UNIT 1

STATE OF ART IN AIRPLANE DESIGN

AVIATION

Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics (especially heavier-than-air

aircraft) in

1. Design
2. Development
3. Production
4. Operation
5. Use of Aircraft

Aviation

Civil Military

Civil aviation

Civil aviation includes all non-military flying, both general aviation and scheduled
air transport.

Air transport :Scheduled civil flying(Airline)

General aviation :All non-scheduled civil flying (both private and commercial)

Military Aviation

Military aviation is the use of military aircraft and other flying machines for the
purposes of
1. Conducting or enabling aerial warfare,
2. Including national airlift (air cargo) capacity to provide logistical supply to
forces.
 Fighter aircraft's primary function is to destroy other aircraft.
 Ground attack aircraft are used against tactical earth-bound targets.
 Bombers are generally used against more strategic targets, such as factories and
oil fields.
 Transport aircraft are used to transport hardware and personnel.
  Surveillance and reconnaissance aircraft obtain information about enemy
forces.
 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used primarily as reconnaissance fixed-
wing aircraft, though many also carry payloads.
 Missiles deliver warheads, normally explosives, but also things like leaflets.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The process of design of a device or a vehicle, in general involves the useof

knowledge in diverse fields to arrive at a product that will
o satisfy requirements regarding functional aspects,
o operational safety and cost.

The design of an airplane, which is being dealt in this course, involves

synthesizing knowledge in areas like
o aerodynamics,
o structures,
o propulsion,
o systems
o manufacturing techniques.
The aim is to arrive at the configuration of an airplane, which willsatisfy aforesaid
requirements.
The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the
following.
a) Obtaining the specifications of the airplane, selecting the type and determining
the geometric parameters.
b) Selection of the power plant.
c) Structural design and working out details of construction.
d) Fabrication of prototype.
e) Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural integrityfrom flight
tests.
The completion of the design of an airplane in a reasonable period of time requires a
large body of competent engineers specialized in various areas.

Help is also needed from research laboratories to try out and give new ideas and for
testing of different components. For example,
 Laboratories of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) in USA;
 ARC(Aeronautical Research Council) in UK;
 ONERA (Office National detrudes et de Researches Aerospatiales) in France;
 DFVLR (Deutsche Forschongs and Versuchsanstalt furLuft-und Raumfahrt, now
DLR) in Germany;
 NAL (National Aerospace Laboratories) in India, are some of the agencies
carrying out Aerospace research.
However, the work of all these must be coordinated by the design bureau. The final design
is a compromise between conflicting requirements so that optimum results are obtained
from the point of view of design criteria.
  STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN

The design process can be divided into the following three stages.
a) Project feasibility study.
b) Preliminary design.
c) Design project

a) Project feasibility studies:

The aim of this study is to evolve a complete set of specifications for the airplane. It
involves the following steps.
1) Comprehensive market survey to assess the number of airplanes needed.
2) Study of the operating conditions for the proposed airplane. These conditions
include
(a) landing field length,
(b) type of landing field,
(c) weather conditions inflight and near landing sites
(d) visibility.
3) Study of the relevant design requirements as laid down by the civil and military
regulating agencies.
Some of the regulating agency for civil airplanes are:
 FAA(Federal Aviation Administration) in USA;
 EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency)in Europe;
 DGCA (Director General of Civil Aviation) in India.
 The military airplanes are governed by more stringent regulations called MIL
specifications in USA.
4) Evaluation of existing designs of similar airplanes and possibility of incorporating new
concepts.
5) Collection of data on relevant power plants.
6) Laying down preliminary specifications which may consist of the following.
a) Performance:
 Maximum speed,
 Maximum rate of climb,
 Range,
 Endurance,
 Rate of turn,
 Radius of turn,
 Take-off and landing distances.
b) Payload.
c) Operating conditions at the destinations.
d) Maneuverability.

b) Preliminary design
This stage of design process aims at producing a brochure containingpreliminary
drawings and stating the estimated operational capabilities of the airplane. This is used for
seeking approval by the manufacturer or the customer.
This stage includes the following steps.
i) Selection of geometrical parameters of main components based on designcriteria.
ii) Arrangement of equipment, and control systems.
iii) Selection of power plant.
iv) Aerodynamic and stability calculations.
v) Preliminary structural design of main components.
vi) Weight estimation and c.g. travel.
vii) Preparation of 3-view drawing.
viii) Performance estimation.
ix) Preparation of brochure.
It is also called aircraft type specification.

C) Design project

After the preliminary design has been approved by the manufacturer /customer. The
detailed design studies are carried out.
These include the following stages.

1) Wind tunnel and structural testing on models of airplane configuration

arrived after preliminary design stage. These tests serve as a check on the
correctness of the estimated characteristics and assessment of the new concepts
proposed in the design.

2) Mock-up: This is a full scale model of the airplane or its important sections. This
helps in (a) efficient lay-out of structural components and equipment, (b)checking
the clearances, firing angles of guns, visibility etc. Currently this stage is avoided by
the use of CAD(Computer Aided Design)packages which provide detailed drawings
of various components and subassemblies.

3) Complete wind tunnel testing of the approved configuration. Currently

CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics) plays an important role in reducing the
 Number of tests to be carried-out. In CFD, the equations governing the fluid flow are
solved numerically. The results provide flow patterns, drag coefficient, lift
coefficient, moment coefficient, pressure distribution etc. Through the results may
not be very accurate at high angles of attack, they are generally accurate near the
design point. Further, they provide information on the effects of small changes in
the geometric parameters, on the flow field and permit parametric studies.
4) Preparation of detailed drawings.
5) Final selection of power plant.
6) Calculations of (a) c.g. shift (b) performance and (c) stability.
7) Fabrication of prototypes. These are the first batch of full scale airplane.

Generally, six prototypes are constructed. Some of them are used for verifying structural
integrity and functioning of various systems. Others are used for flight testing to evaluate
performance and stability.

 CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES

At this stage, it is helpful, to know about the different types of airplanes.

The classification is generally based on
(a) the purpose of the airplane
(b) the configuration.

An aircraft is a vessel that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters
the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil.
 Method of Lift

Propulsion Based

Classification of airplanes according to function

There are two main types of airplanes viz. civil and military.
 The civil airplanes are categorized as passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports and
ambulance.
 The military airplanes are categorized as fighter, bomber, interceptor,
reconnaissance, and airplanes for logistic support like troop-carriers and rescue
airplane. The military aircraft are often designed to cater to more than one role e.g.
fighter-bomber or interceptor-fighter.

Influence of the function of airplane on specifications/design requirements

The specifications or design requirements of an airplane are decided by its
function.
A passenger airplane should have:
(a) high level of safety in operation,
(b) adequate payload carrying capacity,
(c) economy in operation,
(d) comfort level depending on range and cruising altitude,
(e) ability to fly in weather conditions normally encountered on chosen routes and
(f) Ability to use airfields of intended destinations.
A bomber airplane should have:
(a) range corresponding to the mission,
(b) capacity to carry and deploy intended bomb load,
 (c) high values of speed, endurance, and ceiling
(d) adequate protection against accidental fire.
An interceptor airplane should have:
(a) Adequate thrust to give high
(i) rate of climb, (ii) maximum flight speed and(iii) maneuverability
(b) ceiling 3 to 4 km above that of contemporary bombers
(c) ability to fly in adverse weather conditions and
(d) appropriate armament.

 CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES ACCORDING TO CONFIGURATION

This classification is based on the following features of the configuration.

a) Shape, number and position of wing.
b) Type of fuselage.
c) Location of horizontal tail.
d) Location and number of engines.

a) Classification of airplanes based on wing configuration

Early airplanes had two or more wings e.g. the Wright airplane had two wings
braced with wires. Presently only single wing is used. These airplanes are called
monoplanes. When the wing is supported by struts the airplane is called semi-cantilever
monoplane (Fig.1.2a). Depending on the location of the wing on the fuselage, the airplane is
called high wing, mid-wing and low wing configuration (Fig.1.2b, c and d). Further, if the
wing has no sweep the configuration is called straight wing monoplane (Fig.1.2e). The
swept wing and delta wing configurations are shown in Figs.1.2f and g.
b) Classification of airplanes based on fuselage
Generally, airplanes have a single fuselage with wing and tail surfaces mounted on
the fuselage (Fig.1.2 h). In some cases, the fuselage is in the form of a pod. In such a case,
the horizontal tail is placed between two booms emanating from the wings (Fig.1.2i). These
airplanes generally have two vertical tails located on the booms. The booms provide
required tail arm for the tail surfaces. Some airplanes with twin fuselage had been designed
in the past. However, these configurations are not currently favored.
c) Classification of airplanes based on horizontal stabilizer
In a conventional configuration, the horizontal stabilizer is located behind the wing
(Fig.1.2j).
In some airplanes there is no horizontal stabilizer and the configuration is called
tailless design (Fig.1.2k). In these airplanes, the functions of elevator and aileron are
performed by ailerons’ located near the wing tips. When both ailerons (on left and right
wings) move in the same direction, they function as elevators and when the two ailerons
move in opposite direction, they function as ailerons.
In some airplanes, the control in pitch is obtained by surface located ahead of the
wing. This configuration is called canard configuration (Fig.1.2l).
In conventional configuration the horizontal tail has negative lift and the total lift
produced by the wing is more than the weight of the airplane. In canard configuration, the
lift on the canard is in the upward direction and lift produced by the wing is less than
the weight of the aircraft. However, the canard has destabilizing contribution to the
longitudinal stability.

d) Classification of airplanes based on number of engines and their location

Airplanes with one, two, three or four engines have been designed. In rare cases,
higher number of engines are also used. The engine, when located in the fuselage, could
be in the nose or in the rear portion of the fuselage. When located outside the fuselage the
engines are enclosed in nacelles, which could be located on the wings or on the rear
fuselage.
In case of airplanes with engine-propeller combination, there are two
configurations – tractor propeller and pusher propeller.
 In pusher configuration the propeller is behind the engine (Fig.1.2h).
 In tractor configuration the propellers ahead of the engine(Fig.1.4).

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION

The configuration of an airplane is finalized after giving consideration to

the following factors.
(I) Aerodynamics
(II) Low structural weight
(III) Lay-out peculiarities
(IV) Manufacturing procedures
(V) Cost and operational economics
(VI) Interaction between various features

I) Aerodynamic considerations – drag, lift and interference effects

The aerodynamic considerations in the design process involve the following.
(A) Drag
The drag of the entire configuration must be as small as possible. This
requires (a) thin wings, (b) slender fuselage, (c) smooth surface conditions, and(d)
proper values of aspect ratio (A) and sweep.
 (B) Lift
The airplane must be able to develop sufficient lift under various flight
conditions including maneuvers. The maximum lift coefficient also decides the
landing speed. These considerations require proper choice of (a) aero foil, (b)means
to prevent separation and (c) high lift devices.
(C) Interference effects
In aerodynamics the flows past various components like the wing, the
fuselage and the tail are usually studied individually. However, in an airplane these
components are in proximity of each other and the flow past one component affects
the flow past the others(components). The changes in aerodynamic forces and
moments due to this proximity are called interference effects. The lay-out of the
airplane should be such that increase in drag and decrease in lift due to interference
effects are minimized.
These can be achieved by proper fillets at the joints between (a) wing and
fuselage, (b) tail and fuselage and (c) wing and engine pods.

II) Low structural weight

The weight of the aircraft must be as low as possible. This implies use of(a) high
strength to weight ratio material, (b) aerofoil with high thickness ratio(c) wing with low
aspect ratio (d) relieving loads (e.g. wing mounted engines)etc. The airplane structure must
be strong enough, to take all permissible flight loads and stiff enough to avoid instabilities
like, divergence, aileron reversal and flutter.

III) Layout peculiarities

The specific function of the airplane often decides its shape e.g. the fuselage of a
cargo airplane generally has a rectangular cross section and large cargo door. The height of
fuselage floor should be appropriate for quick loading and unloading.

IV) Manufacturing processes

 During the detail design stage, attention must be paid to the manufacturing
processes. The cost of manufacture and quality control also must be kept in mind.

V) Cost and operational economics – Direct operating cost (DOC) and Indirect
operating cost (IOC)
The total operating cost of an airplane is the sum of the direct operating cost (DOC)
and the indirect operating cost (IOC). The DOC relates to the cost of hourly operation of the
airplane viz. cost of fuel, lubricants, maintenance, overhaul, replacement of parts for
airframe and engine. IOC relates to crew cost, insurance cost, depreciation of airplane and
ground equipment, hangar rental, landing charges and overheads. Thus, for a personal
plane lower initial cost of the airplane may be more important whereas, for a long range
passenger airplane lower cost of fuel may be the primary consideration.

VI) Interaction of various factors

Some of the considerations mentioned above may lead to conflicting requirements.
For example, a wing with an airfoil of relatively higher thickness ratio, has lower structural
weight but, at the same time has higher drag. In such situations, optimization techniques
are employed to arrive at the best compromise.
Data collection
Airplane design is an evolutionary process. The data on existing airplanes, similar to
the proposed design, provide the necessary guidance for arriving at appropriate initial
design values.
The sources of design data are:
1. Jane’s All The World’s Aircraft (Ref.1.21)
2. Books cited in chapter 1
3. www.arnoldpublishers.com/aerodata
4. The Websites of airplane manufacturers such as Boeing, Airbus Industries and
others mentioned.

It may be mentioned that this format includes information about the

following aspects.
(a) General features of the airplane.
(b) Geometrical parameters of the major components of the airplane.
(c) Various types of weights of the airplane.
(d) Performance parameters.

Suggested airplane data sheet

1. General description of airplane

Name of the airplane:
Type of airplane *:
Name of manufacturer and country of origin:
2. Power Plant
Type of power plant*:
Name:
Engine rating*:
Specific fuel consumption: Oil
consumption:
Weight of power plant:
Overall dimensions of engine:
Diameter (m):
Length (m):
Engine centre of gravity:
Special accessories and controls No.
of engines and their locations:
Intake/propeller details

3. Wing
Planform shape
4. Horizontal tail surface

5. Vertical tail surface

6. Fuselage
Length (m):
Length of nose (lnose):
Length of cockpit (lcockpit):
Length of tail cone (tailbone):
Length of payload compartment:
Length of mid fuselage
Upsweep angle Fuselage
closure angle Shape and
size of cabin:
Arrangement of payload and auxiliary equipment:
Cockpit:
Number and arrangement of seats:
Cockpit instruments:
Vision (angle):
Construction and other details:
Length(lf)/wingspan(b):
lnose/lf :
lcockpit/lf:
ltailcone/lf:

7. Landing gear
Type of landing gear*:
Number and size of wheels:
Tire pressure:
Wheel base* (m):
Wheel tread* (m):
Location of landing gears:
Means to reduce landing run and other details:

8. Overall dimensions of airplane

Length (m): Wing span (m):
Height (m): Landing gear wheel tread (m): Landing
gear wheel base(m):

Length/span: Height/span:
Tread/span:

9. Weights
Pay load* (kgf):
Empty weight* (kgf):
Fuel weight (kgf):
Structural weight (kgf):
Disposable load* (kgf):
Landing weight (kgf):
Normal gross weight (kgf):
Maximum gross weight (kgf):
Payload/gross weight:
Empty weight/gross weight:
Fuel weight/gross weight:
Structural weight/gross weight:
Wing loading*:
Power (or thrust) loading*:
10. Performance
Maximum speed (kmph) at sea level:
Maximum speed (kmph) at altitude:
Landing speed (kmph):
Cruise speed (kmph) and altitude (km):
Maximum sea level rate of climb (m/min):
Service ceiling (km):
Range* or radius of action* (km):
Endurance* (hours):
Take-off run* (m):
Landing run* (m):

 Aerodynamic balance: Method of reducing control-surface hinge moment.

