various Accelerated Carbonation Techniques To Improve
Recycled Concrete Aggregates
Author, Aojoy Kumar Shuvo, Prabir Kumar Sarker, Faiz Uddin Ahmed Shaikh -
Year 2024
Journal Journal Of Building Engineering

Materials HCl, H₂SO₄ and RCA

• The relationship between relative humidity and CO2 uptake in
recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) is non-linear, with optimal
CO2 absorption occurring at 70% relative humidity. Beyond this
point, increased humidity hinders CO2 diffusion due to saturation
of the aggregates.
• 2. The size of the RCA significantly influences CO2 uptake, with
Finding smaller particle sizes (2.00 – 4.75 mm) demonstrating
approximately 55.4% to 67.9% greater CO2 absorption compared
to larger sizes. Conversely, larger aggregates (exceeding 4.75 mm)
exhibit reduced CO2 uptake efficiency due to lower specific
surface area and fewer mortar residuals.
• 3. The carbonation process is affected by pressure, with smaller
particles showing decreased CO2 uptake under higher pressures,
while larger particles exhibit an opposite trend.
• 4. The presence of unhydrated cement compounds in finer
particles can lead to agglomeration, which impedes CO2 diffusion,
further complicating the relationship between particle size and
carbonation efficiency.

12
 Table 4: Literature paper – 4

LITRATURE PAPER (5)

Title Sustainable Development Of Recycled Concrete Aggregate Through
Optimized Acid-Mechanical Treatment: A Simplified Approach
Author, Babu Lal Chauhan, Gyani Jail Singh - 2023
Year
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials RCA
• RCA was soaked in a 3% mild acetic acid solution for 24 hours.
• This treatment reduced the calcium hydroxide content and
minimized microcracks and pores.
• Following acid soaking, the RCA was subjected to mechanical
treatment using a Los Angeles abrasion machine.
• Different combinations of charges and drum revolutions were
tested to optimize performance.
• The VIKOR method was used to evaluate the quality of treated
RCA based on mechanical and physical properties.
Finding • Optimal samples (SR104, SR94, and SR74) were identified for
further concrete mix preparation.
• The treatment enhanced the interfacial transition zones (ITZ),
both new and old, contributing to better performance.
• Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed uniform surface
morphology, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed
reduced porosity.

13
 Table 5: Literature paper – 5

LITRATURE PAPER (1)

Title Influence Of Pre-Treatment Methods For Recycled Concrete Aggregate
On The Performance Of Recycled Concrete: A Review
Author, Kai Ouyang, Jianhui Liu, Songhui Liu, Baixing Song, Hui Guo, Genshen
Year Li, Caijun Shi - 2023
Journal Resources, Conservation & Recycling

Materials RCA
• The findings indicate that pre-treatment techniques, such as
carbonation, surface modification, and microbial calcite
precipitation, significantly enhance the performance of recycled
concrete aggregates.
• Specifically, carbonation treatment improves the mechanical
properties and reduces the permeability of recycled concrete,
Finding while surface treatments using nanomaterials and other additives
contribute to increased strength and durability.
• The review emphasizes the importance of optimizing pre-
treatment methods to achieve sustainable and high-performance
recycled concrete, thereby promoting its use in construction
applications.
• It indicates that the AM removal and bio-deposition method is
the best for increasing the elasticity modulus and reducing the
shrinkage of RAC.
• Polymer impregnation can greatly reduce the water absorption
and permeability of RAC, which is far better than other methods.
However, the polymer impregnation may decrease the
compressive strength.

14
 Table 6: Literature paper – 6

LITRATURE PAPER (6)

Title Utilizing Recycled Concrete Aggregate For Treating Acid Mine Drainage
Author, Elmira Brooshan, Tommi Kauppila, Małgorzata Szlachta, Mohammad
Year Jooshaki - 2023
Journal Cleaner Materials

Materials Sulfur, oxygen, iron, aluminum and RCA

• RCA can achieve significant removal efficiencies for heavy metals
and sulfate, with rates between 75% and 77%.
• The mechanism of action involves the release of calcium and
potassium ions from the RCA, which facilitates the adsorption of
contaminants while consuming sulfur, oxygen, iron, and
aluminum from the AMD.
Finding • The authors suggest that optimizing the treatment process could
be accomplished by adjusting the pH levels, as lower pH
conditions enhance sulfate removal, whereas higher pH conditions
favor the precipitation of metals.
• The research underscores the potential of utilizing locally sourced
waste materials like RCA as a cost-effective alternative to
traditional treatment methods, such as activated carbon, and calls
for further long-term studies to evaluate the performance of RCA
in passive treatment systems

15
 Table 7: Literature paper – 7

LITRATURE PAPER (7)

Title Improvement Of the Quality of Recycled Concrete Aggregate
Subjected To Chemical Treatments
Author, Javier A. Forero, Jorge De Brito, Luís Evangelista, Cláudio Pereira - 2023
Year
Journal MDPI - MATERIAL

Materials HCl, H₂SO₄ and RCA

• The findings of the research paper that the treatment of recycled
concrete aggregates (RCA) with hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) significantly enhances their properties.
Specifically, the study reveals that untreated RCA exhibits a
reduction in elastic modulus (E) of approximately 35% compared
to reference concrete, whereas RCA treated with HCl and H₂SO₄
Finding show reductions of less than 8% and 22%, respectively.
• This improvement is attributed to increased density, removal of
adhered mortar, and enhanced interfacial transition zone (ITZ)
between RCA and cementitious paste.
• Additionally, the research highlights that mixes with untreated
RCA experience a notable increase in shrinkage, with a 26%
greater drying shrinkage after 180 days compared to control
concrete.
• The high shrinkage is linked to the inferior quality and stiffness
of untreated RCA.
• Furthermore, untreated RCA mixes demonstrate a 27% higher
permeability to chloride ions than natural aggregate (NA) mixes,
while treated RCA mixes show only marginal increases in
permeability.
• The carbonation depth in mixes with untreated RCA is also
greater, indicating reduced durability under severe exposure

16
 conditions, attributed to limited formation of calcium-silicate-
hydrate (C-S-H) gel during hydration.
• The study also reveals a linear correlation between the molarity
of HCl and the mass loss of RCA, with a correlation coefficient
(R²) of 0.76, suggesting that 76.3% of the variation in mortar
removal can be explained by the molarity of the acid.
Additionally, a moderate negative correlation (r = -0.683) was
observed between mass loss and water absorption, indicating that
as mass loss increases, water absorption decreases.
• The analysis highlights that factors such as particle size and
soaking time do not significantly correlate with mortar removal.
For H₂SO₄ treatment, the findings show a reasonable correlation
between mass loss and molarity (r = 0.563) and a strong negative
correlation between mass loss and water absorption (r = -0.992),
although neither correlation is linear.

17
 Table 8: Literature paper – 8

LITRATURE PAPER(25)
Title Use Of Recycled Aggregate Concrete in Structural Members: A Review
Focused on Southeast Asia
Author, Ram Prasad Neupane, Thanongsak Imjai, Natt Makul, Reyes Garcia,
Boksun Kim & Sandeep Chaudhary - 2023
Year
Journal Journal Of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering

Materials RCA
• The findings of the research paper highlight several key aspects
regarding the treatment techniques and properties of recycled
aggregate concrete (RAC).
• The authors propose methods to enhance the properties of
recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) before and during mixing.
Notably, reducing RCA porosity and minimizing adhered mortar
Finding layers can significantly improve the overall quality of RAC,
enhancing its density, absorption, and abrasion resistance.
• Coating RCA with pozzolanic powder has shown potential in
improving mechanical and physical properties.
• The comparative analysis of mechanical properties indicates that
the 28-day compressive strength of RAC ranges from 68% to
99% of that of natural aggregate concrete (NAC), with specific
studies demonstrating varying strengths across different
specimen types. For instance, the compressive strength of RAC
was reported at 60.0 MPa compared to 72.1 MPa for NAC in one
study, illustrating the potential of RAC as a viable alternative in
structural applications.