 Aspect ratio (A): It is equal to b2/ S, where, b is the wing span measured from tip to
tip perpendicular to the longitudinal axis and S is the gross wing area; gross wing area
includes the wing area inside the fuselage.
• Aspect ratio of vertical tail (Av): It is equal to h2/ Sv, where “h” is height of vertical tail
and Sv is reference area of vertical tail.
• Disposable load: MRW (Maximum Ramp Weight) minus OEW(Operational Empty
Weight).
• Empty weight: Weight of an operational airplane without fuel, payload, crew and other
removable items. OEW (Operational Empty Weight) is also used in the same context.
• Endurance: Time in hours for which the airplane can remain in flight with a given
amount of fuel.
• Engine rating: Output as permitted by regulations for specified use e.g. maximum takeoff
(2.5 and 5-minute rating), climb (30-minute rating),cruise (maximum continuous rating).
• Incidence of horizontal tail (it): Angle between reference

 Incidence of wing (iw): Angle between reference chord of the wing and the fuselage
reference line.
• Landing distance: Horizontal distance covered in descending from screen height and
come to a halt.
• Landing gear types: a) tricycle or nose wheel, (b) tail wheel and c) bicycle.
• Landing run: Horizontal distance covered from the point where the main wheels touch
the ground to the point where the airplane comes to a halt.
• Maximum ramp weight: Maximum weight permissible for an aircraft. It equals MTOW
(Maximum Takeoff Weight) plus fuel allowance for running main engines and APU
(Auxiliary Power Unit) during start, run-up and taxing operations.
 Mean aerodynamic chord (c): It is given by:

 Mean chord (S/b):Ratio of gross wing area to span.

 Offset angle: Angle in plan-view between reference chord of vertical tail and FRL
(Fuselage Reference Line).
 Payload: That part of useful load for which the airplane is designed or from which
the revenue is derived (Ref.1.2).
 Take-off distance: Field length measured from brake-release to the point of
attaining screen height; screen height is generally 15m.
 Take-off run: Field length measured from brake-release to the point where main
wheels leave the ground.
 Taper ratio (λ): Ratio of tip chord (ct) to root chord (cr).
 Thrust loading (T/W): Maximum sea level static thrust divided by MTOW of jet-
propelled vehicle.
 Type of airplane: Main classification is civil and military. Among civil airplanes
there are passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports, ambulance etc.
 In military category there are fighter, bomber, reconnaissance, transported.
 Types of horizontal tail: Important arrangements for the horizontal tailare the
conventional tail, T-tail and cruciform tail. In conventional tail arrangement the
horizontal tail is behind the wing and located on the fuselage (Fig.1.2 f & j). In T- tail
configuration the horizontal tail is located on top of the vertical tail (Fig.1.1a).
Whereas in a cruciform tail the horizontal tail is located midway on the vertical tail
(Fig.A2.2.2). SeeRef.1.18, chapter 4 for other arrangements of tails.

 Types of power plant: piston engine-propeller combination, turboprop, turbofan

and turbojet.
 Types of vertical tail: Generally, airplanes have single vertical tail(Fig.1.7, 1.8 a, 1.8
b and 1.9).

 Twist (ε): Variation in angle of incidence along the wingspan (Fig.A2.1.1).

 Useful load: It is the difference between operational empty weight (OEW)and

maximum take-off weight (MTOW).
 Wheel base: Distance in side elevation between wheel centers of nose and main
landing gears.
 Wheel tread: Lateral spacing between the left and the right main landing gears.
 Wing loading (W/S): Gross weight or MTOW divided by wing area.
 UNIT 2

Preliminary three-view drawing

The preliminary three-view drawing of the airplane gives an idea about the possible
shape and size of the proposed airplane and forms the next step after the data collection.
To draw the preliminary three-view drawing, requires the approximate dimensions of the
wing, fuselage, tail and other components. The following steps are used to get these
ballpark values.
1. The payload is the weight of the items for which the airplane is being designed. This
would constitute (a) the weights of passenger & cargo for a transport airplane, (b)
the weight of the ammunition/special equipment for a military airplane. Depending
on the number of passengers, range etc., the payload can be estimated. For military
airplanes, the payload may be prescribed.
Let, the weightof payload be denoted by Wpay.
2. From the data collection on similar airplanes, the ratio W0 / Wpay, can be chosen; W0
being the design gross weight. Then,W0 = Wpayx(W0 / Wpay)
3. From the data collection on similar airplanes, the wing loading (W/S) is chosen.
Then, S = W / (W /S)

4. From data collection on similar airplanes the aspect ratio (A) of the wing is
chosen. Consequently, the wing span (b) is given by :b = (S × A)1/2
5. The plan form of the wing is chosen from the data collection. Let the taper ratio be
λ.Since, S = b / 2 (cr+ ct) andλ = c t /cr , yields :c r= 2S / b (1+λ) and ct= Crλ Also the
sweep angle (Λ) of the wing can be chosen from the data on similar airplanes.
6. 6. From the data on similar airplanes, choose the ratio (lf / b);lf = length of fuselage.
Then:lf = b × (lf / b)
7. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the cross-sectional size of the
fuselage and the position where payload is located. Also find the ratios lnose/ lf
,lcockpit/ lf and ltailcone/ lf . Obtain lnose, lcockpit and ltailconeas lf is known from step
6.
 Obtain the length of the payload section as difference between lf and thesum of the
lengths of lnose, lcockpit and ltailcone.
8. From the data on similar airplanes choose the values of Sht/ S, Svt/ S. Also choose the
values of aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep for the horizontal and the vertical tails.
In this step, the suffixes “ht” and “vt” refer to the horizontal tail and the vertical tail
respectively.

9. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the values of Selevator/ St,Srudder/
Svt,Saileron/S , Sflap / S , celevator/ cht, crudder/ cvt, caileron/ cwing,cflap/ cwing. Obtain the areas and
chords of elevator, rudder, flap and aileron.
10. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the value of T/ W or W/ P; T is
the engine thrust and P is the engine power. Hence, T = (T / W) × W or P = W / (W / P)
Choose the number of engines to be used and obtain the rating of engine (s).
Obtain approximate dimensions of the engine and the size(s) of the propellers/intake as
appropriate.
11. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the locations of the wing, the
horizontal tail and the vertical tail on the fuselage.
12. From the data on similar airplanes, choose the landing gear type and obtain(wheel
base) / lf and (wheel tread)/ lf. Obtain wheel base and wheel tread as lf isknown.
 Dependence of airplane performance on airplane parameters and
atmospheric characteristics
The airplane performance parameters like maximum speed, maximum rate of climb,
ceiling, range, endurance, rate of turn, take-off distance and landing distance, depend on
weight of airplane (W) wing area (S), drag polar, thrust /power available, fuel weight etc.
This dependence is examined in the following sub sections.
Steady level flight – maximum flight speed (Vmax)
The equations of motion, in standard notations, for this flight are:
Steady Climb – maximum rate of climb (R/C)max
Figure 3.2 shows the forces on an airplane and the velocity vector in a steady climb.
where, PrLis the power required in level flight at a flight velocity V and Pa is the power
available at the same speed .Hence, R/C is proportional to excess power. For a piston
engine airplane,V(R/C)max is approximately equal to Vmp; where Vmpis the speed
corresponding to minimum power in level flight. For a jet airplane, the ratio of V(R/C)max to
Vmd is greater than one and depends on the thrust to weight ratio(T/W); Vmd is the speed
corresponding to the minimum drag in level flight. The expressions for DL and PrL are given
in the previous subsection. Further,(R/C)max is generally prescribed at sea level and hence
ρ in Eq.(3.2) and (3.2a)is equal to that at sea level. Keeping these factors in view the
dependence of (R/C)maxfor a jet airplane can be expressed as :
(R/C)max= f(W, W/S, Ta/W, drag polar)
Absolute ceiling (Hmax):
From the engine characteristics, it is known that the thrust horse power available(THP a)
and the thrust available (Ta) decrease with altitude. Further, at a chosenaltitude the thrust
horse power required (THPr) and the thrust required (Tr) areminimum at flight speeds
which are decided by the drag polar of the airplane. Keeping these in view it can be stated
that (i) for an airplane with engine propeller combination, at absolute ceiling or Hmax, the
power available (THPa)equals the minimum power required in level flight (Prmin) and (ii)
for an airplane with jet engine, at Hmax, the thrust available (Ta) equals the minimum thrust
required (Trmin) in level flight.
i.e.At Hmax, (THPa ) = (Pr)min or (Ta) = (Tr)min
From performance analysis, it is known that,
(Tr) min and (Pr) min in level flight occur respectively at CL corresponding to CLmdand CLmp. If
the drag polar is parabolic,
Range and endurance for airplanes with engine-propeller combination and with jet
engine
Based on the performance analysis the Breguet formulae for range and endurance for
airplanes with engine-propeller combination or jet engine, in standard notation, are given
below. The range is in km and the endurance is in hours.
(a) For an airplane with engine-propeller combination the range (REP) and
endurance (EEP) are:
3.2.5. Turning – minimum radius of turn (rmin) and maximum rate of turn
(ψ max)
turn is greater than that required in level flight (Trturn > Trlevel) and (c) the load factor (n = L
/ W) is more than unity. We note that an airplane (a) is designed for a prescribed value of
nmax, (b) has a value of CLmax depending on its wing design and (c) has a certain value of
(THPa)max or (Ta)max depending on the engine installed. Thus, a turn is limited by CLmax, nmax
and the available thrust or power.
Take off distance (st0)

Figure 3.4 shows the phases of take-off flight. It also shows the forces on the airplane
during the ground run. The equation of motion during the ground run is:

Ground reaction = R = W – L, where ‘ ’ is the coefficient of friction between the ground

and the tires and ‘a’ is the acceleration. Hence,

where, k = 1.1 to 1.3. Hence, higher the value of Vt.o, longer is the takeoff run. Consequently,
for reducing the take off run, low W/S, high CLmax and high T/W or (P/W) are suggested.
The take-off distance (sto) is proportional to take-off run (s1).Hence, for a jet airplane,
For an airplane with engine-propeller combination,
sto= f (W/Pa, CLmax, polar, W/S,μ )
It may be noted that the take-off distance is generally prescribed at sea level.
Landing distance(Sland)
Figure 3.5 shows the phases of landing flight. The estimation of landing distance(s land) is
more complicated than that of st0. However, it depends on the square ofstalling speed in
landing configuration (Vs) and the type of braking system.

Weight Estimation – outline of approach

A good estimate of the gross weight (W0) is necessary for further progress in thedesign
process. Different approaches to estimate W0 are presented in Refs.1.5,1.6, 1.9, 1.12 and
1.18. Here the approach of Ref.1.18 is followed. In the procedure given in chapter 3 of
Ref.1.18, the gross weight (W0) is expressed asthe sum of (a) the weight of the crew
(Wcrew), (b) the weight of payload (Wpayload),
Estimation of empty-weight fraction (We/W0)
Reference 1.18, chapter 3 has analyzed the data on empty weights of differenttypes of
airplanes. When the data are plotted as (We / W0) vs log10(W0) theresulting curves are
roughly straight lines. This suggests that these curves canbe approximated by an equation
of the type:

where, W0 = Take- off gross weight in kgf. The quantities A and c depend on thetype of the
airplane.

3.5 Estimation of fuel fraction (Wf/W0)

The weight of fuel needed depends on the following.
I. Fuel required for mission.
II. Fuel required as reserve.
 III. Trapped fuel which cannot be pumped out.
The fuel required for the mission depends on the following factors.
a) Mission to be flown.
b) Aerodynamics of the airplane viz. (L / D) ratio.
c) SFC of the engine.

3.5.1 Mission profile

a) Simple mission: For a transport airplane the mission profile would generallyconsist of
(a) warm up and take off, (b) climb, (c) cruise, (d) descent, (e) loiterand (f) landing(Fig.3.6).
Sometimes the airplane may be required to go toalternate airport if the permission to land
is refused. Allowance also has to bemade for head winds encountered en-route.

As additional examples of the mission profiles the following three cases can becited.
(a) A trainer airplane, after reaching the specified area, may perform variousmaneuvers
and return to the base.
(b) An airplane on a humanitarian mission may go to the desired destination,drop food
and relief supplies and return to the base.
(c) In some advanced countries the doctors from cities fly to the remote areas,examine the
patients and fly back.
ii) The various segments of the mission can be grouped into the following
fivecategories.
(a) Warm up, taxing and take-off.
(b) Climb to cruise altitude.
(c) Cruise according to a specified flight plan. This item is covered under the
 topic of “Range” in “Performance analysis”.
(d) Loiter over a certain area for a specified period of time. This item is covered
under the topic “Endurance” in”Performance analysis”.
(e) Descent and landing.
Weight fractions for various segments of mission
The fuel required in a particular phase of the mission depends on (a) the weight of
the airplane at the start of that phase and (b) the distance covered or theduration of time
for the phase. Keeping these in view, the approach to estimatefuel fraction for chosen
mission profile is, as follows.
i) Let the mission consist of ‘n’ phases.
ii) The fuel fractions for the phase ‘i’ is denoted as Wi / Wi-1.
iii) Let W0 be the weight at the start of the flight (say warm up) and Wn be the
weight at the end of last phase (say landing). Then, Wn/Wo is expressed as:

Estimation of wing loading and thrust loading

Choice of wing loading based on considerations of landing fieldlength, prescribed
flight speed, absolute ceiling, maximum rate of climb, range,take-off balance field length,
specific excess power, sustained turn rate andturbulence. Choice of engine; characteristics
of piston engine, turboprop,turbofan and turbojet engines; propeller characteristics,
selection of propellerdiameter. choice of engines for different ranges of flight speeds.
As pointed out in the beginning of the last chapter, the wing loading (W/S) andthe
thrust loading (T/W) or the power loading (W/P) influence a number ofperformance
items like take-off distance (sto), maximum speed (Vmax) , maximumrate of climb (R/C)max,
absolute ceiling (Hmax) and maximum rate of turn ( max ψ).Thus, the wing
loading (W/S) and the thrust loading (T/W) or power loading(W/P) are the two most
important parameters affecting the airplane performance.The approaches for estimation of
(W/S) and (T/W) or (W/P) can be divided intotwo categories.

(I) In the approach given by Lebedinski (Ref.1.6), the variations, of the followingquantities
are obtained when the wing loading is varied.
a) (T / W) or (W / P) required for prescribed values of Vp, Hmax(R/C)maxandsto.
b) Weight of the fuel (Wf) required for a given range (R).
c) Distance required for landing (sland).
From these variations, the wing loading which is optimum for each of these itemsis
obtained. However, the optimum values of W/S in various cases are likely tobe different.
The final wing loading is chosen as a compromise.