18
 Table 9: Literature paper – 9

LITRATURE PAPER (8)

Title Different Influence Of Replacement Ratio Of Recycled Aggregate On
Uniaxial Stress-Strain Relationship For Recycled Concrete With
Different Concrete Strengths
Author, Yi-Cun Chang, Yu-Yin Wang, Huan Zhang, Jie Chen, Yue Geng – 2022
Year
Journal Structures

Materials RCA
• The findings of the research paper indicate that the replacement
ratio of recycled aggregates significantly affects the mechanical
properties of recycled concrete.
• The study reveals that as the replacement ratio increases, the
uniaxial compressive strength and elastic modulus of the
concrete tend to decrease, particularly for lower strength concrete
Finding mixes.
• Higher strength concrete exhibits a more gradual decline in these
properties with increased replacement ratios.
• The research also highlights the importance of the original
concrete strength and the quality of the recycled aggregates in
determining the overall performance of the recycled concrete.
Additionally, the proposed model effectively predicts the stress-
strain behavior across different conditions, outperforming
existing models in accuracy.
• These findings underscore the necessity for careful consideration
of aggregate replacement ratios in the design of sustainable
concrete structures.

19
 Table 10: Literature paper – 10

LITRATURE PAPER (9)

Title Thermomechanical Beneficiation Of Recycled Concrete Aggregates
(RCA)
Author, Rohit Prajapati, Ravindra Gettu, Surender Singh - 2021
Year
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials
• The findings of the research paper indicate that the application of
thermo-mechanical processes can significantly enhance the
quality of RCA, achieving a high yield of over 90%.
• The study optimized variables such as heating temperature, feed
size, and residence duration, demonstrating that heating waste
concrete chunks at 500 °C for 60 minutes, followed by milling
Finding with a steel ball charge, results in RCA fractions that meet
stringent quality standards.
• The beneficiated coarse RCA produced exhibits performance
characteristics comparable to those of concrete made with
pristine granite aggregates, thereby supporting the potential for
RCA to be utilized in structural applications rather than being
limited to non-structural uses.
• The research highlights that the concrete fines produced contain
over 55% cementitious content, suggesting potential applications
as a partial binder replacement or raw material for clinker
production. Overall, the concrete made with these recycled
aggregates demonstrates only a slight reduction in strength
compared to reference concrete with pristine aggregates,
indicating that the proposed beneficiation method yields
significantly improved fractions that can be utilized in new

20
 construction without compromising performance.
• When waste concrete chunks of 50 mm (1.97 in.) are heated for
about 60 min at 500 ◦ C(932 ◦ F) and milled with steel ball charge,
the process was found to yield RCA fractions conforming to the
limits set by stringent codes and guidelines.

21
 Table 11: Literature paper – 11

LITRATURE PAPER (10)

Title Environmental Benefits of Construction And Demolition Debris
Recycling: Evidence From An Indian Case Study Using Life Cycle
Assessment
Author, V.G. Ram A, Kumar C. Kishore, Satyanarayana N. Kalidindi - 2020
Year
Journal Journal Of Cleaner Production

Materials RCA and organic materials

• The findings of the research paper highlight significant
environmental savings associated with recycling construction
and demolition (C & D) debris.
• The study projects that if a recycling facility is established
without transfer stations, approximately 78,290 tonnes of CO2
equivalent emissions, 1,116,969 GJ of primary energy, and 322
Finding hectares of organic arable land can be conserved by 2028.
• Conversely, if a facility with transfer stations is implemented, the
savings would amount to 63,107 tonnes of CO2 equivalent
emissions, 879,760 GJ of primary energy, and 295 hectares of
organic arable land.
• The research emphasizes that while the magnitude of these
savings may vary across different regions, the fundamental
environmental benefits of C & D debris recycling are universally
applicable.
• The study serves as a critical resource for policy makers in India
and other developing nations, advocating for recycling as a
preferable alternative to landfilling.
• It also underscores the necessity of considering future scenarios,
including increased transportation distances, to inform subsidy
decisions for recycling initiatives.

22
 Table 12: Literature paper – 12

LITRATURE PAPER (11)

Title Comparison Of Recycled Aggregate Treatment Methods on The
Performance for Recycled Concrete
Author, Jiangang Wang, Jinxi Zhang, Dandan Cao, Haixiao Dang, Bo Ding -
2020
Year
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials carbonation (C-RC), chemical hydration (CH-RC), water (W-RC), and

recycled water (RW-RC) and RCA
• The findings of the research paper reveal several key insights
regarding the effectiveness of different treatment methods for
recycled concrete (RC).
• The study indicates that both dynamic elastic modulus and
compressive strength exhibited similar trends across various
treatment methods. Notably, the chloride ion migration coefficient
Finding for recycled concrete treated with carbonation (C-RC), chemical
hydration (CH-RC), water (W-RC), and recycled water (RW-RC)
showed significant reductions compared to non-treated recycled
concrete (N-RC), with decreases ranging from 3.1% to 37.7%.
• The slurry wrapping treatment demonstrated superior performance
in enhancing the penetration resistance of recycled concrete
compared to carbonation treatment.
• Carbonation treatment was found to improve the mechanical
properties and dry shrinkage resistance of recycled concrete more
effectively than slurry wrapping.
• The study also highlighted that the quality of the carbonated
aggregate significantly influenced the restraint effect on dry
shrinkage, with CH-RC exhibiting a more pronounced effect than
C-RC.

23
 Table 13: Literature paper – 13

LITRATURE PAPER (12)

Title Mechanical And Fracture Properties Of Concrete Containing Treated
And Untreated Recycled Concrete Aggregates
Author, F. Kazemian, H. Rooholamini, A. Hassani - 2019
Year
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials RCA, UTRCA and TRCA

• The incorporation of treated recycled concrete aggregates
(TRCA) into concrete mixtures enhances crack resistance,
attributed to the modification of TRCA surfaces through
impregnation with a cementitious material (CM) solution, which
reduces porosity and improves the microstructure at the interface
between the aggregate and the cement matrix.
Finding • The study revealed that the fracture toughness of specimens
containing recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) and TRCA was
lower than that of control specimens. Specifically, the fracture
toughness (K IIIC) of the RCA-50 specimen was measured at
0.183, indicating a significant reduction compared to the control
mix. However, a 25% replacement of natural aggregates (NA)
with RCA resulted in only a minor reduction in fracture
toughness.
• The results indicated that RCA and TRCA are more susceptible
to tensile opening modes compared to shear modes, with the
observed fracture patterns confirming the applicability of the
testing methods for evaluating fracture toughness in both pure
mode I and III.
• The study concluded that recycling demolished concrete as an
alternative aggregate is an effective strategy for reducing natural

24
 resource consumption. The weak interface between RCA and
cement paste was identified as a critical factor in reducing
flexural strength, with 25% and 50% substitutions leading to
reductions of 10% and 14%, respectively, while TRCA showed
only a 3% reduction due to improved surface contact.
• The research highlighted that the negative effects of recycled
aggregates on fracture energy were significant during crack
growth, with RCA and TRCA leading to a more pronounced drop
in bridging load during post-cracking extension.