(II) In the approach followed by Raymer (Ref.1.18), (T/W) or (P/W) is chosenfrom

statistical data correlations and then W/S is obtained from the requirementsregarding Vmax,
Rmax, (R/C)max, Hmax, max ψ, landing distance and take-off distance.Finally, W/S is chosen such
that the design criteria are satisfied.
These two approaches are described in the subsequent sections. However,during
the presentation, information from Ref.1.6 and 1.18 and other sources isused as required.
Introductory remarks on approach for choosing wing loading(W/S) and thrust
loading (T/W) or power loading (W/ P)
Derive simplified relations between the chosen performance parameter andthe wing
loading.
(ii) Obtain the wing loading which satisfies/optimizes the chosen parameter e.g.landing
distance, thrust required for Vp, fuel required for range.
(iii) Examine the influence of allowing small variations in wing loading from theoptimum
value and obtain a band of wing loadings. This would give an estimateof the compromise
involved when (W/S) is non-optimum.
(iv) After all important cases are examined, choose the final wing loading as thebest
compromise.
(v) With the chosen wing loading, obtain (T/W) or (W/P) which satisfyrequirements of
Vmax, (R/C)max, ceiling (Hmax), take-off field length ( to s ) andmaximum turn rate (ψ ). If
the requirements of engine output in these cases arewidely different, then examine
possible compromise in specification. Afterdeciding the (T/W) or (W/P) obtain the
engine output required. Choose thenumber of engine(s) and arrive at the rating per engine.
Finally choose an enginefrom the engines available from different engine manufacturers.
Selection of wing loading based on landing distance.
Landing distance (Sland) is the horizontal distance the airplane covers from beingat
the screen height till it comes to a stop. As seen in Fig.3.5, the approach tolanding begins at
the screen height of 50’(15.2 m). The flight speed at this pointis called ‘Approach speed’
and denoted by VA. The glide angle during approachis generally 3o. Then, the airplane
performs a flare to make the flight pathhorizontal and touches the landing field at touch
down speed (VTD).
Subsequently, the airplane rolls for a duration of about 3 seconds and then the
brakes are applied. The horizontal distance covered from the start of theapproach till the
airplane comes to a halt is the landing field length.
Remarks:
(i) It may be added that in actual practice the airplane does not halt on therunway. After
reaching a sufficiently low speed the pilot takes the airplane to theallotted parking place.
(ii) Landing ground run is the distance the airplane covers from the point thewheels first
touch the ground to the point the airplane comes to a stop.
(iii) VA = 1.3(Vs)land, VTD = 1.15(Vs) land (4.1)(Vs)land is the stalling speed in landing
configuration.Exact estimation of landing distance (sland) is difficult as some phases like
flaredepend on the piloting technique.
. When SIunits are used the relationships are: FAR
23: sland(in m) = 0.35 VA ; VA in m/s
2

FAR 25: sland(in m) = 0.3455 VA ; VA in m/s VA

2

= 1.3 (Vs)land
Guidelines for values of CLmaxof wings with various high lift devices
The value of CLmaxdepends on the following.
a) The geometry of the wing i.e. aspect ratio (A), taper ratio and sweep.
b) Airfoil shape.
c) Flap type, ratio of flap area to wing area (Sflap/S) and flap deflection ( flap).

d) Type of leading edge slat and its deflection.

e) Reynolds number.
f) Surface texture.
g) Interference effects due to fuselage, nacelle and pylons.
h) Influence of propeller slip stream, if present.
 At this stage of preliminary design, the data collection, and the three viewdrawing
presented in chapter 2, give some information about the type of high liftdevices likely be
used on the wing and the amount of wing sweep. Accordingly,the ball - park values of
CLmaxpresented in Table 4.1 can be used. These arebased on data in (a) Ref.4.1, chapter 5,
(b) Ref.1.18, chapter 5 and (c) Ref.1.15,chapter 5.
They can be used for initial estimate of CLmaxfor subsonic airplanes with
unsweptwings of aspect ratio greater than 5.
The quarter chord sweep (Λc/4) has predominant effect on CLmax. This effect can be
roughly accounted for by using the following cosine relationship:
(CLmax)Λ = (CLmax)Λ=0 cos Λc/4 (4.8)
For example, when an unswept wing without flap has CLmaxof 1.5, the same wing
with 300 sweep would have roughly a CLmaxof 1.5 × cos 300or 1.3. Similarly, anunswept wing
with Fowler flap has CLmaxof 2.5. The same wing with 300 sweepwould have
CLmaxof 2.5 × cos 300 or 2.17. With addition of leading edge slat, thiscan go upto 2.43. Figure
4.2 shows CLmaxfor some passenger airplanes. Thesolid lines correspond to the cosine
relation given above. The following may benoted.
(a) The value of CLmaxshown in Table 4.1 can be used in landing configuration.
The flap setting during take-off is lower than that during landing. The
maximum lift coefficient during take off can be taken approximately as 80% of that
during landing.
(b) Do not use the values in Table 4.1, for supersonic airplanes with low aspect ratio
wings and airfoil sections of small thickness ratio. Reference 4.2,section
4.1.3.4 may be referred to for estimating CLmaxin these cases.

Selection of wing loading based on prescribed flight speed (Vp)

With an engine rating satisfying these requirements, a maximum speed (Vmax) of
1.05 to 1.2times the cruising speed is attainable at Hcr.The optimization from the
consideration of Vp, aims at finding out the wingloading which will result in the lowest
thrust requirement (Tvp) for a chosen VpatHp. The steps are as follows.
break-up of drag polar
The drag polar is commonly written as:
The steps to obtain the alternatebreak up of drag polar are as follows.
(1) Noting that the parasite drag (D0) is the sum of parasite drags of the majorcomponents
plus the effect of interference, it can be expressed as:
D0 = (D0)wing+ (D0)fuselage +( D0)nacelle + (D0)ht+( D0)vt+ (D0)etc+ ( D0)int
where, (D0)etcis the parasite drag of components like landing gear, external fueltanks and
armament mounted on the airplane. (D0)intis the incremental parasitedrag due to the
interference between flows past wing and fuselage, tail andfuselage etc.

(2) Some simplification is introduced based on the following considerations.

The parasite drag coefficients for wing, horizontal tail and vertical tail are nearlysame.
Further the areas of the horizontal tail and vertical tail are proportional tothe wing area.
Hence, in Eq.(4.17) the contributions of wing, horizontal tail andvertical tail to CD0, can be
clubbed together. i.e.
(3) The quantities (CDo)fuse, (CDo)nac, (CDo)etc, CDointandSfuse, Snac, Setcdonotchange, when the
wing area changes as a result of the change of wing loading.

Selection of wing loading based on rate of climb (R/C)max

The specifications of an airplane generally include the rate of climb at sea-level.In this
subsection, the wing loading is optimised such that the thrust required isminimum for
the specified rate of climb (R/C)maxor (Vc)max.

Selection of wing loading based on range (R)

If the engine failure takes place duringinitial stages of ground run, then the pilot can
apply brakes and bring the airplaneto a halt. If the engine failure takes place after the
airplane has gained sufficientspeed, then there are two possibilities viz.
(a) apply brakes and stop the airplane,but this may need much longer runway
length than in the case of take-off withoutengine failure,
(b) instead of applying brakes, continue to fly with one engine offand take-off; but
the take-off distance would be longer than when there is noengine failure. These two
alternatives indicate the possibility of a speed, called“decision speed”. If the engine failure
occurs at the decision speed, then thedistance required to stop the airplane is the
same as that required to take-off withone engine inoperative. The take-off distance
required when the engine failuretakes place at the decision speed is called ‘Balanced field
length (BFL)’.BFL is a function oftake-off parameter (TOP)

where, suffix ‘To’ refers to the take-off condition and T = sea level static thrust.Based on
this data the BFL in feet, when W/S in lbs/ft2

For two engined airplane, BFL (in m) = 0.2613 TOP (in N/m2) (4.63) For
three engined airplane, BFL (in m) = 0.2387 TOP (in N/m2) (4.64) For
four engined airplane, BFL (in m) = 0.2196 TOP (in N/m2) (4.65) Wing
loading based on consideration of wing weight
The aim of airplane design is to arrive at a configuration, which satisfies thedesign
requirements, with minimum gross weight. This is achieved by minimizingthe weights of
components like wing, fuselage, etc. It (Ww) depends on wing parameters likeaspect ratio,
taper ratio, sweep, airfoil thickness etc. But it is also proportional toSn where ‘n’ lies
between 0.62 to 0.76 depending on the type of airplane. Thus,higher the wing area, larger is
the wing weight and in turn the airplane weight.Thus, a smaller wing area or higher (W/S)
is suggested by this consideration.
Introductory remarks on selection of wing loading based on specificexcess power
and turn rate
Specific excess energy:
Consider an airplane in an accelerated climb. The equations of motion are:
Energy height and specific excess power

Following observations are made, at this juncture.

(i) An airplane can accelerate only when Ps > 0. But in accelerated level flight, thelift
equals weight and the drag is equal to that in level flight (DL) i.e. Tr>DL;Tr= thrust required.
(ii) From the discussion on turning flight in sub section 3.2.5, it is noted that in aturn
the lift is more than the weight of the airplane and hence drag is more thanthat in level
flight. i.e. Tr> DL.
Sustained rate of turn
, in a steady level, co-ordinated-turn,T-D = 0

A sustained turn is a steady, level, co-ordinated - turn. Depending on theavailable

maximum thrust and choice of q and W/S.
 UNIT 3
Gas turbine engines
A gas turbine engine consists of a diffuser to decelerate the air stream entering the
engine, a compressor, a combustion chamber, a turbine and a nozzle (Fig.4.18a). In some
turbojet engines, an afterburner is incorporated between the exit of the turbine and the
entry of the nozzle (Fig.4.18b).The hot gases leaving the combustion chamber expand
partly in the turbine and partly in the nozzle. The need for three variants of gas turbine
engines viz. turboprop, turbofan & turbojet can be explained by considering their
propulsive efficiencies.
Propulsive efficiency
Propulsive efficiency is the ratio of useful work done by the air stream and the
energy supplied to it. In a gas turbine engine, the velocity of the air stream is
augmented to Vj, the velocity of the jet stream, thereby imparting kinetic energy at the rate
of:

Why turboprop, turbofan and turbojet engines?

The overall efficiency of a gas turbine engine is the product of items like cycle
efficiency, combustion efficiency, mechanical efficiency and propulsive efficiency.
a. The cycle efficiency depends on the engine cycle and in turn on the maximum
temperature / pressure in the engine.
b. The combustion efficiency and mechanical efficiency are generally of the
order of 95%.
c. Thus, propulsive efficiency finally decides the overall efficiency of a gas
turbine engine as a propulsive system.
The variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed provides the reason for
use of turboprop, turbofan and turbojet engines in airplanes operating at different range of
flight speeds. Consider the variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed. For this
purpose, a subsonic jet engine with convergent nozzle is considered. In this case, the Mach
number at the exit would be unity and the temperature of the exhaust gases would be
around 600 K. Under these conditions, Vj, the velocity of jet exhaust would be
around 500 m/s. Using Eq.(4.137), the values of propulsive efficiency obtained at
different flight speeds

1) Turboprop engine

It is observed from Table 4.3 that ηp will be low if a pure jet engine is used at low
speeds. Analysis of Eqs. (4.136) and (4.137) points out that for having adequate thrust and
high propulsive efficiency at low flight speeds, a small increment in velocity should be
given to a large mass of air. This is effectively done by a propeller. Thus for airplanes with
flight Mach number less than about 0.5, a turboprop engine is used.
In this case, the turbine drives the compressor and also the propeller through a
gearbox (Fig.4.19). The gear box is needed because the turbine r.p.m. would be around
15000-20000 whereas, the propeller rotates at about 1000 to 3000 r.p.m. For practical
reasons, the expansion of the gases coming out of the combustion chamber is not allowed
to take place completely in the turbine and a part of the expansion is carried out in the
nozzle. Hence, in a turboprop engine, about 80 to 90% of the total output is produced
through the propeller and the rest 20 to 10% as output from the jet coming out of the
nozzle.
ii) Turbofan engine
As the flight Mach number increases beyond 0.7, the propeller efficiency decreases
rapidly due to the formation of shock waves at the tip of the propeller blade. Hence, for
airplanes flying near Mach number of unity, a turbo-fan engine is used (Fig.4.20).In this
engine a major portion of the power output (about 60%) is obtained as jet thrust and the
rest as thrust from the fan. A fan has a smaller diameter as compared to the propeller and
it is generally placed inside a duct. A ducted fan has a higher propulsive efficiency than a
propeller. It is observed in Fig.4.20 that all the air taken in by the fan does not go through
the turbine. Incidentally the part of the engine consisting of the compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine and nozzle is called ‘Gas generator’. The ratio of the mass of the air that
passes through the fan to the mass of air that passes through the gas generator is called
‘Bypass ratio’. Early turbofan engines had bypass ratio of 1:1. At present, it is around 6.5:1
and is likely to increase in future.
iii) Turbojet engine
At supersonic Mach numbers, up to three, a turbo-jet engine is used. In this engine
entire power output is through the jet thrust.

Characteristics of a typical turboprop engine

As noted earlier, in this engine, a major portion of the output is available at the
propeller shaft (SHP) and a small fraction through the jet thrust (Tj). Hence, the output is
represented as:

where, SHP = shaft horse power available at propeller shaft in kW,

ηp= propeller efficiency
Tj= jet thrust.
The total output of a turboprop engine, also called ‘Equivalent shaft horse power
(ESHP)’, is defined as:

Note:
(i) For the purpose of defining ESHP, the value of ηρ is taken as 0.8. The ESHP
and SHP are in kW.
(ii) Equation would not be able to account for the contribution, to ESHP, of the
thrust produced when the flight velocity (V) is zero or the static condition. In this case and
when V < 100 knots (or 185 kmph), the convention is to define ESHP as follows
ESHP = SHP + (Tj / 14.92) (4.140)
where, ESHP and SHP are in kW and Tj is in N.

For example, a turboprop engine developing SHP of 746 kW and jet thrust of 503 N,
under sea level static condition, would have:
ESHP = 746 + (503/14.92) = 780 kW.
Characteristics of a typical turbo-prop engine are shown in Fig.4.21. It is observed
that the power output increases with flight speed. This increase is due to two factors viz.
(a) the mass flow through the engine (mi =ρ Ai Vi , Ai and Vi being the area of intake, and the
velocity at the intake) increases with flight speed and (b) the pressure rise due to the
deceleration of the flow in the inlet diffuser also increases with flight Mach number.

Characteristics of a typical turbofan engine

In the early turbofan engines the thrust output used to remain fairly constant with
flight speed. In the modern turbofan engines the performance at low speeds and low
altitudes (up to about 5 km) has been improved so that the ratio of the sea level static
thrust and that (thrust) in high speed-high altitude flight is much higher than the early
turbofan engines. The ‘Sea level static thrust’ is the engine output at M = 0 at sea level.
Higher sea level static thrust helps in reducing the distance required for take-off.
Characteristics of a typical turbojet engine
. It is observed that at subsonic speeds the thrust is fairly constant, but it increases
considerably at supersonic speeds. This rise is due to increased ram pressurein the intake,
as a result of the deceleration of the supersonic flow. The Mach number at which the peak
value of thrust occurs depends on the design of the engine.

Deducing output and SFC of engines where these characteristics are not
available directly
The detailed information about engine performance (i.e. variations with altitude and
flight velocity of the thrust (or power) and TSFC (or BSFC) is generally available only in a
limited number of cases. To get the performance of an engine with other rating, scaling of
the available data is carried out. For this purpose, the values of thrust(or power) of the
engine, whose characteristics are known, are multiplied by a suitable factor which will
bring the output of the existing engine equal to the output of the desired engine. It is
assumed that the SFC values will be the same for the two engines. This kind of scaling is
generally applicable for outputs within ± 25% of the output of the known engine
Remarks:
i) In Figs. 4.23 a to d the true airspeed is given in knots; one knot is equal to
1.852 kmph. Further, the speed of sound at h = 0, 15000’, 30000’ and 45000’ is
respectively 661, 627, 589 and 574 knots.
ii) Bypass supersonic turbofan engines are also being considered for supersonic
flight. Reference 1.18, gives, in Appendix E, typical curves for an engine with sea level
static thrust of 30000 lb (133 kN). Similarly Ref.1.16, chapter 8 also presents curves for an
engine with 33000 lb (146.3 kN) sea level static thrust. Figures 4.23a to d also
indicate the values of specific fuel consumption (TSFC) and the air flow rate.
iii) Figure 4.18b shows an after burner duct between the turbine exit and the entry
of the nozzle. The same figure also shows the fuel spray bars and the flame holder. An after
burner is used to increase the thrust output for a short duration. When the fuel is burnt in
the after burner, the temperature of the gases goes up and the thrust increases, when these
gases subsequently expand in thenozzle. However, the specific
fuel consumption also goes up considerably and the after burner operation is resorted to
only for a short duration like during takeoff or transonic acceleration.

A note on choice of engines for different range of flight speeds

The topic of choice of engine for different types of airplanes is briefly covered in this
section. Some salient points are mentioned to conclude the discussion on engines. The
following five criteria are used to select a power plant for a specific application.