25
 Table 14: Literature paper – 14

LITRATURE PAPER (13)

Title Properties Enhancement Of Recycled Aggregate Concrete Through
Pretreatment Of Coarse Aggregates E Comparative Assessment Of
Assorted Techniques
Author, Yongjae Kim, Asad Hanif, Syed M.S. Kazmi, Muhammad J. Munir,
Year Cheolwoo Park - 2018
Journal Journal Of Cleaner Production

Materials BMC, RCA, HCL, and Na2SO4

• The findings of the research paper the pretreatment of recycled
aggregates significantly influences the performance of the
concrete produced. Specifically, hydrochloric acid (HCl)
pretreatment is more effective than sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
pretreatment in removing bonded mortar from recycled
aggregates.
Finding • This conclusion is supported by qualitative observations of the
bonded mortar's removal, as well as the necessity for quantitative
assessments of the bonded mortar content (BMC) to substantiate
these findings.
• The study demonstrates that the mechanical and durability
properties of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) can be
significantly improved through these pretreatment techniques.
• The research highlights that the durability characteristics of RAC
are compromised under severe exposure conditions, with greater
carbonation depth primarily due to limited calcium-silicate-
hydrate (C-S-H) gel formation during hydration, resulting in
higher porosity and a less dense matrix.
• The evaluation of BMC shows that the interfacial transition zone
(ITZ) between the aggregate and paste matrix in conventional

26
 concrete is denser compared to that in RAC, which exhibits
micro- and macro-pores along with air voids.
• This inferior interfacial property, attributed to residual mortar,
leads to lower specific gravity and overall reduced performance
of the resulting concrete.
• The qualitative and quantitative assessment of BMC is essential
for modeling and predicting the properties of concrete, thereby
highlighting its critical role in determining the overall quality of
RAC.

27
 Table 15: Literature paper – 15

LITRATURE PAPER
Title Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate and Their Influence In New
Concrete Production
Author, Kho Pin Veriana, Warda Ashraf, Yizheng Cao - 2018
Year
Journal Resources, Conservation & Recycling

Materials supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash (FA),

ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), silica fume (SF), and
RCA
• The findings of the research paper highlight several critical aspects
regarding the performance of concrete made with recycled
concrete aggregates (RCA).
• The study indicates that the replacement of fine natural aggregates
with RCA does not significantly impair the freeze-thaw (FT)
resistance of concrete, it adversely affects scaling resistance.
Finding • The compressive strength of RCA concrete exposed to FT cycles
was reduced by 5.8 MPa compared to control specimens, which
only experienced a 0.4 MPa reduction.
• Furthermore, the research reveals that concrete containing RCA
exhibits higher drying shrinkage due to increased paste content
from reclaimed and new mortar. Specifically, concrete made with
coarse RCA and natural sand showed a 20% to 50% increase in
shrinkage, while mixtures with both coarse and fine RCA
exhibited a 70% to 100% increase compared to natural concrete
(NC).
• The study also found that creep in RCA concrete is proportional
to the amount of RCA used, with reported creep strains being 30%
to 60% greater than those of NC.

28
• The permeability of RCA concrete was found to be significantly
higher, with coefficients of permeability being two to five times
greater than that of NC for mixtures with water-to-cement ratios
of 0.5 to 0.7.
• The water permeability of RCA concrete was measured at
approximately 1.4 to 2.4 × 10⁻²⁰ m², compared to 0.8 ± 0.1 × 10⁻²⁰
m² for NC. Incorporating up to 30% fly ash as an ordinary Portland
cement replacement in RCA concrete was shown to reduce
permeability.
• Overall, the findings underscore the implications of using RCA in
concrete production, particularly concerning mechanical
properties, shrinkage, creep, and permeability, which are essential
for assessing the viability of RCA in sustainable construction
practices.
• The study also emphasizes that the incorporation of
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash
(FA), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), silica fume
(SF), and metakaolin can significantly enhance the mechanical
and durability properties of concrete containing RCA. The authors
recommend the use of SCMs in RCA concrete mixtures to achieve
optimal performance and durability.

29
 Table 16: Literature paper – 16

LITRATURE PAPER (15)

Title Influence Of Acid Treatment and Carbonation On The Properties Of
Recycled Concrete Aggregate
Author, Aleksandar Radevi, Iva Despotovi, Dimitrije Zaki, Marko Oreškovi,
Year Dragica Jevti – 2018
Journal Chemical Industry & Chemical Engineering Quarterly

Materials HCL and RCA

• The findings of the research paper indicate that both hydrochloric
acid (HCl) treatment and accelerated carbonation significantly
enhance the properties of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA).
• The study reveals that RCA, which consists of natural aggregate
grains and a cement matrix, often exhibits unfavorable properties
due to the presence of residual cement mortar with higher porosity.
Finding • The HCl treatment effectively reduces water absorption by up to
3%, while accelerated carbonation further decreases water
absorption by 13-20% and improves mechanical properties by
approximately 10%. Chemical analysis shows that HCl treatment
increases chloride concentration and decreases sulfate
concentration, while the pH remains stable.
• carbonation lowers the pH without affecting chloride and sulfate
concentrations.
• Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis confirms that
carbonation significantly reduces the porosity of RCA, with void
sizes less than 2 μm, compared to 5-23 μm after acid treatment.
• The study concludes that for RCA derived from high-quality
compact concrete, quality improvement treatments may not be
necessary, contributing to ecological benefits such as resource
conservation and reduced landfill demand.

30
 Table 17: Literature paper – 17

LITRATURE PAPER (16)

Title An Environmentally Friendly Method to Improve the Quality Of Recycled
Concrete Aggregates
Author, Liang Wanga, Jialai Wangb, Xin Qianb, Peiyuan Chenb, Ying Xua,
Year Jinxing Guoa - 2017
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials HCL, H2SO4 and RCA

• The study presents a novel method utilizing acetic acid to
enhance the quality of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) by
effectively removing cement mortar from their surfaces. This
method is deemed safer and cleaner compared to traditional
chemical processing methods that employ strong acids, as it does
not introduce harmful chemicals or generate hazardous waste.
Finding • Experimental results indicate that soaking RCA in a 1-3% acetic
acid solution for 24 hours significantly improves their properties,
such as water absorption and apparent density.
• The compressive strength of concrete made with treated RCA is
notably enhanced, with the 3% acetic acid group exhibiting a
13.8% increase in strength at 28 days compared to the control
group.
• The residual acetic acid has minimal impact on the strength
development of concrete when low concentrations are used,
while a significant retarding effect is observed at 5%
concentration, suggesting that concentrations should not exceed
3% to avoid adverse effects.
• Mechanical rubbing following acid soaking further enhances the
quality of RCA and the concrete produced with them.

31
 Table 18: Literature paper – 18

LITRATURE PAPER (17)

Title Evaluation Of Various Treatment Methods For Enhancing The Physical
And Morphological Properties Of Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregate
Author, Hanaa Khaleel Alwan Al-Bayati, Prabir Kumar Das, Susan L. Tighe,
Year Hassan Baaj - 2016
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials RCA, HCL

• The study systematically evaluates the effectiveness of different
treatments, including heat treatment and acid treatment, in
improving the performance of RCA for structural applications.
• Heat treatment at optimal temperatures between 300 °C and 350
°C improves various physical properties, including water
absorption, specific gravity, porosity, and resistance to freezing
Finding and thawing. Higher temperatures (400 °C to 600 °C) induce
thermal expansion and internal stresses, while temperatures above
600 °C lead to microcracking and degradation of the aggregate.
• Acid treatment at low concentrations effectively enhances RCA
quality, with weak acids proving more efficient than strong acids
in minimizing corrosive damage to the aggregate surface.
• The combination of thermal heating at 350 °C and short
mechanical treatment yields the best performance, reducing water
absorption by 27.4%.
• Weak acid treatment followed by mechanical treatment also shows
significant reduction in water absorption (20.6%), while strong
acid treatment combined with mechanical processing results in a
16.4% reduction compared to untreated RCA.
• Physical properties such as porosity and water absorption are
strongly correlated with durability characteristics, including
resistance to freezing and thawing and abrasion resistance,

32
 particularly under heat treatment.
• Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis reveals that
untreated RCA has a rough, heterogeneous surface with high
porosity, whereas treated RCA exhibits a more homogeneous
surface with reduced adhered mortar, although strong acid
treatment can cause surface damage.
• The study demonstrates a significant enhancement in the
microstructural properties of RCA through various treatments,
characterized by increased density, improved surface
homogeneity, and a reduced Ca/Si ratio. There is potential for
increased strength of RCA, although further strength testing is
necessary to confirm this.
• Strong correlations are established between the mineralogical
characteristics of RCA, particularly the Ca/Si ratio, and its durable
and mechanical properties, including abrasion loss and adhered
mortar loss under heat treatment.
• The research indicates the potential for improving the physical and
morphological properties of RCA through the combination of
different treatment methods, while future studies are suggested to
explore the relationship between these properties and the
mechanical performance of concrete/asphalt mixtures.

33
 Table 19: Literature paper –19

LITRATURE PAPER (18)

Title Performance Enhancement Of Recycled Concrete Aggregate E A Review
Author, Caijun Shi, Yake Li, Jiake Zhang, Wengui Li, Linlin Chong, Zhaobin
Year Xie - 2016
Journal Journal Of Cleaner Production

Materials RCA
• The findings of the research highlight several key advancements
in the utilization of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA).
• The review emphasizes the importance of improving the
mechanical and durability properties of RCA through various
methods, including carbonation, surface treatment, and the
incorporation of supplementary cementitious materials.
Finding • The authors discuss the positive effects of carbonation on the
strength and durability of concrete made with RCA, noting that
this process can enhance the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) and
reduce the permeability of the concrete.
• The paper outlines the challenges associated with the use of
RCA, such as the variability in quality and the need for effective
processing techniques to remove adhered mortar. Overall, the
findings suggest that with appropriate treatment and processing,
RCA can be effectively utilized in concrete production,
contributing to sustainable construction practices.

34
 Table 20: Literature paper – 20

LITRATURE PAPER (19)

Title Influence Of Treatment Methods On The Strength And Performance
Characteristics Of Recycled Aggregate Concrete
Author, Revathi Purushothaman, Ramesh Ruthirapathy Amirthavalli And
Year Lavanya Karan - 2015
Journal Concrete Structures And Materials

Materials TRCA and RCA

• The findings of the research paper indicate that various treatment
methods significantly affect the mechanical properties and
durability of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC).
• The study reveals that the quality of recycled concrete aggregate
(RCA) is inherently lower than that of natural aggregate (NA) due
to the residual mortar attached to the surface. However, the physical
Finding and mechanical properties of recycled aggregates, including
specific gravity, water absorption, bulk density, crushing value,
impact value, and abrasion value, can be enhanced through
appropriate chemical or mechanical treatments.
• Treated recycled aggregates exhibit properties that are comparable,
although still inferior, to those of natural aggregates.
• The compressive strength and static modulus of elasticity of RAC
are lower than those of (NAC). However, RAC produced using
recycled aggregates treated with sulfuric acid and heating and
scrubbing techniques can achieve strength properties comparable to
NAC, particularly when aggregates originate from the same source.
• Long-term performance metrics of RAC, assessed via water
absorption and weight loss on drying, show improvement with
sulfuric acid and heating and scrubbing treatments. Presoaking
recycled aggregates in sulfuric acid is more effective than
hydrochloric acid in removing attached mortar, thereby enhancing

35
 the properties of both the recycled aggregates and the resulting
concrete.
• Among mechanical treatment methods, the heating and scrubbing
technique significantly improves the quality of recycled aggregates
and, consequently, the properties of RAC.
• This method is most effective when economically feasible heat
sources are available.
• The study indicates that similar strength can also be attained with
the heating and scrubbing treatment, without necessarily increasing
cement content.
• The environmental impact of treatment methods such as presoaking
and mechanical treatments is significant, with potential
environmental benefits if recycling plants are strategically located
near construction sites.
• Optimal environmental gains from utilizing recycled aggregates in
construction can be achieved through proper location and
networking of recycling facilities.

36
 Table 21: Literature paper – 21

LITRATURE PAPER (20)

Title Strength And Durability Evaluation Of Recycled Aggregate Concrete
Author, Sherif Yehia, Kareem Helal, Anaam Abusharkh, Amani Zaher, And
Year Hiba Istaitiyeh - 2015
Journal Concrete Structures And Materials

Materials RCA
• The findings of the research paper indicate that specific concrete
mixes (Mix 1, 2, and 5) achieved acceptable compressive, flexural,
and splitting tensile strengths.
• This performance is attributed to the high packing density
achieved through the utilization of different aggregate grades,
which mitigated limitations in particle distribution and aggregate
Finding strength, leading to a reduction in total pore volume and
consequently enhancing the strength and durability of the concrete
mix.
• The study also highlights that crack initiated at the interface
between the aggregates and mortar, suggesting a weakness in the
old mortar that adversely affected the bond between the old and
new mortar.
• The comparative analysis with literature indicates that concrete
with 100% recycled aggregate can yield similar mechanical
properties regardless of the aggregate source, although variations
in compressive strength, flexural strength, and modulus of
elasticity were observed based on the water-to-cement ratio and
specific gravity of the recycled aggregates.

37
 Table 22: Literature paper – 22

LITRATURE PAPER (21)

Title Engineering Properties of Treated Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA)
for Structural Applications
Author, Sallehan Ismail, Mahyuddin Ramli - 2013
Year
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials RCA, and HCL

• The findings of the research paper indicate that treated RCA can
significantly enhance the compressive strength of concrete
compared to untreated RCA.
• The study reveals that incorporating treated RCA at a proportion
of up to 45% achieves optimal compressive strength, with concrete
batches demonstrating strengths of 50 MPa or higher at 28 days.
Finding • Increasing the RCA content to 60% results in a reduction of
compressive strength below the target. T
• he research also highlights that the treatment of RCA with acid at
molarities of 0.1 M and 0.5 M yields the most substantial
improvements in compressive strength, while a soaking period of
no more than three days is sufficient for effective treatment.
However, the study notes inconsistencies in compressive strength
results due to various intrinsic parameters affecting RCA's
physical properties. Overall, the findings underscore the potential
of treated RCA as a viable material for enhancing the structural
performance of concrete.