1. Overall efficiency ηo : This quantity is the product of (a) thermodynamic cycle

efficiency ηt (b) combustion efficiency ηc (c) mechanical efficiency ηm and (d)
propulsive efficiency ηp.
The thermodynamic efficiency depends on the thermodynamic cycle on which the
engine operates. The details regarding estimation of ηt are available in books on
thermodynamics. However, it is of the order of 40 to 50%. The combustion efficiency and
mechanical efficiency would be around 95. It has been pointed out there that ηp depends on
flight speed or Mach number.
The specific fuel consumption (SFC) is an indication of the overall efficiency. The
piston engine propeller combination would have lowest SFC for Mach number (M) upto
about 0.3. The turboprop engine would have lowest SFC in the range of Mach number

from 0.3 to 0.6 which may extend to M 0.7 with the use of a transonic propeller. The

high bypass ratio turbofans have lowest SFC between for M 0.7 to 1.0 and the low by- pass
ratio ones between M 1 to1.6. Turbojets are more suited for M 1.6 to about 3.5 and ramjets
later upto M 8. It may be recapitulated that a ramjet engine requires another powerplant to
bring it to Mach number of about 1.5.

2. Variation of thrust (or power) with flight speed and altitude:

The shaft horse power of a piston engine does not change significantly with flight
speed. Consequently, the thrust output of this engine decreases significantly with flight
speed or Mach number. The output of a turbofan engine decreases with Mach number,
especially at low altitudes. The thrust of a jet engine is fairly constant at subsonic
speeds but increases considerably at supersonic speeds. As regards the effect of flight
altitude Eq.(4.105) shows that for a piston engine

P/Psl = σ where, σ is the density ratio and the suffix ‘sl’ denotes a quantity at sea level.
For a turboprop engine

(T/Tsl) for turbofan and turbojet engines is also roughly proportional to σ 0.7.

3. Weight of the engine:

The weight of the engine contributes to the gross weight of the airplane and hence
it should be as low as possible. This quantity is indicated by the ratio Wpp /T or Wpp /BHP,
where WPP is the weight of the power plant. This ratio depends on the type of engine and
the engine rating; it (ratio) decreases as the rating increases.
It can be mentioned that the weight per unit BHP for a piston engine is around 9 N
/ kW for an engine with a rating of around 150 kW and about 6 N/kW for a rating of around
500 kW. For a turboprop engine WPP/ESHP is around 2.9 N/kW for rating of 500 kW, 2.3
N/kW for a rating of 2500 kW and 1.4 N/kW for a rating of 7500 kW. For a turbofan engine
the ratio WPP/T could be around 0.25 N/N for a rating of around 100 kN and about 0.15
N/N for a rating of about 250 kN.

4. Frontal area:
The frontal area of an engine contributes to the parasite drag of the airplane. Hence,
a lower frontal area is a desirable feature of the engine. For a given output the piston
engine-propeller combination generally has the highest frontal area. Turboprop, turbofan
and turbojet follow in the decreasing order of the frontal area.

5. Other considerations:
Gas turbine engines have mechanical simplicity as compared to a piston engine.
However, gas turbine engines are costlier than the piston engines as some of the
components of the gas turbine engines operate at higher temperature and RPM. This
requires special materials and fabrication techniques.
Keeping these factors in view, the different types of engine are used in the speed
range / application as given in Table.

Power plant

The power plant consists of the engine or engines, perhaps a propeller (depending
on the type of engine), and the electrical system. It can be located in/on the front of the
aircraft fuselage or toward the rear of the airplane. In multi-engine aircraft, the engines
are typically located under the wings on each side.
 The engine is typically covered by a cowling that helps streamline the flow of air
around the engine and keep it cool.

Pusher configuration

In an aircraft with a pusher configuration (as opposed to a tractor

configuration), the propeller(s) are mounted behind their respective engine(s).

Engine installation considerations

In a pusher configuration, the force provided by the propeller is pushing towards the
engine, rather than away.

To convert a tractor engine and propeller combination to pusher operation it is not

sufficient to simply turn the engine and propeller round, since the propeller would
continue to "pull" driving the aircraft to the rear.

Assuming the engine cannot be run in the reverse direction, the "handedness" of the
propeller must be reversed. The loads on the thrust race (bearings that prevent fore and aft
movement of the crankshaft) are also reversed, because the pusher propeller is pushing
into the engine rather than pulling away from it as in a tractor.

Some modern engines designed for light aircraft are fitted with a thrust race
suitable for both "pushing" and "pulling", but others require a different part depending in
which sense they are operating. Power-plant cooling design is more complex than for the
tractor configuration, where the propeller forces air through the system.
Conventional layout

Conventional aircraft layout has a rear tail (empennage) for stabilization and control.

The propeller may be close to the engine, as the usual direct drive:

 The propeller may be ahead of the tail:

o inside the framework
o in line with the fuselage between tail booms
o above the fuselage on wing
o on nacelle or axial pod or coaxially around rear fuselage
 The propeller may be located behind the vertical tail, under the horizontal tail

 Engines and propellers may be located on wings or on lateral pods.

The engine may be buried in a forward remote location, driving the propeller by
drive shaft or belt:

 The propeller may be located ahead of the tail, behind the wing or inside the
airframe.
 The propeller may be located inside the tail, either cruciform or ducted fan
 The propeller may be located at the rear, behind a conventional tail, a T, an inverted V-
tail, a Y-tail or a cruciform tail.
 The propeller may be located above the fuselage such as a glider with a retractable
propeller.

Canard layout

In canard designs a smaller wing is present at the front of the aircraft. This class
mainly uses a direct drive, either single engine, axial propeller or twin engines with a
symmetrical layout or an in line layout (push-pull) as the famous.
Flying wing and tailless layout

In these installations, the engines are either mounted in nacelles or the fuselage on
tailless aircraft, or buried in the wing on flying wings, driving propellers behind the trailing
edge of the wing, often by extension shaft.

Advantages

 Placing the cockpit forward of the wing to balance the weight of the engine(s) aft
improves visibility for the crew.
 Aircraft where the engine is carried by, or very close to, the pilot place the engine
behind the pilot to minimize the danger to the pilot's arms and legs. These two
factors mean that this configuration was widely used for early combat aircraft, and
remains popular today among ultralight aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAV) and FPV radio-controlled planes.
 A pusher may have a shorter fuselage and hence a reduction in both fuselages
wetted area and weight.
 In contrast to tractor layout, a pusher propeller at the end of the fuselage is
stabilizing.
 When there is no tail within the slipstream, unlike a tractor there is no rotating
prop wash around the fuselage inducing a side force to the fin. At takeoff, a canard
pusher pilot does not have to apply rudder input to balance this moment.
 Efficiency can be gained by mounting a propeller behind the fuselage, because it re-
energizes the boundary layer developed on the body, and reduces the form drag by
keeping the flow attached to the fuselage.

Disadvantages

 A pusher design with an empennage behind the propeller is structurally more

complex than a similar tractor type. The increased weight and drag degrades
performance compared with a similar tractor type.

 To maintain a workable center of gravity (CG) position, there is a limit to how far aft
an engine can be installed. The forward location of the crew may balance the
 engine weight and will help determine the CG. As the CG location must be kept
within defined limits for safe operation load distribution must be evaluated before
each flight.

 When a propeller is mounted in front of the tail, changes in engine power alter
the airflow over the tail and can give strong pitch or yaw changes.

 Pusher engines mounted on the wing may obstruct sections of the wing trailing
edge, reducing the total width available for control surfaces such as flaps and
ailerons.

 Propeller ground clearance and foreign object damage

 The propeller passes through the fuselage wake, wing and other flight surface
downwashes - moving asymmetrically through a disk of irregular airspeed. This
reduces propeller efficiency and causes vibration inducing structural propeller
fatigue and noise.
 In pusher configuration, the propeller does not contribute airflow over the engine or
radiator. Some aviation engines have experienced cooling problems when used as
pushers. To counter this, auxiliary fans may be installed, adding additional weight.
 In case of propeller/tail proximity, a blade break can hit the tail or produce
destructive vibrations leading to a loss of control.
 Engine location in the pusher configuration might endanger the aircraft's occupants
in a crash or crash-landing in which engine momentum projects through the cabin.
 Tractor configuration leaves the rear of the plane as relatively safe working area,
while a pusher is dangerous to approach from behind, while a spinning propeller
may suck in things and people nearby in front of it with fatal results to both the
plane and the people sucked in. Even more hazardous are unloading operations,
especially mid-air, such as dropping supplies on parachute or skydiving operations,
which are next to impossible with a pusher configuration airplane, especially if
propellers are mounted on fuselage.
Tractor configuration

An aircraft constructed with a tractor configuration has the engine mounted

with the airscrew in front of it so that the aircraft is "pulled" through the air, as opposed
to the pusher configuration, in which the airscrew is behind and propels the aircraft
forward. Through common usage, the word "propeller" has come to mean any airscrew,
whether it actually propels or pulls the plane.

Push-pull configuration

An aircraft constructed with a push-pull configuration has a combination of

forward-mounted (tractor) propellers and backward-mounted (pusher) propellers.
Configuration

Push-pull designs have the engines mounted above the wing as Dornier flying boats
or more commonly on a shorter fuselage than conventional one.

Benefits

While pure pushers decreased in popularity during the First World War, the push-
pull configuration has continued to be used. The advantage it provides is the ability to
mount two propellers on the aircraft's centerline, thereby avoiding the increased drag that
comes with twin wing-mounted engines. It is also easier to fly if one of the two engines
fails, as the thrust provided by the remaining engine stays in the centerline. In contrast, a
conventional twin-engine aircraft will yaw in the direction of the failed engine and become
uncontrollable below a certain airspeed, known as VMC.

Design problems

The rear engine operates in the disturbed air from the forward engine, which may
reduce its efficiency to 85% of the forward engine. In addition, the rear engine can interfere
with the aircraft's rotation during takeoff if installed in the tail, or they require additional
compromise to be made to ensure clearance. This is why they are more common on
seaplanes, where this is not a concern.

Engine location
The type of engine mounting and its location play a major role in deciding the
overall drag coefficient of the airplane. A conventional wing mounted engine is chosen as it
facilitates periodic engine maintenance. This is important in airline industry where an
unscheduled downtime could mean considerable loss to the company. The engines are
attached to the lower side of the wing using pylons to reduce drag. The other reason for
choosing a wing mounted engine is that the fuel is stored in the wing and this reduces the
length of the fuel lines. From the data collection of similar airplanes, the engine location is
fixed at 34% of the semi span.
C.G LOCATION &TRAVEL

Wing location along length of fuselage, the longitudinal location of wing is decided
based on the consideration that the c.g. of the entire airplane with full payload and fuel is
around the quarter chord of the m.a.c of wing. For this purpose, the weights and the c.g
locations of various components are tabulated. Then applying moment equilibrium about
the nose of the airplane, the distance of the leading edge of root chord of the wing from the
nose (Xle) is calculated to satisfy the aforesaid requirement. The steps to obtain Xle are
given below. As regards the c.g. locations of wing, horizontal tail and vertical tail it is
assumed that the c.g. is at 40% of the respective m.a.c. The fuselage c.g. is taken to be at
42% of its length. The engine c.g. location is taken to be at 40% of its length. For this
purpose the distance of the engine c.g. from the root chord is measured for various
airplanes and a distance of 2 m is chosen. All other components (equipments,
furnishings etc.) are assumed to have their combined c.g. location at 42% of the fuselage
length. The tabulated values are given below. The weights of various components and the
c.g. locations are given in table below

C.G travel in critical cases

The movements of the c.g. under various loading conditions are examined below.

Full payload and no fuel

For the case of full payload and no fuel, the fuel contribution to the weight is not
present. However, it has been assumed that the fuel tanks are located such that the c.g of
the fuel is at the quarter chord of m.a.c. of wing. Since the c.g. of the entire airplane is also at
the quarter chord of wing m.a.c., there is no shift in the c.g. when the fuel has been
consumed. Hence, the C.G shift is 0%

No payload and no fuel

For this case, the fuel as well as the payload contributions is not present. Since the
c.g of payload is not at the c.g of the entire airplane, the c.g is bound to shift by a certain
amount in this case. The moment calculations are performed and the new c.g location is
obtained at 14.93 m from the nose. Therefore, the c.g shift: is 14.93 - 14.63 =
0.3 m i.e. 7.28 % of m.a.c.

No payload and full fuel

For this case, since there is no payload, the c.g shifts. On performing calculations,
the new c.g. location is obtained at 14.84 m. Therefore, the c.g. shift is:
14.84 - 14.63 = 0.21 m i.e. + 5.7 % . Hence, the c.g shift is +5.17% of the m.a.c.

Payload distribution for 15% c.g travel

Sometimes the c.g. shift is calculated for hypothetical cases like (a) only half the pay
load concentrated in the front half of the passenger cabin and (b) only half the pay load
concentrated in the rear half of the passenger cabin. These cases result in large shift in c.g.
Hence, an alternate strategy is suggested. According to Ref.7, a total c.g shift of 15% is
acceptable for commercial airplanes. To ensure this, as a first step the maximum payload
that can be concentrated in the front portion of the passenger cabin is calculated such that
a c.g shift of only 7.5% is obtained. It is assumed that the percentage of payload is “x “and
also the payload c.g of to be at x % of the passenger cabin length. Performing the c.g.
calculations yields the value of x to be 90%.As a second step, similar calculations are
performed, such that the maximum payload that can be concentrated at the rear half of
the passenger cabin resulting in a c.g shift of only 7.5 %. On performing the calculation,
a value of 70% is obtained for x. Hence, the
c.g locations for various critical cases and payload distributions have been calculated.
Location of engines
i) Engine under pylons (Podded Engine)
ii) Inside the root portion of the wing
iii) Outside the rear fuselage
iv) Engine below wing
v) Engine above wing
vi). Engine at aft fuselage or tail

1) Engine under pylons

A pylon connects the engine to the airframe of an aircraft. This design
uses air passing through the pylon to actively disrupt the jet engine exhaust stream
after it exits the engine, disrupting and redistributing the axial and azimuthal
distributed sources of jet noise from the aircraft.

Pylon: The thing between the engine and the wing.

Nacelle: The thing that covers the engine.

The cowlings are the removable/ openable parts of the nacelle, as depicted in green
in the image below. The parts in blue are not openable, hence they are just called the
nacelle.

A pylon is a rigid structure used to hold the heavy aircraft engine in its place and
position under (or over, occasionally) an aircraft's wing, without interfering with the
airflow over and under the aircraft wing that is needed for lift and control. The nacelle is
the streamlined housing that supports, contains and protects the aircraft engine.

A podded engine is a jet engine in a pod, typically attached below the wing or to the tail of
the aircraft. .The further the engines are away from the fuselage the greater the
wing bending relief so engines buried in the wing root provide little relief.

Advantages in engine under pylon

 The weight of wing structure decreases by 15-20 %as the wing is relieved by
the weight of the engines
 The space inside the wing is utilized for fuel storage, maintenance,
inspection and replacements are facilitated
 The wing structure is free from the heat from the engines, and better fire
safety can be achieved.
Disadvantages
a) Failure of outboard engine creates a large yawing moment. This moment has to
be counted by rudder deflection which results in higher drag.
b) Smaller ground clearance increases the possibility of foreign particles
entering the engines.
c) The noise level in the cabin is 5 db higher as compared to airplanes having
engines on the rear fuselage.
2. Engines located in the wing root
Advantages
There is very little increase in frontal area due to installation of power plants.
Almost the entire wing span can be used for ailerons and high lift devices
Disadvantages
The weight of the wing is high due to the cut portion in the wing spars to
accommodate engine
The weight of the power plant is high due to the long air ducts.
The intake is located at a place where the air flow is not clear.
The space in the root cannot be used for fuel accommodation.

3. Engine located on the rear fuselage

Advantages
There is less noise in the cabin and the fuselage The
entire wing can be used for fuel storage
The whole wing space can be used for high lift devices and ailerons Fire
hazard is minimum.
The actual wing does not deviate from the design profile and the wing is clean.
Disadvantages
The fuel is located far from the engines, therefore the length of the pipe line is
increased and special fuel pumps should be provided.
 Due to power plant weight at the tail, longer fuselage is provided ahead of the
wing which requires larger vertical and horizontal stabilizers.

4. Engine below wing:

Some Advantages
Less engine noise
Inertial relief (lighter wing structure weight)
Easy alternative to solve wing flutter problems by shifting the
engine mass enough forward
Easy access for engine repair and overhaul
Undisturbed inlet flow for the engine inlet
Might be safer in case of engine fire

Some Disadvantages
May require longer landing gear
More chances of ingestion of debris from the runway during Take Off.

5. Engine above wing:

Some Advantages
Less engine noise
Inertial relief (lighter wing structure weight)
 Easy alternative to solve wing flutter problems by shifting the
engine mass enough forward
Less long landing gear required
Can have a positive influence on maximum lift capability in
short take off runs (shorter TO distances)

Some Disadvantages
Less chances of ingestion of debris from the runway during
Take Off
Disturbed air flow (shock waves possible and also possible
wing boundary layer ingestion) to the inlet possible especially at high angles of
attack
Less accessible for engine repair and overhaul

6. Engine at aft fuselage or tail:

Some Advantages
Less long landing gear required
Less chances of ingestion of runway debris during Take Off
Looks more esthetical

Some Disadvantages
Disturbed air flow to the inlet possible especially at high
angles of attack
More engine noise
Maybe smaller aircraft W-CG limits constraints
No structure weight saving due to inertial relief
Usually requires a T-tail which is heavier in construction and
has the potential for dangerous stall characteristics (deep stall)
Discussion:

Why are the engines so far in front of the wings on modern airliners? What
advantages does it provide over putting the engines under the wings? Doesn’t the
exhaust damage the wing?
Wing mounted engines have always been placed in front of the wing. The engine
nacelle of a piston engine or turbine engine propeller driven airplane has the engine
mounted completely in front of the wing. The rest of the engine nacelle contains fuel and
luggage/cargo. This is for balance (for and aft ).

If the wings are at the middle ( for and aft ) . The wings and the fuselage above and
around the centre section of the wing contain the fuel tanks. As fuel is consumed the
airplane becomes lighter but the balance is unaffected because all the fuel weight just
comes out of the centre ( for and aft ) of the airplane. The passenger cabin between the
cockpit and tail plane is evenly balanced by seat allocation. The cargo bays below the
passenger cabin are balanced ( for and aft ) by the load controller before loading
commences. So we are left with a very light cockpit to counterbalance a heavy tailplane.
Ain’t gonna work. Fortunately the very heavy engines are placed slightly forward of the
wing to counterbalance the lighter weight of the tail, a long way back, and everything is in
balance.

In flight the centre of gravity ( weight of the airplane) should be slightly further
forward than the centre of lift. So that in a wing stall situation the slightly nose heavy front
of the airplane will nose down, causing the airplane to descend and speed up and unstall
the wings. If the centre of gravity is aft of the wing it will be impossible to recover from a
stall, and everybody dies. [ sorry I know that I’ve stolen that line from someone else on
Quora, but I love it so much I can’t help myself]

All airplanes are balanced with the centre of gravity (CofG) forward of the centre of
lift. With larger airliners with wing mounted engines, just looking at them in profile, it is
visually obvious. With airliners that have rear mounted engines the wings are mounted
further back, and load controllers have a harder job to get the balance right.

With smaller airplanes it is not as visually obvious. It looks like there is a lot of
airplane behind the wing and not much in front, but when you consider that the rear
fuselage and tail plane is hollow, empty, and light; and the engine is solid and heavy, you
realize that, though it doesn’t look it, the airplane really is properly balanced around the
wing. Singles have the engine in front of the cockpit and thus fairly forward of the wing.
Twins have two engines forward of the wing. Not as far forward as singles but there are 2
of them, so twice the weight.

All the other answers provided give valid secondary reasons, but the main reason
for mounting wing mounted engines forward of the wing is for balance, plain and simple.

With the mounting position of the engines decided, the designers then have to
ensure that issues like what happens to the hot exhaust, etc, are all remedied before
the design is finalized.
 UNIT 4

4.1 Airfoil selection

The usual practical is to choose the airfoil from the large number of airfoils whose
geometric and aerodynamic characteristics are available in the aeronautical literature. To
enable such a selection, it is helpful to know the aerodynamic and geometrical characteristics of
airfoils and their nomenclature.
An airfoil-shaped body moving through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The component
of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift.

Types of airfoil:
1) Symmetrical Airfoil:
The symmetrical airfoil is distinguished by having identical upper and lower surfaces.
2) Nonsymmetrical Airfoil (Cambered):
The nonsymmetrical airfoil has different upper and lower surfaces, with a greater curvature of
the airfoil above the chord line than below.

Geometrical characteristics of airfoils

The camber line or the mean line is the basic line for definition of the aerofoil shape. The
line joining the extremities of the camber line is the chord. The leading and trailing edges
are defined as the forward and rearward extremities, respectively, of the mean line. Various
camber line shapes have been suggested and they characterize various families of airfoils. The
maximum camber as a fraction of the chord length (Yc max/C) and its location as a fraction of
chord (Xyc max/C) are the important parameters of the camber line. Various thickness
distributions have been suggested and they characterize different families of airfoils. The
maximum ordinate of the thickness distribution as fraction of chord (Yt max/C) and its
location as fraction of chord (Xyt max/C) are the important parameters of the thickness
distribution.

Airfoil nomenclature:
Early airfoils were designed by trial and error. Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), UK
and Gottingen laboratory of the German establishment which is now called DLR (Deutsches
Zentrum fϋr Luft-und Raumfahrt – German Centre for Aviation and Space Flight)
 UNIT 4

were the pioneers in airfoil design. the developments in airfoil theory and boundary layer
theory, NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) of USA systematically designed
and tested a large number of airfoils in 1930’s. These are designated as NACA airfoils
 UNIT 4

a) NACA four-digit series airfoils:

The maximum thickness of all four-digit airfoils occurs at 30% of chord. In the designation of
these airfoils, the first two digits indicate that the camber is zero and the last two digits indicate
the thickness ratio as percentage of chord.
b) NACA five-digit series airfoils:
During certain tests it was observed that CL max of the airfoil could be increased by shifting
forward the location of the maximum camber. This finding led to development of five-digit
series airfoils. The same thickness distribution was retained as that for NACA four-digit series
airfoils. (For example: A typical five-digit cambered airfoil is NACA 23012. First digit
(2) indicates that CL = 0.3. Second & third digits (30) indicate that maximum camber occurs at
15% of chord. Last two digits (12) indicate that the maximum thickness ratio is 12 %.)
c) Six series airfoils:
The development of these airfoils boundary layer transition indicated that the
transition process, which causes laminar boundary layer to become turbulent, depends
predominantly on the pressure gradient in the flow around the airfoil.
Maintaining a laminar boundary layer over a longer portion of the airfoil would
result in a lower drag coefficient. these developments, new series of airfoils called
 UNIT 4

low drag airfoils or laminar flow airfoils were designed 1 to 7 series (NACA 662 - 015)
would have the minimum pressure at x/c = 0.6 when producing zero lift. The suffix ‘2’
indicates that the drag bucket extends ±0.2around CL opt. The digit ‘2’ after the dash
indicates that CL opt is 0.2. Thus in this case, drag bucket extends for CL = 0.0 to 0.4. The
last two digits”15” indicate that the thickness ratio is 15%.

NASA airfoils:
NASA has developed airfoil shapes for special applications. For example, GA (W) series
airfoils were designed for general aviation aircraft. The ‘LS’ series of airfoils among these are for
low speed airplanes. (Ex: LS (1) - 0417. In this designation, the digit ‘1’ refers to first series,
the digits ‘04’ indicate CL opt of 0.4 and the digits ‘17’ indicate the thickness ratio of 17 %.)
How I select the airfoils? First we find the characters.
 What is the maximum airfoil thickness you can afford? A thicker airfoil makes for a lighter
wing with more internal volume for flaps and fuel. However, if you want to operate
your design at high subsonic speeds, thickness needs to be controlled.
 What is the lowest cruise lift coefficient and the highest lift coefficient for a clean wing and
with flaps down? Does your design need flaps at all?
 If the aircraft is small: What Reynolds number is flown at which lift coefficient?
 What is the desired stall behaviour? Docile (as preferred for training aircraft) or snappy.
 What construction technique is used for the wing? Wooden frame and fabric? All metal
with countersunk or exposed rivets? To be built on a jig or on a flat table? Composite, in a
mould or positive over a foam core? All of them have subtle consequences for airfoil
selection

4.2 Selection of wing parameters:

1) Aspect ratio (AR)
An increase in the span would increase the bending moment at the wing root. This
would require higher moment of inertia of the spar and hence higher weight plane. Hence, for

personal airplanes, a moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7 is generally chosen.

 UNIT 4

2) Sweep
A swept wing is a wing that angles either backward or occasionally forward from its root
rather than in a straight sideways direction. The characteristic "sweep angle" is normally
measured by drawing a line from root to tip, typically 25% of the way back from the leading
edge, and comparing that with the perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Typical
sweep angles vary from 0 for a straight-wing aircraft, to 45 degrees or more for fighters and
other high-speed designs, whether swept forward, swept backward, angle of sweep, cranked
wing or variable sweep.
3) Taper ratio:
From these considerations, a taper ratio between 0.3 and 0.5 is common for low speed
airplanes. Some airplane wings have straight central portion.
4) Twist:
Twist is closely coupled to the wing's sweep angle, airfoil camber, taper ratio and the
desired level of static longitudinal stability. Other factors are the desired span wise lift
distribution and maneuverability.
5) Wing incidence:
The wing will pick the angle of attack that is appropriate for the given speed, air density
and the needed lift. This will result in a slightly positive incidence angle. On high performance
airplanes the incidence is set to optimize the lift to drag ratio.
6) Wing area (S):
This is calculated from the wing loading and gross weight. Which have been already
decided i.e. S= W / (W / S)
7) Location of the wing on fuselage: High, Low or mid-wing
8) Aerofoil: Thickness ratio, camber and shape.
9) High lift devices: Type of flaps and slats; values of CL max, S flap/S.
10) Ailerons and spoilers : Values of S aileron/S ; S spoiler/S
11) Leading edge strakes if any.
12) Dihedral angle (Γ).
13) Other aspects: Variable camber, plan form tailoring, area ruling, braced wing,
aerodynamic coupling (intentionally adding a coupling lifting surface like canard).
 UNIT 4

Presentation of aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils

 Lift coefficient (CL) vs angle of attack (α), This curve has four important features viz.
(a) angle of zero lift (α0l ), (b) slope of the lift curve denoted by d CL / d α (or) a 0 or
CLα , (c) maximum lift coefficient (CL max ) and (d) angle of attack (α stall ) corresponding
to CL max .

 Drag coefficient (Cd) vs CL. This curve has two important features viz. (a) minimum drag
coefficient (Cd min) and (b) lift coefficient (CL opt) corresponding to Cd min. In some
airfoils, called laminar flow airfoils or low-drag airfoils, the minimum drag coefficient
extends over a range of lift coefficients (Fig.5.1b). This feature is called ‘Drag bucket’.
The extent of the drag bucket and the lift coefficient at the middle of this region are also
characteristic features of the airfoil. It may be added that the camber decides C L and
thickness ratio decides the extent of the drag bucket.

 Pitching moment coefficient about quarter-chord Cmc/4 vs α. This curve is shown in

Fig.5.1c. Sometimes this curve is also plotted as Cmc/4 vs CL. From this curve, the location
of the aerodynamic center (a.c.) and the moment about it (Cmac) can be worked out. It
may be recalled that a.c. is the point on the chord about which the moment coefficient is
independent of CL.
Effect of geometric parameters, Reynolds number and roughness on aerodynamic
characteristics of airfoils
The important aerodynamic characteristics of airfoil from the point of view of design
are angle of zero lift (αol), maximum lift coefficient (CL max), stall pattern, minimum drag
 UNIT 4

coefficient (Cd min), lift coefficient corresponding to Cd min which is also called optimum lift
coefficient (CL opt), extent of drag bucket for low drag airfoils, moment coefficient about
aerodynamic centre (Cmac) and critical Mach number. At subsonic speeds these characteristics
are affected by geometrical parameters viz. camber, thickness ratio (t/c), airfoil shape,
Reynolds number and roughness.
These effects can be summarized as follows.
 The camber decides α0l, CL opt and Cmac. For a given family of airfoils, with increase
of camber, α0l and Cmac become more negative whereas CL opt increases.
 (ii) The thickness ratio influences Cd min and Cl max. For a given family of airfoils, the
minimum drag coefficient (Cd min) increases with (t/c). The maximum lift coefficient (Cl
max) is highest for (t/c) between 12 to 16%. The stall pattern is also gradual for these
thickness ratios.
 (iii) The Reynolds number (Re) mainly influences CL max and Cd min. The former (CL max)
increases with Re and the latter generally decreases with Re. the extent of drag bucket
indicated by the nomenclature of the airfoil is at Re = 9 x 106.
 (iv)The surface roughness influences CL max and Cd min. With increase of roughness CL
max decreases and Cd min increases.
 (v)The critical Mach number, in connection with the airfoil, is defined as the “Free
stream Mach number at which the maximum Mach number on the airfoil is unity”. This
quantity can be obtained theoretically by calculating the pressure distribution on the
airfoil, but cannot be determined experimentally. However, when the critical Mach
number is exceeded, the drag coefficient starts to increase. Making use of this behaviour,
the term ‘Drag divergence Mach number (MD) is defined as the Mach number at which
the drag coefficient shows an increase of 0.002 over the subsonic drag value.
 UNIT 4

Choice of airfoil camber

The choice of the airfoil for the airplane wing involves the selection of camber, thickness
ratio and shape of the airfoil. The camber decides the CL opt of the airfoil and the thickness ratio
decides the characteristics like CL max, CD min, drag divergence Mach number (MD), weight of the
wing and the stall pattern. For a good design, the camber should be chosen such that C L opt of
the airfoil is close to the lift coefficient of the aircraft (CL) in the flight corresponding to the
mission of the airplane. This lift coefficient is called design lift coefficient (CL design). In
most of the cases, this would correspond to the cruise flight condition.

Choice of airfoil thickness ratio (t/c)

The following may be noted to understand the effect of thickness ratio (t/c) on the
structural weight of the wing. The wing structure consists of spars (front and rear), stingers and
skin. The spars are like I section beams. The flanges of the “I” section take the bending moment
and the web takes the shear. If the wing section is thicker, then the spar flanges will be away
from the centroidal axis of the section. Now, the bending moment resisted by an ‘I’ section beam
is proportional to the product of the area of the flange and the distance of flange from
centroidal axis. Thus, for a given bending moment, a thicker I beam would require lower area
of flange. Consequently, it would be lighter. Thus, a thicker wing will result in lighter wing.