38
 Table 23: Literature paper – 23

LITRATURE PAPER (22)

Title Removal Of Cement Mortar Remains from Recycled Aggregate Using
Pre-Soaking Approaches
Author, Vivian W.Y. Tama, C.M. Tamb, K.N. Lea(22) - 2007
Year
Journal Resources Conservation & Recycling

Materials RA, H₂SO₄, H₃PO₄

• The findings of the research paper that the use of recycled
aggregates (RA) from demolished concrete waste is a viable
strategy for conserving landfill space and natural resources in
Hong Kong.
• The study highlights that the limited application of RA in high-
grade construction is primarily due to its inferior and inconsistent
Finding quality, which is attributed to the presence of cement mortar on
the surface of the aggregates, resulting in increased porosity and
water absorption rates.
• The research investigates three pre-soaking treatment methods—
ReMortar H₂SO₄ and ReMortar H₃PO₄—aimed at reducing the old
cement mortar attached to the RA.
• Experimental results demonstrate that these pre-treatment
methods significantly lower the water absorption of the RA and
enhance the mechanical properties of the recycled aggregate
concrete.
• Importantly, the alkalinity, chloride, and sulfate contents of the
RA remain unaffected by the treatments. Consequently, the study
concludes that pre-treating RA is an effective approach to improve
its quality, thereby expanding its potential applications in
construction activities.

39
 Table 24: Literature paper – 24

LITRATURE PAPER (23)

Title Effect of Microstructure of ITZ n Compressive Strength of Concrete
Prepared with Recycled Aggregates
Author, C.S. Poon, Z.H. Shui, L. Lam - 2004
Year
Journal Construction And Building Materials

Materials RA, H₂SO₄, H₃PO₄

• The findings of the research paper indicate that the compressive
strength of high-performance concrete (HPC) utilizing recycled
aggregates can reach levels comparable to those of concrete made
with natural crushed granite aggregates after a curing period of 90
days.
• The study highlights that the strength development is influenced
Finding by the microstructural properties of the interfacial transition zones
(ITZ) formed in the concrete. Specifically, the HPC recycled
aggregate concrete exhibited a relatively dense ITZ, whereas the
normal-strength concrete recycled aggregates resulted in a loose
and porous ITZ.
• This difference is attributed to the moisture movement and
chemical reactions occurring within the recycled aggregate
concrete, with the porous ITZ in normal-strength concrete being
linked to the higher porosity and absorption capacity of the
recycled aggregates.
• The research concludes that the microstructure of the ITZ is a
critical factor in determining the strength development of recycled
aggregate concrete, suggesting that enhancing the surface
properties and pore structure of recycled aggregates could improve
the mechanical properties of the resulting concrete.

40
 Table 25: Literature paper – 25

LITRATURE PAPER (24)

Title Behavior Of Concrete with Different Proportions of Natural and Recycled
Aggregates
Author, N.K. Bairag, Kishore Ravande and V.K. Pareek - 1993
Year
Journal Resources, Conservation and Recycling

Materials RA, H₂SO₄, H₃PO₄

• Recycled aggregates exhibit a higher fineness modulus and lower
bulk density compared to natural aggregates, with no significant
change in the grading curve. They possess lower specific gravity,
high absorptivity, and reduced resistance to mechanical action.
The properties of coarse aggregates are progressively affected by
increasing the proportion of recycled aggregates.
Finding • Recycled aggregates demonstrate rapid absorption rates,
achieving approximately 75% of their 24-hour absorption capacity
within the first 30 minutes of soaking.
• The workability of recycled aggregate concrete is impacted;
however, all mixes maintain a similar level of workability. A
maximum reduction of 6% in wet density is observed for recycled
aggregate concrete.
• The rate of strength gain decreases with an increase in the
replacement ratio of recycled aggregates.
• The stress-strain relationship of concrete mixes varies with the
replacement ratio, exhibiting greater curvature and reduced
modulus of elasticity as the replacement ratio increases.
• A maximum reduction of 15% in mechanical properties is noted
when up to 50% of natural aggregates are replaced with recycled
aggregates, while a 100% recycled aggregate concrete shows a
maximum strength loss of around 40%.

41
• Up to 50% of natural aggregates can be replaced by recycled
aggregates without significantly compromising the properties of
concrete in both fresh and hardened states.
• Two proposed equations relating the modulus of elasticity (E) and
compressive strength (fc), as well as flexural strength (fr) and
compressive strength (fc), are comparable to standard
recommended equations, providing useful estimates for E and fr
in concrete with varying proportions of recycled aggregates.
• The ratios of flexural strength to compressive strength (fd/fr) and
compressive strength to flexural strength (fd/fc) align well with
established ranges for natural aggregate concrete..

42
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS FOR RECYCLED
AGGREGATE MANUFACTURING

43
 CHAPTER
3. MATERIALS FOR RECYCLED AGGREGATE
MANUFACTURING

3.1 Introduction of C & D Waste

C&D waste is the debris generated during the activities of construction and demolition of
civil engineering structures like residential buildings, multi-story buildings, bridges, dams,
highway, etc. The C&D waste has composition of wood, steel, concrete, masonry, plaster,
asphalt, and other building materials (2).

The C&D waste are categorized into two categories- construction waste, and demolition
waste. The construction waste is defined as the materials that are generated as a direct result
of building construction activity which includes concrete, rubble, bricks, plaster, asphalt,
paints, sealants, fasteners and other similar materials. The demolition waste is defined as the
material that are generated as a result of building demolition activity. It includes the materials
similar to the construction waste but resulted due to demolition activities.

In India, the C&D waste is generated in huge quantity. It was estimated that in 2012 over
130 million tons of C&D waste was generated. Currently these materials are not being
utilized effectively and the waste are being dumped. As a result of dumping of waste, it
utilizes the land for dumping yard at the same time it also pollutes the environment (5).

The C&D waste can be recycled by sorting, crushing and assorting the material generated
for development of various products.

3.2 Production of Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) from

Construction and Demolition Waste

Coarse recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is produced by recycling construction and

demolition (C&D) waste, which consists primarily of old concrete structures. The process
involves several key steps to ensure the recovery of usable aggregates that meet the quality
requirements for concrete production.

44
 Collection of C&D Waste

Sorting and Separation

Crushing and Screening

Removal of Adhered Mortar and Contaminants

Drying and Final Screening

Quality Control and Testing

Storage and Distribution

Figure 1: Production of Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) from Construction

and Demolition Waste Flow chart

Step 1. Collection of C&D Waste

The first step in producing RCA is to collect demolition or construction waste, typically from
old concrete pavements, buildings, bridges, or other infrastructure. This waste is transported
to a recycling facility (Poon et al., 2004).
Step 2. Sorting and Separation
C&D waste is sorted to remove contaminants such as metals, plastics, wood, glass, and other
non-concrete materials. This sorting is often done manually or with the help of mechanical
equipment like shredders, magnets, and air classifiers. (Tam et al, 2009)
Step 3. Crushing and Screening
C&D waste is sorted to remove contaminants such as metals, plastics, wood, glass, and other
non-concrete materials. This sorting is often done manually or with the help of mechanical
equipment like shredders, magnets, and air classifiers. (Tam et al, 2009)
Step 4. Removal of Adhered Mortar and Contaminants
The next step involves removing the adhered mortar, which consists of hydrated cement paste