4.3 Selection of wing parameters and Airworthiness requirements

In this section, the selection of aspect ratio (A), sweep and taper ratio (λ) are
considered.
4.3.1) Choice of aspect ratio (AR)
Aspect ratio affects the slope of the lift curve (CLα), the induced drag (CDi), the structural
weight of the wing and the wing span.
a) Effect of aspect ratio on slope of the lift curve
The slope of lift curve of a wing in subsonic flow for A > 4, is given by:
 UNIT 4

C Lα , decreases as aspect ratio decreases.

b) Effect of aspect ratio on induced drag

The induced drag coefficient (CDi) of a subsonic airplane is given by:

Where, δ depends on wing geometry i.e. aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep.

c) Effect of aspect ratio on structural weight

As the aspect ratio increases the wingspan (b) increases (b= square root of
Aspect ratio and Span). An increase in the span would increase the bending moment at
the wing root. This would require higher moment of inertia of the spar and hence higher
weight.
d) Effect of aspect ratio on span
For a chosen wing area, the aspect ratio decides the span of the wing

In turn the span decides the hangar space needed for the airplane. Hence, for
personal airplanes, a moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7 is generally chosen. Further, the
ride in turbulent weather is poor for a high aspect ratio wing. Hence, agricultural and
other airplanes, which fly in proximity of ground, are subjected to air turbulence and
have moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7.
4.3.2) Choice of sweep
The wing sweep affects the slope of the lift curve (CLα), the maximum lift coefficient C CL
max, the induced drag coefficient (CDi), the drag divergence Mach number (MD), the wing weight
and the tip stalling.
a) Effect of sweep on slope of lift curve
 UNIT 4

From this equation, it is seen that CLα decreases as sweep increases. It can be shown
that CLα of a wing of aspect ratio 9, operating at Mach number 0.8, would decrease by about
20% when sweep increases from 0oto 30o.

b) Effect of sweep on maximum lift coefficient (CL max)

That the CL max of a swept wing decreases in proportion to cosΛ.
c) Effect of sweep on induced drag
The induced drag coefficient of typical jet airplane would be:

It is observed that K and in turn the induced drag coefficient increases as angle of
sweep increases.
d) Effect of sweep on divergence Mach number (MD)
For a swept wing the change in drag divergence Mach number due to sweep angle, is
given approximately by the following equation

where, (M D ) Λ = 0 and (MD ) Λ are the drag divergence Mach numbers of the un swept
and the swept wing respectively; As an illustration consider a wing employing a supercritical
airfoil with MD of 0.78. Ignoring the effects of aspect ratio on MD the value of MD would be 0.78
for a wing with Λ = 0. The increase in MD due to sweep is very significant. Further, when M <
MD, the lift to drag ratio (L/D) is high. Thus, when MD increases the high value of (L/D) can
continue up to higher values of Mach numbers or flight speeds. For jet airplanes the range
increases as flight speed increases. In other words, when MD increases, the range would
increase.

e) Effect of sweep on wing weight

Equation (5.5) shows that the weight of the wing is proportional to (1 / cos Λ). Thus,
the weight of the wing increases as sweep increases.
 UNIT 4

4.3.3) Choice of taper ratio (λ)

The taper ratio influences the following quantities.

a) Induced drag
b) Structural weight
c) Ease of fabrication
It is known that an elliptic wing has the lowest induced drag (δ = 0). However, this plan form
shape is difficult to fabricate. A rectangular wing is easy to fabricate but has about 7% higher C Di
as compared to the elliptic wing (δ = 0.07). It is also heavier structurally. An un swept wing, with
λ between 0.3 to 0.5, has a slightly positive value of δ. Further, in a tapered wing, the span
loading is concentrated in the inboard portions of the wing and the airfoil at the root is thicker
than that near the tip. These factors help in reducing the wing weight. Tip is also not a
problem when the taper ratio is between 0.3 and 0.5. From these considerations, a taper ratio
between 0.3 and 0.5 is common for low speed airplanes.

4.3.4) Twist
A wing is said to have a twist when the chord lines of airfoils at different spanwise
stations are not parallel to each other. The difference between the angles of attack of the airfoil
sections at the root and near the tip is called geometric twist. the aerodynamic twist is the
difference between zero lift lines of airfoils at root and near the tip. Twist is given to prevent tip
stalling

Tip stalling
It is a phenomenon in which the stalling on the wing begins in the region near the wing
tip. This is because the distribution of local lift coefficient (CL) is not uniform along the span and
as the angle of attack of the wing increases, the stalling will begin at a location where the local
lift coefficient exceeds the maximum lift coefficient (CL max) there. To understand this
phenomenon better, an un swept tapered wing is considered. The lift distribution on such a
wing has a maximum at the root and goes to zero at the tip. This distribution is also known as
lift distribution. Further, the local lift (ΔL) can be equated to (1/2 ρV2c CL Δy), where c is the
local chord and CL is the local lift coefficient over an element (Δy
) of span. Thus, lift distribution is proportional to the product c Cl. The local distribution along
the span can be approximately obtained by Schrenk’s method. According to this method, c Cl
distribution is roughly midway between the chord distribution of the actual wing and that of an
elliptic wing of the same area. It can be proved, that for a wing with taper ratio λ , and Clmax
constant along span, the local maximum of CL will occur at a spanwise location (y) where:
y/(b/2) = 1- λ
 UNIT 4

Schrenk’s Method

Typical distribution of Cl

It is known that the maximum lift coefficient (CL max) of an airfoil depends on the airfoil
shape, surface roughness and Reynolds number. For simplicity, it is assumed that CL max is
approximately constant along the span. Then from the distribution of CL, it is observed that as
the angle of attack of the wing increases, the stalling will begin at the span-wise location where
local CL equals local CL max. Subsequently, stalling will progress along the wing span and finally
the wing will stall (i.e. CL of wing will reach a maximum and then decrease). The beginning of
stall near the tip is undesirable as ailerons are located in the tip region. Stalling there would
reduce aileron effectiveness. For a wing of a taper ratio 0.3, the stall is likely to begin around y /
(b/2) of 0.7.

4.3.5) Wing incidence

The mean aerodynamic chord is the reference line of the wing. Fuselage reference line
(FRL) is the reference line for the entire airplane. The angle between fuselage reference line and
the wing reference line is called wing incidence and denoted by iw.
 UNIT 4

For the economy in fuel consumption, the drag should be minimum during cruise. The
fuselage has a minimum drag when its angle of attack is zero. However, during cruise, the wing
should produce sufficient lift to support the weight of the airplane. Keeping these factors in
view, the wing is mounted on the fuselage in such a manner that it produces the required
amount of lift in cruise while the fuselage is at zero angle of attack.
During the preliminary design phase, iw can be obtained as follows.

a) Obtain CL design corresponding to cruise or any other design condition

Where, V correspond to the design flight conditions.

b) Obtain for the wing (for subsonic airplanes) CLα
c) Obtain zero lift angle for wing (α 0L). This depends on of the airfoil used on the wing and
the wing twist.
For an untwisted wing,

α0L = α0lr
where, is the zero lift angle of the airfoil at the root. α olr
the following procedure for a wing with aerodynamic twist of . ε

α = α + J.ε
Where, ε is positive when the airfoil at the tip is at an angle of attack higher than at root.
The quantity J has a weak dependence on aspect ratio and taper ratio of the wing. However, a
value of -0.4 can be taken for the first estimate of α0L. For more accurate estimate of α0L.
e) Calculate iw from the following equation :

/
4.3.6) Dihedral
Its value is decided after the lateral dynamic stability calculations have been done for the
airplane. For preliminary design purposes a value based on data collection can be used.

4.3.7) Wing vertical location

There are three choices for the location of the wing on the fuselage namely, high-, mid- and low-
wing. Figure shows three military airplanes with these locations for the wing. The advantages
and disadvantages of the three configurations are as follows.
 UNIT 4

High Wing configuration

Advantages:
i) Allows placing fuselage closer to ground, thus allowing loading and unloading without
special ground handling equipment.
ii) Jet engines & propeller have sufficient ground clearance without excessive landing
gear length leading to lower landing gear weight.
iii) For low speed airplanes, weight saving can be effected by strut braced wing.
iv) For short take off and landing (STOL) airplanes, the high wing configuration has the
following specific advantages. (a) Large wing flaps can be used.
(v) Engines are away from the ground and hence ingestion of debris rising from
unprepared runways is avoided. (c) Prevents floating of wing due to ground effect which may
occur for low wing configuration.
Disadvantages
i) Fuselage generally houses the landing gear in special pods leading to higher weight
and drag.
ii) Pilot’s visibility may be blocked during a turning flight.

Mid wing configuration Advantages:

i) Lower drag.
ii) Advantages of ground clearance as in the case of high wing configuration.
iii) No blockage of visibility. Hence, used on some military airplanes.
Disadvantages:
Wing root structure passing through the fuselage is not possible, which leads to higher
weight. However, in HFB Hansa airplane, a swept forward mid-wing is located behind the
passenger cabin. This permits wing root structure passing through the fuselage.
 UNIT 4

Low wing configuration Advantages:

i) Landing gear can be located in the wing thereby avoiding pods on the fuselage and
hence lower drag. However, to provide adequate ground clearance, the fuselage has to be at a
higher level as compared to the high wing configuration.
ii) Wing structure can be through the fuselage.
Disadvantages:
(i) Low ground clearance.
(ii) A low-wing configuration has unstable contribution to the longitudinal and lateral
static stability low-wing airplanes the dihedral angle may be decided by need to avoid wing tip
hitting the ground during a bad landing. A wing with high value of dihedral may require higher
vertical tail area to prevent tendency to Dutch roll.

4.3.8) Flaps
The flaps are high lift devices. These devices are deployed to increase the maximum lift
coefficient (CL max) during take-off and landing. The flaps are generally located near the trailing
edge. The flaps in common use are : plain flap, split flap, zap flap, single slotted flap, double
slotted flap, triple slotted flap and fowler flap. Along with flaps, the medium speed airplanes and
the jet airplanes have slats near the leading edge.
4.3.9) Ailerons
The main purpose of the ailerons is to create rolling moment and provide adequate rate of roll.
Federal Aviation Regulations prescribe rates of roll for different types of airplanes. However,
these calculations can be done at a later stage. At this stage of preliminary design, guidelines
from similar airplanes can be taken regarding
(i) Ratio of aileron chord to wing chord (ca / cw)
(ii) Extent of aileron span to wing span (ba / b).

4.4) V-n DIAGRAM

There are two types of V-n diagram:
` 1) The V-n maneuver diagram Load factor (n) = Lift / Weight

2) The V-n gust diagram

1) V-n diagram shows
 The flight load factors that are used for the structural design as a function of the
air speed.
 These represent the maximum expected loads that the aircraft will
experience.
 UNIT 4

 These load factors are called as limit load factors. These diagrams are used
primarily in the determination of combinations of flight condition and load
factors to which the airplane structure must be designed.
 For purposes of structural sizing, analysis is performed at four extreme loading
conditions on the V-n diagram.

LIMIT LOAD: the maximum

load that the aircraft is expected
to experience in normal
operation.

PROOF LOAD: product of the

limit load and proof factor

ULTIMATE LOAD: product of

limit load and ultimate factor.

 The Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA) is the loading condition represented
by the intersection between the positive operational load limit line and the
positive maximum lift curve.
 The Positive Low Angle of Attack (PLAA) is at the intersection between the
positive operational load limit line and the dive speed.
 The Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA) and Negative Low Angle of Attack
(NLAA) are defined similarly except are for the negative loads. Should the gust
envelope extend beyond the manoeuvring envelope in any of these four
locations, the load factor of the gust envelope is instead used for the extreme
loading condition.
 The high angle of attack conditions are characterized by a high coefficient of lift
and high drag. The low angle of attack conditions are characterized by a high lift
force.
 Designing to accommodate these four extreme loading conditions will
guarantee that the wing will not undergo structural damage so long as
operational load limits are not exceeded. The control of weight in aircraft design
is of extreme importance.
 UNIT 4

 Increase in weight requires stronger structures to support them, which in turn

lead to further increase in weight & so on.
 Excess of structural weight means lesser amounts of payload, affecting the
economic viability of the aircraft.
 Therefore there is need to reduce aircraft’s weight to the minimum compatible
with safety.
 Thus to ensure general minimum standards of strength & safety, airworthiness
regulations lay down several factors which the primary structures of the aircraft
must satisfy.
These are,

2) V- n Gust diagram
The gust envelope is four lines overlaid on the flight envelope, usually the plus/minus of
maximum gust at design cruising speed (Vc) and half maximum gust at maximum speed (Vd) as
required by the certifying authority. This is usually +-50ft/sec (15.2m/sec) and +- 25ft/sec
(7.6m/sec).

Where,
“n” is the normal acceleration in a sharp edged gust
“K” is the tail plane gust alleviation factor. In a canard this is an aggravation factor.
“U” is the airplane mass ratio
 UNIT 4

V-n diagram with both configurations

4.5 Aircraft loads:

• The structure of an aircraft is required to support two distinct classes of load:
- Ground loads, includes all loads encountered by the aircraft during movement or
transportation on the ground such as taxiing and landing loads, towing and hoisting
loads.
- Air loads, comprises loads impose on the structure during flight by maneuvers and gusts.

Aircraft Structures – Loads

• There are basically two ways loads are transferred
- Surface forces which act upon the surface of structure, E.g. aerodynamic and
hydrostatic pressure
- Body forces which act over the volume of the structure and are produced by
gravitational and inertial effects. E.g. Turns, dive pull-up etc• Pressure distribution over the
various surfaces of an aircraft’s structure is obtained from aerodynamics calculations.
 UNIT 4

Typical Ground Loads

• Ground loads encountered in landing and taxiing subject the aircraft to
concentrated shock loads through the undercarriage system.
• The majority of aircraft have their main undercarriage located close to the wings,
– Nose wheel or tail wheel in the vertical plane of symmetry.
• Position of the main undercarriage should take care of the stability
– When the aircraft is on ground.
Structural Components:
• The basic functions of an aircraft’s structure
– It transmits and resists the loads
– provide an aerodynamic shape and to protect passengers, payload,
systems, etc. from the environmental conditions encountered in flight.

Elements of Structures
• Three common structural elements are used: – skins, stiffeners, and beams
Function of aircraft structures: Skin:
 Resists the applied torsion and shear forces by ttransmitting aerodynamic forces to the
longitudinal and transverse supporting members
 Supports the longitudinal members in resisting the applied bending and axial loads
 Supports the transverse members in resisting the hoop, or circumferential, load
when the structure is pressurize
Ribs and Frames:
The skeleton
1. Structural integration of the wing and fuselage
2. Keep the wing in its aerodynamic profile
 UNIT 4

Stiffener or Stringers:
 Resist bending and axial loads along with the skin.
 Divide the skin into small panels and thereby increase its buckling and failing
stresses.
 Act with the skin in resisting axial loads caused by pressurization.

Structural member types:

1. Truss-type Structures
– Had struts and a wire--braced wings
– Occupants sat in open fabric-covered cockpits,
2. Stressed-skin Structures
– All of the structural loads are carried by the skin.
– Thin wood skin or aluminum-alloy sheets
 Fuselage Construction:
This is the preferred method of constructing an all aluminum fuselage.
- A series of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on
a rigid fixture, or jig.These are then joined with lightweight longitudinalal elements called
stringers.
– These are then covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by
bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then removed from the
completed fuselage shell.
– Most modern large aircraft are built using this technique.
Monocoque: Thin shells which rely entirely on their skins for their capacity to resist loads.

Semi Monocoque: thin shell structures where the outer surface is usually supported by
– Longitudinal stiffening members
– Transverse frames to enable it to resist bending,
Compressive and torsion loads without buckling.
• Materials may experience both tension, and compression
– Compression can cause the elements to buckle and requires determination of air
loads. Requires determination of mass properties (weights) and check for parts exceeding
yield stress.
 UNIT 4

4.6) Elements of fuselage design and Fuselage Design.

Features of the fuselage of a general aviation aircraft

The primary purpose of the fuselage is to house the payload. In transport airplanes the
payload includes the passengers, their luggage and cargo. In military airplanes it is the
ammunition and /or special equipment. In addition to the payload, the fuselage accommodates
the following.
(a) The flight crew and the cabin crew in the transport airplane and the specialist crew
members in airplanes used for reconnaissance, patrol and remote sensing.
(b) Fuel, engine and landing gear when they are housed inside the fuselage. (c) Systems
like air-conditioning system, pressurization system, hydraulic system, electrical system,
pneumatic system, electronic systems, emergency oxygen, floatation vests and auxiliary power
unit.