45
that bonds the aggregate particles. This is done through various techniques such as:
• Water washing: Using high-pressure water jets to clean the aggregates and remove
mortar. (Khatib et al, 2005)
• Mechanical treatments: Using ball mills or impact mills to remove adhered mortar
through abrasion.
• Acid treatment: Sometimes, mild acid solutions are used to dissolve the mortar without
affecting the aggregate structure (Jiang et al., 2007)
Step 5. Drying and Final Screening
After the mortar removal process, the recycled aggregate is dried to remove moisture and
prevent any reaction in the final concrete mix. The aggregates are then subjected to a final
screening process to ensure uniform size distribution, making them suitable for various
concrete applications. (Poon et al., 2004)
Step 6. Quality Control and Testing
The recycled aggregates are subjected to rigorous testing to ensure they meet the required
standards for use in concrete.
Tests for particle size distribution, water absorption, specific gravity, and the presence of
contaminants are conducted. These tests help determine the quality and suitability of the
RCA for different types of concrete mixes. (Ravindran et al., 2017)
Step 7. Storage and Distribution
Once the RCA passes quality control tests, it is stored in bins or stockpiles according to its
size fractions. It is then distributed to various construction sites for use in producing new
concrete mixtures, replacing natural aggregates in various applications like pavements, non-
structural concrete, and even structural concrete in some cases. (Abdullah et al., 2016)

46
3.3 Production Plant to Produce RA

Figure 2: Process of RA (Source: Influence of acetic acid soaking and mechanical grinding
treatment on the properties of treated recycled aggregate concrete - Abhishek Verma)

47
 Figure 3: Pre-soaking treatment procedures for RCA. (Source: Mechanical and fracture
properties of concrete with recycled concrete aggregates treated with acids and addition of
aluminum sulphate - Forero, J. A.)

3.4 List of Parameters

The parameters involved in acid-treatment of CRCA.
1) Acid Types
2) Acid Concentration
3) Soaking Duration
4) Aggregate Size
5) Ball mill parameters
6) % Preplacement
7) Selection of Mix Design

48
3.4.1 Acid Types
To enhance the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between recycled concrete aggregates (RCA)
and the cementitious matrix, various acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) Include all and phosphoric acid (H3PO4) have been used by researchers. These acids
help remove adhered mortar through chemical reactions that dissolve calcium hydroxide and
other cement hydration products in the old mortar, softening it and facilitating its detachment.
Additionally, acid treatment can etch the surface of RCA, increasing roughness and
improving bond strength with the new cementitious matrix.
Studies summarized in Table 1 demonstrate the effectiveness of these treatments. Tam et al.
(2007) (22) used HCl, H2SO4, and H3PO4 to remove cement mortar remains from RCA via
pre-soaking approaches. Saravanakumar et al. (2016) (18) investigated the effect of HCl,
H2SO4, and HNO3 treated RCA on concrete strength characteristics. Kim et al. (2017)
improved RCA quality using HCl and H2SO4, focusing on the strength characteristics of the
resulting mortar. Kim et al. (2018) (13) assessed the enhancement of recycled aggregate
concrete properties through pretreatment with HCl and Na2SO4. Forero et al. (2024) (2)
analyzed the mechanical and fracture properties of concrete with RCA treated using HCl and
H2SO4, combined with aluminum sulfate. These studies highlight the potential of acid
treatments to improve RCA quality and enhance the mechanical performance of concrete.

Table 26: Acid Type

Factors Variable Title of paper References

Removal of cement mortar remains

HCL/H2SO4/H3PO4 from recycled aggregate using pre- (Tam et al., 2007)
soaking approaches

Properties of treated recycled

(Saravanakumar
HCL/H2SO4/H3PO4 aggregates and its influence on
ACID TYPE et al., 2016)
concrete strength characteristics
Quality improvement of recycled
aggregates using the acid treatment
HCL/H3PO4 (Kim et al., 2017)
method and the strength
characteristics of the resulting morta

49
 Properties enhancement of recycled
aggregate concrete through
HCL/NA2SO4 pretreatment of coarse aggregates – (Kim et al., 2018)
Comparative assessment of assorted
techniques

Mechanical and fracture properties

of concrete with recycled concrete (J.A. FORERO et
HCL/H2SO4
aggregates treated with acids and al.,2024)
addition of aluminium sulphate

3.4.2 Acid Concentration

The concentration of acid used for treating coarse recycled concrete aggregate (CRCA)
significantly impacts its physical and mechanical properties, thereby influencing the
compressive strength of concrete. Moderate acid concentrations effectively remove adhered
mortar without compromising aggregate integrity, improving the bond between the aggregate
and the cement paste. Excessively high concentrations, however, can weaken the aggregate's
structure, while very low concentrations may fail to adequately clean the aggregate. An ideal
range for acid concentration is typically between 0.5M and 2M, achieving a balance between
mortar removal and aggregate preservation.
Wang et al. (2017b) (16) examined acid concentrations of 1%, 3%, and 5%. They found that
moderate concentrations effectively removed adhered mortar, enhancing the quality of the
aggregate and improving concrete performance.
Ismail and Ramli (2013) (21) explored acid concentrations of 0.1%, 0.5M, and 0.8M. Their
findings highlighted that controlled acid treatment significantly improved the engineering
properties of RCA, making it suitable for structural applications.
J.A. Forero (2024) (2) this author treated with acids and addition of aluminum sulphate, acid
concentrations of 0.3M, 0.1M, and 3M were tested. The results demonstrated that appropriate
acid treatment enhanced the mechanical and fracture properties of concrete, particularly
when supplemented with aluminum sulfate.

50
 Table 27: Acid Concentration
% Added
Factors Title of Paper Reference
Mol
1%,3%,5 An environmentally friendly method to improve (Wang et al.,
% the quality of recycled concrete aggregate 2017b)
Engineering properties of treated recycled
ACID 0.1/0.5/0.8 (Ismail and
concrete aggregate (RCA) for structural
CONCEN- M Ramli, 2013)
applications
TRATION
Mechanical and fracture properties of concrete
0.3/0.1/3 (J.A. Forero,
with recycled concrete aggregates treated with
M 2024)
acids and addition of aluminum sulphate

Molarity (M) = n / V
where,
“n” is the number of moles of the solute.
“V” is the volume of solution in liters.
(n) = Mass of the solute / Molar mass of the solute
% Adhered mortar loss
Mass of RCA (M1) - mass of RCA after treatment (2) / Mass of RCA RA
(Source: Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for structural
applications) (21).

51
Figure 4: Relationship between amount mortar loss and molarity of acid RA (Source:
Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for structural
applications) (21).

Figure 5: Relationship between amount mortar loss and age of treatment RA (Source:
Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for structural
applications)

52
3.4.3 Soaking Time

studies consistently utilize a soaking duration of 24 hours for treating coarse recycled
concrete aggregates (CRCA) with acid to optimize performance:
• Forero, J. A. (2024): Investigated mechanical and fracture properties of concrete
using acid-treated RCA with aluminum sulfate.
• Babu Lal Chauhan (2023): Explored sustainable RCA development via acid-
mechanical treatment.
• Rohit Prajapati (2021): Analyzed thermomechanical beneficiation of RCA for
enhanced quality.
The consistent 24-hour soaking time indicates its effectiveness in improving RCA properties
while maintaining structural integrity.

Table 27: Soaking Time

Factors Hours Title of Paper Reference

Mechanical and fracture properties of concrete

Forero, J. A.
24 h with recycled concrete aggregates treated with
– (2024)
acids and addition of aluminium sulphate
Sustainable development of recycled concrete Lal
Soaking 24 h aggregate through optimized acid-mechanical Chauhan,
time treatment: A simplified approach Babu - 2023

Thermomechanical beneficiation of recycled Prajapati,

24 h
concrete aggregates (RCA) Rohit - 2021

3.4.4 Aggregate Size

The size of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) plays a significant role in determining the
effectiveness of treatment methods. Various studies have investigated the impact of different
aggregate sizes on the performance of RCA, particularly in terms of physical and
morphological properties, as well as its application in concrete. These studies highlight the
importance of selecting appropriate aggregate sizes for optimal treatment outcomes.
• 5-25 mm (both fine and coarse aggregates): Jiangang Wang (2020) examined the
comparative performance of treatment methods for recycled aggregates in concrete.

53
 (11)
• 20 mm passing, 4.75 mm retained: Babu Lal Chauhan (2023) explored sustainable
development through optimized acid-mechanical treatments. (5)
• 4.75-19 mm retained: Hanaa Khaleel Alwan Al-Bayati (2016) evaluated treatment
methods to enhance physical and morphological properties of coarse aggregates. (17)

Table 29: Aggregate Size

Factors Size Title of Paper References
5 - 25 (fine & Comparison of recycled aggregate
Jiangang Wang,
coarse treatment methods on the performance
(2020)
aggregate) for recycled concrete

20 mm
Sustainable development of recycled
passing and Babu Lal
AGGREGATE 4.75 concrete aggregate through optimized
Chauhan (2023)
acid-mechanical treatment
SIZE retaining

Evaluation of various treatment methods

Hanaa Khaleel
4.75 to 19 for enhancing the physical and
Alwan Al-
mm retaining morphological properties of coarse
Bayati (2016)
recycled concrete aggregate

3.4.5 Ball mill parameters

The use of a ball mill for the treatment of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) has been
explored to optimize the removal of adhered mortar. By adjusting key parameters such as the
number of balls, rotation speed (RPM), and milling duration, it is possible to enhance the
efficiency of mortar removal from the aggregates.
The study by Rohit Prajapati focuses on optimizing these parameters to achieve the best
results for RCA beneficiation, making the recycled aggregates more suitable for use in
concrete production.
Prajapati et al. (2018), In the paper Thermomechanical Beneficiation of Recycled Concrete
Aggregates (RCA), optimized the use of a ball mill with 11 steel balls at a controlled
rotational speed (RPM) and treatment duration. (9)
This approach effectively removed adhered mortar from recycled concrete aggregates,

54
enhancing their quality and mechanical performance. (9)

Table 30: Ball mill parameters

Factors Application Title of Paper References

Milling with 11 balls at Thermomechanical

an optimized RPM and beneficiation of
Ball mill parameters Prajapati et al. (2018)
duration to enhance recycled concrete
adhered mortar removal. aggregates (RCA)

3.4.6 Percentage Replacement

The application of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) in concrete is subject to specific
replacement limits based on various standards and institutions. These limits ensure that the
concrete maintains adequate strength and durability. Below is a summary of RCA
replacement limits according to different concrete applications and standards:
1. IS 383-2016 (India)
o Plain Concrete: Up to 25% RCA replacement is allowed.
o Reinforced Concrete (up to M-25): Up to 20% RCA replacement is
permissible.
o Lean Concrete (up to M-15): A maximum of 100% RCA replacement is
allowed, making it suitable for non-structural applications.
2. American Concrete Institute (ACI)
o The ACI guidelines specify a maximum of 100% RCA replacement, with no
specific limitation on the type of concrete, reflecting flexibility in using RCA
for a wide range of applications.
3. British Standard Institution (BS 8500-2 2006)
o For coarse concrete mixes (20-40 MPa), a 20% RCA replacement is
recommended to maintain the structural integrity of the concrete.

55
 Table 31: Percentage Replacement
Max
Factors Application Institution replaceme
nt
PLAIN CONCRETE 25
REINFORCED CONCRETE (UP TO IS 383-2016
20
M-25) (INDIA)
LEAN CONCRETE (UP TO M-15) 100

AMERICAN
% NOT SPECIFIED CONCRETE 100
PREPLACEMENT INSTITUTE

BRITISH
STANDARD
COARSE (20-40) MPA INSTITUTIO 20
N (BS 8500-2
2006)

Figure 6: Maximum Utilization – IS 383 -2016

56
3.4.7 Selection of Mix design
M25 grade of concrete is used as per the Indian standard code IS 10262

3.5 Test of Physical Test of RA

• Water absorption
• Specific Gravity
• Adhered mortar content (Before and After beneficiation)
• Gradation
3.5.1 Water absorption
Standard: IS 2386 (Part 3)-1963

Test procedure:

➢ A representative sample of the recycled aggregate is taken.

➢ The sample is oven-dried to a constant weight.

➢ The dry weight is recorded.

➢ The sample is immersed in water for a specified duration (usually 24 hours).

➢ The saturated surface dry (SSD) weight is determined by removing surface water.

➢ The water absorption percentage is calculated using the formula:

Water Absorption (%) = ((SSD weight - Dry weight) / Dry weight) x 100

3.5.2 Specific Gravity

Standard: IS 2386 (Part 3)-1963

Test procedure:

• The specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal
volume of water. It's a measure of the material's quality or strength, with aggregates with
higher specific gravities generally being stronger. The specific gravity of aggregates
typically used in construction is around 2.5 to 3.0, with an average of 2.68. The bulk
specific gravity of recycled aggregates is usually between 2.3 and 2.6.
• Here are some steps for testing the specific gravity of aggregates:

➢ Place the aggregate in a shallow tray in an oven at a temperature of 100–110°C

57
 ➢ Maintain the temperature for 24–1/2 hours

➢ Remove the aggregate from the oven and cool it in an airtight container

➢ Weigh the aggregate

3.5.3 Adhered mortar content
Standard: IS 10262 - 2009

Test procedure:

➢ Take a representative sample of the recycled aggregate.

➢ Weigh the sample accurately.
➢ Immerse the sample in a dilute acid solution (like hydrochloric acid) for a specified
duration to dissolve the adhered mortar.
➢ Rinse the sample thoroughly to remove residual acid.
➢ Dry the sample completely.
➢ Re-weigh the sample.
➢ Calculate the weight loss, which represents the percentage of adhered mortar content.

3.5.4 Gradation
Standard: IS 383:2016

Test method: Sieve analysis

Test procedure:

➢ Take a representative sample of the recycled aggregate.

➢ Weigh the sample and then sieve it through a series of standard sieves with
progressively smaller openings.
➢ Calculate the percentage of material retained on each sieve.
➢ Compare the results with the specified gradation limits for the intended use of the
recycled aggregate.

58
 Figure 7: Percentage passing Coarse Aggregate – IS 383 -2016

3.6 Test of Mechanical Properties RCA

• Compressive strength
• Tensile strength
• Flexural strength
3.6.1 Compressive Strength
Standard: IS 516 (Part 1/Sec 1) : 2021
Specimen type: Concrete cubes
Testing procedure:
➢ Compressive strength test is performed on the cubes using a compression testing
machine.
➢ Prepare a concrete mix with the proportions suggested Such as: 1: 2: 4 with w/c =
0.55 by mechanical mixer.
➢ Prepare three testing cubes; make sure that they are clean and greased or oiled thinly.
➢ Metal molds should be sealed to their base plates to prevent loss of water.
➢ Fill the cubes in three layers, tamping each layer with (35) strokes using a tamper.
➢ Fill the molds completely, smooth off the tops evenly, and clean up any concrete
outside the cubes.
➢ Leave the specimens in the curing room for 24 hours.
➢ After that open the molds and immerse the concrete cubes in a water basin for 7 days
or 28 days.