Schematic side view and plan view of the fuselage of a four seater general aviation aircraft with low wing and tractor propeller
(a) Side view (b) Plan view

The cabin accommodates the pilot and the passengers. Its internal dimensions are
decided by human factors. The passengers must be comfortable and the pilot should be able to
fly the airplane efficiently without undue strain.
 UNIT 4

It is observed that the propeller is located ahead of the fuselage. A spinner is located just
ahead of the propeller. It is a streamlined fairing over the propeller hub and enables smooth
entry of air flow in the propeller. The length of the spinner is roughly 20% of the diameter of the
propeller.
The engine is located inside the engine compartment. The engine is attached to the
fuselage by an engine mounting.
 The length of the engine compartment is approximately 1.5 times the length of the
engine.
 The width of the engine compartment is approximately 1.2 times the width of the
engine.
 The rest of airplane is separated from the engine compartment by a fire- wall which is a
fire-resistant sheet attached to a bulk head.
When the airplane has a nose wheel type landing gear, the nose wheel strut is attached to
the frame inside the engine compartment.
The cabin is the portion of fuselage that extends from the firewall to the end of the baggage
compartment. This definition of cabin appears to be the practice followed by Cessna Aircraft
Company.
The cabin consists of
a) The portion of fuselage including rudder pedals and instrument panel
(b) The seats of pilot and passengers

In this type of airplane, the tail cone is the portion of the fuselage aft of the baggage
compartment. The length of the tail cone is obtained as a compromise between the
aerodynamic, structural and stability considerations. The aerodynamic consideration, for this
type of airplane, requires that the drag of the fuselage should be minimum. In this context,
instead of the length of the fuselage, the fineness ratio of the fuselage (Af) is used as the
parameter. It is defined as:

The drag coefficient of fuselage (CDf), for low speed airplanes, is the sum of the pressure
drag coefficient and the skin friction drag coefficient. Wind tunnel test on bodies of
 UNIT 4

different fineness ratios indicated that the drag coefficient is minimum for Af between 3 and
4. This led to the pod and boom configuration of the airplane. However, for the conventional
Configuration, with horizontal tail behind the wing and located on the rear fuselage, the
length of the fuselage is decided based on the tail length (lt).
 The quantity (lt) is the distance between the c.g. of the airplane and the aerodynamic
centre of the horizontal tail.
 It may be recalled that the contribution of the horizontal tail to the longitudinal static
stability ( mαt C ) depends mainly on the product lt.Sht ; where, Sht is the area of the
horizontal tail.
 A large value of lt would reduce Sht but that would require a long fuselage. This would
increase the structural weight of fuselage and result in higher skin friction drag.
 As a compromise, the value of lt lies between (2.5 to 3) c for the general aviation aircraft
with conventional tail. The quantity c is the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing.

Features of the fuselage of a passenger airplane

 UNIT 4

1. The size of passenger doors, emergency exits and the numbers of cabin attendants
depend on the number of passengers in the airplane. The FAA (Federal Aviation Agency)
has set guidelines for these.
2. Seating arrangement
Some of the parameters are defined below.
Seat pitch: It is the distance between the back of one seat to the back of the next seat. It
includes the seat length and the leg room. The terms (a) seat width, (b) aisle width,
(c) elbow gap, (d) gap between seat and wall of cabin (e) head room, (f) aisle height, (g) cabin
width and (h) fuselage width.
The carry-on baggage of the passengers is stored in the overhead racks. The checked-in
baggage is stored in the front and the aft cargo compartments. For ease of loading and
unloading and for segregation of cargo intended for different destinations, the cargo in large
airplanes is stored in pallets. The shapes and sizes of pallets have been standardised.

Passenger compartment with eight seat layout

 UNIT 4

Another cabin layout with six seats and different type of cargo pallet

The types of seating arrangements are classified as first class, business class, economy class and
tourist class. The dimensions of seat width, seat pitch and aisle width are the highest for the first
class and are the lowest for the tourist class. Very important persons (VIP), like the President
and Prime minister, generally have airplanes with special features.

3. Dimensions of cabin :
The width of the cabin at the level of elbow rest (W cer) can be expressed as:

W cer = (No. of seats abreast) x seat width + (No. of aisles) x aisle width + (No. of elbow
gaps) x elbow gap + 2 x (gap between seat and cabin wall)

The pitch of seats also depends on the duration/range of flight - larger pitch in airplanes
having longer range.
 The pitch of seats is between 0.76 to 0.81 m for economy/tourist class; 0.84 to
0.91 m for business class and 0.97 to 1.02 m for first class seating arrangement.
 The seat width lies between 0.41 to 0.46 m for economy/tourist class; 0.43 to
0.51 m for business class and 0.51 to 0.71 m for first class seating arrangement.
 The aisle width should be greater than 0.3 m for economy class; between
0.46 to 0.51 m for business class and between 0.51 to 0.71 m for first class
seating arrangement. The aisle height is between 1.5 to 1.93 m.
 The elbow rest needs to be provided on both sides of the seats. Its width is
0.0375 to 0.05 m (1.5 to 2.0 inches) in economy class and could be double this
width in first class seating arrangement. A gap of 1 to 4 cm is provided
 UNIT 4

between the elbow rest near the wall and the wall of the fuselage. Wide body
airplanes have larger radius of fuselage and may require a smaller gap.
The cabin width is arrived at considering (a) W cer, (b) head room (c) aisle height, (d)
height of seat above cabin floor and (e) shape of cabin.

4) Cargo volume:
It may be pointed out that the airplanes with up to about 70 passengers and with four
abreast seating arrangement, the diameter of the fuselage is less than 3m. In such cases, the
depth of fuselage below the cabin floor is not adequate for the cargo compartment.
Consequently, the cargo compartment is located ahead and / or behind the passenger
compartment.

5) Thickness of cabin:
The wall thickness of the fuselage includes
(a) thickness of structural members (bulkhead),
(b) sound proofing
(c) interior decoration. The thickness is between 6.2 to 10 cm (2.5 to 4 inches) for the
fuselage with the two and three abreast seating arrangement respectively. The thickness would
increase roughly by 1.25 cm (1/2 inch) as the number of seats abreast increases by one i.e. for a
four abreast seating arrangement, the wall thickness would be 11.4 cm (4.5 inches) and for a ten
abreast seating, it would be 19.00 cm (7.5 inches).

6) Tail cone/rear fuselage:

At the end of subsection 6.2.1, some remarks have been made regarding the tail cone of
a general aviation aircraft. Further, in the case of a passenger airplane the mid fuselage has a
cylindrical shape and is followed by the tail cone or rear fuselage of a tapering shape.
In passenger airplanes the tail cone is of substantial length and the cabin layout extends
into the rear fuselage. Galleys, toilets and storage compartments are also located here along
with the auxiliary power unit (APU).
The rear fuselage also supports the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces and the engine
installation for rear mounted engines. The lower side of the rear fuselage should provide
adequate clearance (about 0.15 m) for airplane during take-off and landing attitudes.
The length of the rear fuselage and upsweep angle are also affected by
(a) the height of the main landing gear
(b) the length of the mid fuselage after the main landing gear.
 UNIT 4

Rear fuselage shape

For passenger airplanes
(a) The ratio of length of the rear fuselage to the equivalent diameter of the mid
fuselage is between 2.5 to 3.5
(b) The upsweep angle is between 15 to 20o.

Features of the fuselage of a military airplane

A military airplane with engine intakes on the sides of the fuselage. The nose portion, in
this case, has the radar. In some configurations, the engine intake is in the nose. The portion of
fuselage marked as cockpit has the flight deck. The region below the flight deck houses the
systems. The engine is located inside the fuselage. The length of the tail cone is mainly
dependent on the moment arm needed for the horizontal tail and vertical tail. Some fighters use
thrust vectoring for pitch and yaw control. The moment obtainable with vectored thrust also
decides the length of the fuselage.

Desired features of fuselage design

The aim of fuselage design, at this stage of preliminary design, is to obtain the following.
(a) Lengths of nose, cockpit, payload compartment, tail cone and the overall
length.
(b) Cross section shape and the heights and widths of nose, cockpit, payload
compartment and tail cone.
The desirable features of the design can be listed as follows.
(a) The flight crew, cabin crew and the passengers should have an environment
of comfort. The crew should be able to perform their duties effectively. The journey
should be pleasant for the passengers.
(b) Loading and unloading of passengers’ luggage and cargo should be efficient.
The regulating agencies like FAA, prescribe the size, number and locations of emergency
exits and equipment for emergency evacuation.
(c) Fuselage drag should be low. The lift produced by the wing – fuselage
combination should be close to that possible under ideal conditions.
(d) The tail arms for the horizontal and vertical tails should be long.
(e) The structural weight of fuselage should be low.
 UNIT 4

4.7) LOADS ON FUSELAGE

 Empennage loads due to trim, manoeuvring, turbulence and gusts

 Pressure loads due to cabin pressurisation
 Landing gear loads due to landing impact, taxiing and ground manoeuvring
 Loads due to the weight of passengers and cargo

Almost all of the loads of the fuselage pass through the skin, the surface of the cylinder. The
frames and stringers are mostly to keep the "paper thin" tube from buckling or collapsing. As a
compressed air cylinder, pressurization loads are also absorbed by the skin in tension, like a
balloon.

The fuselage usually has a big cut-out on bottom to accommodate the wing box and landing
gear, which puts this great big notch in the structure right at the point in the cylinder where the
compression buckling loads are highest. The wing box itself may form part of the fuselage
structure there, but farther back the cut-out usually continues, to make space for the landing
gear. There is usually a massive beam, called a keel beam, to bridge the cut out aft of the wing
box and absorb the compression loads along that section.

The fuselage is a particularly critical part of the aeroplane and it is also the part in which all
the loads are acting. Indeed, the fuselage loads include:• Landing gear loads; • Wing loads; •
Empennage loads; • Fuselage aerodynamic loads; • Pressurization loads; • Inertial loads.
•Landing Gears, Wing and Empennage Loads.
once all these loads have already been discussed, they only have to be transmitted to
the fuselage in the attachments between these structures and the fuselage structure.

Pressurization Loads:
An aeroplane structure must be strong enough to withstand the flight loads combined
 UNIT 4

with pressure differentials loads from zero up to the maximum relief valve setting. This
relieving valve works as a safety device that enables a decrease in the cabin pressure whenever
the pressure difference between the fuselage outer and inner skins surpasses a given admissible
threshold for a particular fuselage. Available on aeroplanes flight manuals is the Pressurization
Chart that provides guidance on the difference between inner and outer skin pressure for each
aeroplane operating altitude. The critical loading conditions arise when no pressure difference
is felt or when the maximum admissible pressure difference is reached, which corresponds to
the relief valve setting. This maximum pressure difference can also be obtained by computing
the difference between the minimum acceptable pressure for human comfort and ISA’s
atmosphere pressure at the aeroplane’s ceiling operation.

Inertial Loads

These loads are of particular relevance in the case of a fuselage, since almost all the payload
is carried on the fuselage. They will depend on the flight condition under analysis as well as on
the amount of payload being lifted. Figure 4 identifies all the limit conditions that have to be
studied. These limit conditions refer to a combination of equivalent airspeed and load factor.

The highest loads on the fuselage are usually compression buckling stress just aft of the
rear spar wing attachments when in flight, or the gear attachments when on the ground, and are
highest on landing touchdown. A fuselage is a structural body not intended to generate lift
(although it may) whose purpose is to contain engine, fuel, occupants, baggage, and mission-
related equipment, although not always simultaneously.

Aircraft fuselages consist of thin sheets of material stiffened by large numbers of

longitudinal stringers together with transverse frames. Generally, they carry bending moments,
shear forces, and torsion loads, which induce axial stresses in the stringers and skin, together
with shear stresses in the skin; the resistance of the stringers to shear forces is generally
ignored.

The primary loads on the fuselage are concentrated around the wing-box, wing
connections, landing gear and payload. During flight the upward loading of wings coupled with
the tail plane loads usually generates a bending stress along the fuselage. The lower part of the
fuselage experiences a compressive stress whereas the upper fuselage (called the crown) is
subject to tension. Shear loads are generated along the sides of the fuselage and torsion loads
when the aircraft rolls and turns. Pressurisation of the cabin for high- attitude flying exerts an
internal tensile (hoop) stress on the fuselage.
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4.8) TAIL DESIGN and Structural Features

Various arrangements of horizontal and vertical stabilizing surfaces at the rear part of
an airplane and an airplane’s tail design is important because it stabilizes and controls the
airplane in both up-and-down movements of pitch and side-to-side movements of yaw.

The Parts of an Airplane’s Tail

The tail of an airplane is called by various names, such as “empennage” and “stabilizer.”
The preferred term is “stabilizer,” because it is at least partially descriptive of the component’s
function.
However, the stabilizer provides not only stability but also some of the airplane’s
control. The tail of an airplane is designed to provide both stability and control of the
airplane in pitch and yaw. There are many different forms an aircraft tail can take in meeting
these dual requirements of stability and control. Most tail designs have a horizontal wing like
structure and one or more vertical or near-vertical structures. Whenever practical, these
structures are identified as the horizontal and vertical stabilizers, although some designs
do not conveniently fit such a description.

The many types of airplane tail design include, but are by no means limited to,
 The conventional,
 T-tail
 Cruciform-tail,
 Dual-tail, triple-tail,
 v-tail,
 Inverted v-tail,
 Inverted y-tail,
 Twin-tail,
 Boom-tail,
 High boom-tail
 Multiple-plane tail designs.
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1. Conventional Tail Design

 The conventional tail design is the most common form. It has one vertical stabilizer
placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage and one horizontal stabilizer divided
into two parts, one on each side of the vertical stabilizer.
 For many airplanes, the conventional arrangement provides adequate stability and
control with the lowest structural weight.
 About three-quarters of the airplanes in operation today, including the Airbus A300,
the Boeing 777 and 747, and the Beech Bonanza A-36, use this arrangement.
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2. The T-Tail Design

 In the T-tail design, a common variation of the conventional tail, the horizontal
stabilizer is positioned at the top of the vertical stabilizer.
 The horizontal stabilizer is then above the propeller flow, or prop wash, and the
wing wake. Because the horizontal stabilizer is more efficient, it can therefore be
made both smaller and lighter.
 The placement of the horizontal stabilizer on top of the vertical stabilizer can also
make the vertical stabilizer more aerodynamically efficient. By making the vertical
stabilizer more effective, its size may be reduced.
 However, the horizontal stabilizer in the T-tail layout imposes a bending and
twisting load on the vertical stabilizer, requiring a stronger, and therefore, a heavier,
structure. These loads are avoided in the conventional design.
 There is also the possibility that at the high pitch angle usually associated with
landing the airplane, the horizontal stabilizer of the T tail will be immersed in the
slower and more turbulent flow of the wing wake.
 In some cases, it is possible to compromise severely the control function of the
horizontal tail. Nevertheless, the T tail is the second-most common tail design after
the conventional.
Advantages
T tailed aircraft is easier to recover from a spin than aircraft with other types of
empennage, as the elevator is located above the rudder, thus creating no dead air zone
(“burble”) above the elevator where the rudder would be ineffective in spin conditions.
This configuration also allows high performance aerodynamics and an excellent glide
ratio as the empennage is less affected by wing and fuselage slipstream.
A T-tail has a better effective aspect ratio (better lift slope), less interaction drag than a
cruciform tail, and a more efficient vertical tail, the horizontal tail plate effectively increasing
the aspect ratio of the fin by virtue of the ‘end plate’ effect, reducing turbulence and hence
the induced drag of the fin.
Disadvantages
T-tail configuration can cause maintenance concerns. The control runs to the elevators
are more complex, and elevator surfaces are much more difficult to casually inspect from the
ground for all but the smallest aircraft.
3. Cruciform-Tail Design
 The cruciform tail is an obvious compromise between the conventional and T-
tail designs. In the cruciform design, the horizontal stabilizer is moved part of the
way up the vertical stabilizer.
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 In this position, the horizontal stabilizer is moved up and away from the jet exhaust
and wing wake.
 The lifting of the horizontal stabilizer also exposes the lower part of the vertical
stabilizer, as well as the rudder, to undisturbed airflow. Undisturbed airflow on the
rudder is important, particularly in the recovery from spins.