59
➢ Before testing, ensure that all testing machine bearing surfaces are wiped clean.
➢ Carefully center the cube on the lower platen and ensure that the load will be applied
to two opposite cast faces of the cube.
➢ Without shock, apply and increase the load continuously at a nominal rate within the
range of (0.2 N/mm2.s to 0.4 N/mm2.s ) until no greater load can be sustained.
➢ The compressive strength is given by the equation:
fc = F/Ac
Where,
f c = compressive strength, in MPa
F = maximum load, in N
Ac = cross-sectional area, in mm2, of the specimen on which the compressive force
acts.

Figure 8: Satisfactory Failure of cube Specimens

60
 NOTE: T = TENSILE CRACK

Figure 9: unsatisfactory Failure of cube Specimens

Figure 10: Satisfactory Failure of cylindrical Specimens

61
3.6.2 Tensile Strength
Standard: IS 516 (Part 1/Sec 1) : 2021
Testing procedure:
• Test known as tensile splitting strength
• Shall be confirm to BS 1881 Part 117
• The testing machine shall comply with BS 1881 : Part 115
• Use hardboard packing strips between the specimen and steel loading pieces. Packing
strips shall be of oil tempered grade hardboard complying with BS 1142 and shall be
used only once (see figures 1 (a) and (b)).
Width: a = 15 ± 2 mm
Thickness: t = 4 ± 1 mm
Length: greater than the length of the line of contact of the test specimen.
• Steel loading pieces shall be auxiliary platens incorporating steel strips with the
following dimensions (see figure 2 (c)):
• Width: a = 6 ± 1 mm for 150 mm size specimens, 4 ± 1 mm for 100 mm size
specimens, thickness: t = 4 ± 1 mm, length: not less than the length of the line of
contact with the test specimen.
• Place a steel loading piece between the platen of the machine and the hardboard
packing strip
• For cubic and prismatic specimens, it shall be a section of a cylinder, with radius 75
mm (see figures 1 (a) and (b))
• Positioning of the test specimen (see figure 1). Place the test specimen in the
centering jig with packing strips and/or loading pieces carefully positioned along the
top and bottom of the plane of loading of the specimen place the jig in the machine
so that the specimen is located centrally.
• In the case of prismatic and cubic specimens, the load shall be applied on the molded
faces in such a way that the fracture plane will cross the trowelled surface (see figure
2).
• Ensure that the upper platen is parallel with the lower platen with cylindrical
specimens.
• Without shock, apply and increase the load continuously at a nominal rate within the

62
 range 0.02 N/mm² s) to 0.04 N/mm² s).
• The measured splitting tensile strength fc , of the specimen shall be calculated to the
nearest 0.05 N/mm2 using the following formula:
a) For cylinders
fc = 2P/πld
b) For cubes
fc = P/2l2
where,
P= maximum load applied to specimen, in N
l = length of cylinder/side of the cube, in mm
d = cross sectional dimension of cylindrical specimen, in mm.

63
 Figure 11: Jig For Splitting cylinder and cube

Figure 12: alternate apparatus For Splitting cubes

Figure 13 plane of loading

64
3.6.3 Flexural strength
Standard: IS 516 (Part 1/Sec 1): 2021
Testing procedure:
• Test specimens stored in water at a temperature of 24° to 30°C for 48 hours before
testing, shall be tested immediately on removal from the water whilst they are still in
a wet condition.
• The dimensions of each specimen shall be noted before testing.
• No preparation of the surfaces is required.
• Placing the Specimen in the Testing Machine
• The bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers shall be wiped clean, and
any loose sand or other material removed from the surfaces of the specimen where
they are to make contact with the rollers.
• The specimen shall then be placed in the machine in such a manner that the load shall
be applied to the uppermost surface as cast in the mould, along two lines spaced 20.0
or 13.3 cm apart.
• The axis of the specimen shall be carefully aligned with the axis of the loading device.
• No packing shall be used between the bearing surfaces of the specimen and the
rollers.
• The load was then applied without shock and increasing continuously at a rate such
that the extreme fibre stress increases at approximately 7 kg/sq cm/min, that is, at a
rate of loading of 4KN per minute for 15 cm specimen and 1.80KN per minute for
10 cm specimen.
• The load was increased until the specimen failed and the maximum load applied to
the specimen during the test was recorded.
• The appearance of the fractured faces of concrete and any unusual features in the type
of failure were also noted. The flexural strength of the specimen expressed as the
modulus of rupture was the found from the formula,
fb= p x l / b x d²
• If the fracture initiates in the tension surface within the middle third of the span
length.

65
 Figure 14: test Setup

Figure 14: types of Failure pattern

66
CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY

67
 CHAPTER
4. METHODOLOGY
This study investigates the impact of acid beneficiation on recycled concrete aggregate
(RCA) properties and its subsequent influence on concrete performance. The methodology
is outlined as follows:
STEP 1. Literature Review
• A detailed review of existing studies was conducted to identify critical parameters
for acid beneficiation, including:
• Optimal acid types and concentrations (e.g., H₂SO₄ and HCl).
• Process variables such as soaking duration and ball mill parameters (e.g., RPM, ball-
to-aggregate size ratio).
• Previous experimental findings related to the improvement of RCA properties
through acid treatment.
STEP 2. Selection of Experimental Parameters
• Based on the literature and expert consultation, the following parameters were
selected:
• Acid type: HCl.
• Acid concentration: 0.8 M.
• Soaking duration: 24 h.
• Aggregate size (NMS): Aggregate retained on 20 Mm IS sieve.
• Ball mill parameters: Milling with 11 balls at an optimized RPM and duration to
enhance adhered mortar removal.
• % Replacement coarse recycled concrete aggregate: 20 %
• Mix deign: M - 25
STEP 3. Acid Treatment Process
• RCA was immersed in the selected acid solution for the for 24 h soaking duration.
• Post-soaking the aggregates were processed in a ball mill to aid in adhered mortar
removal.

68
 • The milling duration and RPM were optimized based on the yield of fines (<150/300
µm) or changes in water absorption.
STEP 4. Washing and Neutralization
• Acid-treated aggregates were thoroughly washed with water to remove residual acid.
• Prolonged soaking in water was avoided instead, washing was performed until
neutralization was confirmed.
STEP 5. Aggregate Testing and Characterization
• Both beneficiated and un-beneficiated aggregates were tested to determine:
1) Water absorption
2) Specific gravity
3) Adhered mortar content (before and after beneficiation)
4) Gradation
STEP 6. Concrete Mix Design
• A standard M25 mix design was prepared using both beneficiated and un-
beneficiated aggregates.
• The mix design was adjusted to account for the increased water absorption of the
beneficiated aggregates (approximately 80-90% of their absorption capacity).
• Other mix parameters were kept consistent with standard M25 guidelines.
STEP 7. Concrete Casting and Testing
• Concrete specimens were cast using both types of aggregates.
• The following properties were evaluated:
• Hardened concrete properties:
1) Compressive strength
2) Split tensile strength
3) Flexural strength.
STEP 8. Data Analysis and Interpretation
• The changes in RCA properties, specifically adhered mortar reduction, were
correlated with the fresh and hardened concrete properties.
• The performance of concrete made with beneficiated aggregates was compared
against that of un-beneficiated aggregates to assess the benefits of acid beneficiation.

69
STEP 9. Reporting and Conclusion
• Results were documented, focusing on the relationship between adhered mortar reduction
and concrete strength improvements.
• The findings provide insights into the effectiveness of acid beneficiation for enhancing RCA
usability in sustainable concrete production.

70
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71
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APPENDIX

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 APPENDIX II
REVIEW CARDS

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