4. Dual-Tail Design
 The dual-tail design, in which the two vertical stabilizers are placed at the
ends of the horizontal stabilizers, was at one time fairly common on large
flying boats and twin-engine propeller-driven bombers; this arrangement is
attractive, because it places the vertical stabilizers in the prop wash of
wing-mounted propellers.
 The result is the maintenance of good directional control during low-speed
operations.
 The positioning of the two vertical stabilizers at the ends of the horizontal
stabilizers allows for a smaller, lighter, and more aerodynamically efficient
horizontal stabilizer.
 However, the overall weight of a plane with a dual-tail design is greater than
that of a plane with the single conventional-tail design.

5. Triple-Tail Design
The triple-tail design, with two vertical stabilizers placed at the ends of the
horizontal stabilizers and one mounted on the fuselage, is attractive when the height of the
vertical stabilizer must meet certain restrictions, such as hangar-door height.

6. V-Tail Design
The V-Tail, sometimes called the “butterfly” tail, has had limited application in
airplane design, the most significant of which has been by the Beech Company in the
Beech-craft Bonanza V-35. Clearly, the usual definition of horizontal and vertical stabilizers has
no application to the V tail.
The intended advantage of the V-tail design is that two surfaces might serve the same
function as the three required in the conventional tail and its variants. Removal of one surface
then would reduce the drag of the tail surfaces as well as the weight of the tail region.
However, wind tunnel studies by the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics
(NACA) have shown that for the V tail to achieve the same degree of stability as a
 UNIT 4

conventional tail, the area of the V tail would have to be about the same size as that of the conventional
tail.
Advantages
Ideally, with fewer surfaces than a conventional three-aerofoil tail or a T-tail, the V-tail is
lighter and has less wetted surface area, so thus produces less induced and parasitic drag.
However, produce a net reduction in drag through elimination of some interference drag.
Disadvantages
V-tailed aircraft require longer rear fuselages than aircraft with conventional
empennages to prevent yawing. This tendency, called “snaking”, was apparent on taking off and
landing on the Fouga CM.170 Magister, which has a relatively short fuselage.

Another disadvantage of the V tail has to do with turning the airplane.

To turn left, for example, the pilot would press the left rudder pedal and bank the
airplane with the left wing down. In V-tail aircraft, the right side of the V (as viewed from the
rear) deflects upward, and the left surface deflects downward. This arrangement drives the nose
to the left but also causes the airplane to roll away from the turn. Although this tendency to
roll is overcome by the wing control provided by the ailerons, it is clear that one control of the
airplane produces a secondary effect that opposes the primary effect of another control. This
secondary effect of opposing the primary purpose of another control is called adverse coupling.
Adverse coupling is one reason that the most recent Bonanza design, the A-36, uses the
conventional tail.
The undesirable rolling motion caused by the V tail might be avoided by inverting the
butterfly tail. However, except for a few small homemade glider-sail planes, this design has been
avoided because of ground clearance problems.

7. Inverted Y-Tail Design

The inverted Y tail is actually a conventional tail with a noticeable droop to
the horizontal stabilizers. In other words, the outer ends of the horizontal stabilizers are
lower than the ends attached to the fuselage. The F-4 Phantom, originally a mainstay of the
McDonnell Company, used the inverted Y tail to keep the horizontal surfaces out of the wing
wake at high angles of attack. It is interesting to note that the tips of the horizontal stabilizers on
the first McDonnell Navy fighter, the F-2H Banshee, were bent decidedly upward.
 UNIT 4

8. Twin-Tail Design
The twin tail is a feature of various air superiority fighters used by both the
U.S. Navy (the F-14 Tomcat) and the U.S. Marine Corps (the F/A-18 Hornet). Although both
the F-14 and F/A-18 designs have a superficial resemblance, they also have important
differences. The tilt angle of the vertical stabilizer of the F-14 is more pronounced than that of
the F-18, so much so that it approaches that of the V tail on the Beech model V-35 Bonanza. With
two vertical stabilizers, the twin tail is more effective than the conventional single tail of the
same height.

9. Boom-Tail Design
Boom tails are used when an aircraft’s fuselage does not extend entirely
back to the horizontal stabilizer. In both the Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter of World War II
and the Fairchild C-119 cargo plane, engines were mounted on the booms. In the case of the C-
119, the twin boom allowed easy access to the rear of the fuselage for loading and removing
cargo. The twin boom has also been used for an airplane with engines mounted in the fuselage,
with one engine, known as the tractor, in the nose of the airplane and one engine, known as the
pusher, in the rear of the airplane. Because the thrust of both engines is along the centreline of
the airplane, it is much easier in this arrangement to compensate for the loss of one engine than
it is in the wing-mounted engine installation. Both the Cessna Sky master and the new Adam
309 have fuselage-mounted engines. In the case of the Adam 309 the horizontal stabilizer is
raised to avoid propeller wake from the pusher, or rear- mounted, engine.

4.9) Determination of tail surface areas

Preliminary horizontal and vertical tail sizing

The horizontal and vertical tails are designed to provide the movable surfaces on tails
namely elevator and rudder provide control. The complete design of tail surfaces requires
information on
(a) Location of the centre of gravity (c.g.) of airplane,
(b) Shift in c.g. Location during flight
(c) The desirable level of stability.
However, to obtain the c.g. location, the weights of horizontal and vertical tails are
needed which depend on their size. Hence, preliminary sizing of the two tails are carried out
with the help of the following steps.

1) Choose the tail arrangement from the various types

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2) While carrying out calculations leading to the preliminary three view drawing, the areas of
horizontal tail and vertical tails were based on the ratios (Sht / S) and (Svt/S) for similar
airplanes. Here, these areas are refined based on the tail volume ratios (Cht and Cvt) of the
similar airplanes. These ratios are defined as:

where, c, bw and Sw are mean aerodynamic chord, span and area of the wing, Sht and Svt are
areas of horizontal and vertical tails ; lht is distance between c.g. of airplane and
aerodynamic centre of the horizontal tail and lvt is distance between c.g. of airplane and
a.c. of the vertical tail.
3) From the 3 - view drawings of the similar airplanes, the values of lht and lvt are obtained.
The area, span and mean aerodynamic chord of the wing are already known. Hence, the
areas of the tails are given by the following equations.

4) The aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweep, airfoil section and incidence of the horizontal tail
are selected based on the following considerations. It may be pointed out that the shapes of
the horizontal tail and vertical tail are like that of a wing. In such shapes, especially for
subsonic airplanes, the span is much larger than the chord and in turn the chord is much
larger than the airfoil thickness. For example, in case of subsonic airplanes the span is 6 to
10 times the average chord and the average chord in turn is 6 to 10 times the thickness of
the airfoil.
Choice of aspect ratio for horizontal tail

As pointed out in subsection 5.3.1 the aspect ratio affects

(a) Lift curve slope (CLα),
(b) Induced drag coefficient (CDi)
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(c) The structural weight.

The purpose of the horizontal tail is to provide stability about Y-axis and the elevator
provides control about the Y-axis. The lift and drag produced by the horizontal tail are
much smaller than those produced by the wing. Consequently, while choosing aspect ratio
of the horizontal tail, the reduction of structural weight is accorded more importance than
the reduction of drag. Further, the structural weight decreases as aspect ratio decreases.
Hence, the aspect ratio of the horizontal tail is lower than that of the wing. A value of aspect
ratio between 3 to 5 is commonly used for subsonic airplanes. (The actual value of the
aspect ratio would be a compromise between effects of aspect ratios on CLα, CDi and the
structural weight.
Choice of taper ratio for horizontal tail
The taper ratio influences
(a) induced drag,
(b) structural weight
(c) ease of fabrication.

The induced drag is low for λ between 0.3 and 0.5, structural weight decreases as λ
decreases and fabrication is easier for untapered wing ( λ =1.0 ). Keeping these factors in view, a
tail with λ =1 is used for the low subsonic airplanes where cost of fabrication is the prime
consideration. For the general aviation aircraft and the medium speed airplanes, the taper ratio
of the horizontal tail is lower than that of the wing.
For the high subsonic airplanes with swept wings having λ around 0.2, the horizontal tail
has a taper ratio between 0.3 to 0.6. Subsection 5.3.4 may be referred to for the adverse effects,
of the low values of λ , like tip stalling.
Choice of sweep for horizontal tail
That sweep has adverse effect of (a) lower CLα , (b) lower CLmax , (c) higher CDi and
(d) higher structural weight.
The advantage of sweep is to increase the drag divergence Mach number (MD). At flight
Mach number less than 0.7, drag divergence Mach number is not a consideration. Hence,
airplanes flying at low and medium subsonic Mach numbers generally have unswept wing and
horizontal tail. However, some airplanes in these categories (e.g. XAC Y-7, AN- 140) have tails
with moderate quarter chord sweep (< 10 o). This would increase the tail arm slightly and may
be resorted to, if such an increase is required at a later stage of design. In the case of high
subsonic airplanes the tail should have a value of drag divergence Mach number (MD) equal to
higher than that of the wing. Hence, the sweep angle of the horizontal tail is equal to that of the
wing or slighter higher
 UNIT 4

Airfoil section for horizontal tail

The elevator and rudder have deflections on both sides of the un deflected positions.
Hence, horizontal and vertical tails invariably have symmetric airfoil section. National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) generated a large amount of data on the aerodynamic
characteristics (Cl vs Cα, Cl vs α and Cm vs Cl ) at different Reynolds numbers, flap settings etc.
for NACA 0009 and NACA 0012 airfoils. Hence, these airfoils are commonly used for tails of
airplanes flying at low and medium subsonic Mach numbers.
For airplane flying at high subsonic Mach numbers, the drag divergence Mach number
of the tail should be higher than that of the wing. A symmetrical airfoil with (t/c) of 90
% of the (t/c) of the wing can be a rough guideline for preliminary design purpose.
Horizontal tail incidence
The incidence of the horizontal tail (it) is the angle between the reference chord of the
horizontal tail and the fuselage reference line. The horizontal tail incidence is chosen such that
during the cruise, the lift required from the tail, to make the airplane pitching moment zero, is
produced without elevator deflection.
This is because, the drag at low angles of attack, is the least when the lift by the tail is
produced without elevator deflection. The angle (it) is measured clockwise from FRL. It
generally has a small negative value.

Choice of aspect ratio for vertical tail

The aspect ratio of the vertical tail is defined as :

Where, hvt and Svt are the height and area of the vertical tail respectively.
Due to prevalence of various types of vertical tails and different shapes of fuselage in the
region where vertical tails are located, the definitions of hvt and Svt have been standardised.
 UNIT 4

Effective vertical tail geometry (a) Fuselage with horizontal upper surface, (b) Fuselage with curved upper surface

Figures a and b present two commonly observed arrangements of vertical tails. In the
configuration shown in Fig. a, the upper portion of fuselage, on which the vertical tail is
attached, is parallel to the fuselage axis.
The hatched area in the figure is taken as the vertical tail area (Svt). Figure 6.9a also
shows the root chord (Cr vt) tip chord (Ct vt), quarter chord sweep and the height (hvt) of the
vertical tail.
Figure b, shows a configuration in which the vertical tail has a dorsal fin and is attached
to the fuselage with curved upper surface. The hatched area is the area Svt.
The area of the dorsal fin is not included in the area of the vertical tail. The root chord of
the vertical tail lies along the centre line of the rear end of the fuselage. Figure 6.9b also shows
root chord (Cr vt), tip chord (Ct vt), quarter chord sweep and height (hvt) of the vertical tail. In
subsection 6.3.1, while discussing the effect of aspect ratio on horizontal tail, it is pointed out
that an increase in the aspect ratio results in (a) higher lift curve slope (b) lower drag and (c)
higher structural weight. These aspects are applicable to vertical tail also. In addition, an
increase in the aspect ratio has the following effects.
(a) Increases the height of vertical tail and in turn the height of the airplane
(b) Lower lateral control as the moment of inertia about longitudinal axis increases.
(c) Higher directional control as the moment arm (lvt) increases.
 UNIT 4

Choice of taper ratio for vertical tail

As mentioned in subsection 6.3.2, a low value of λ reduces structural weight, a value between
0.3 and 0.6 results in low value of induced drag and λ =1 results in lower cost of fabrication. As a
compromise a λ =0.3 to 0.6 is chosen for subsonic airplanes with conventional tail. λ = 0.6 to 1.0
is chosen for subsonic airplanes with T-tails. The relatively higher value of tip chord and hence,
λ is required as the horizontal tail rests on top of the vertical tail.

Choice of sweep for vertical tail

The disadvantages of sweep for horizontal tail are mentioned above. These are
applicable to vertical tail also. However, a vertical tail with sweep increases the moment arm l vt.
In case of T-tail configuration the moment arm of horizontal tail (lht) is also increased. In case of
high subsonic airplanes the vertical tail should have a drag divergence Mach number equal to or
higher than that of the wing.
Keeping these factors in mind the vertical tail of airplanes flying at low and medium
subsonic Mach numbers have moderate sweep (around 200). In case of high subsonic airplanes
the sweep angle of vertical tail would be equal to or more than that of the wing.

Airfoil section for vertical tail

As mentioned above, the horizontal and vertical tails employ a symmetrical airfoil. NACA
0009 and 0012 are commonly used on general aviation aircraft. For airplanes flying at high
subsonic Mach numbers the thickness ratio of the vertical tail is typically 2 % lower than the
thickness ratio of the wing

Vertical tail incidence

In the case of a single engine airplane with engine-propeller combination, there are two
effects viz.
(a) Rolling moment produced as a reaction to the rotation of proper
(b) The slipstream of the propeller has swirl and causes asymmetric flow.

4.10) Cross check (Nose wheel lift-off) – Adequacy of elevator to develop sufficient
pitching moment to enable nose wheel lift-off
During the ground run, the airplane starts from rest and accelerates to the takeoff speed
(VT0 or V1 ). The flaps and engine(s) are adjusted for their take-off settings. In the case of an
airplane with tricycle type of landing gear, all the three wheels remain in contact with the
ground till a speed of about 85% of the VT0 is reached. This speed is called ‘Nose wheel lift-off
speed’. At this speed the pilot pulls the stick back and increases the angle of
 UNIT 4

attack of the airplane so as to attain a lift coefficient corresponding to take-off (CLT0). At this
stage, the nose wheel is off the ground and the speed of the airplane continues to increase. As
the speed exceeds the take-off speed the airplane gets airborne and the main landing gear
wheels also leave the ground.
When the airplane has a tail wheel type of landing gear, the angle of attack is high at the
beginning of the take-off run. However, the tail wheel is lifted-off the ground as soon as some
speed is gained and the deflection of elevator can rotate the airplane about the main wheels.
This action reduces the angle of attack and consequently the drag of the airplane during most of
the ground run. As the take-off speed is approached the tail wheel is lowered to get the
incidence corresponding to CLT0. When VT0 is exceeded, the airplane gets airborne. The point at
which all the wheels have left the ground is called ‘Unstick point’.
The requirement of the elevator in the case of airplane with tricycle landing gear is that
it should produce enough pitching moment to cause rotation of airplane at V = 0.85 V TO so that
it (airplane) attains angle of attack corresponding to CLTO. The angular acceleration for rotation
of the airplane is about the main landing gear. This angular acceleration depends on : (a)
Elevator power (C ), mδe
(b) Area of h.tail (S ),
(c) H.tail arm (l t t),
(d) Distance between airplane c.g. and main landing gear,
(e) Airplane weight,
(f) Coefficient of friction between ground and tyres
(g) Moment of inertia of the airplane about y-axis.

4.11) Engine location

The engine output required is already known from the performance requirements like
Vmax, (R/C) max, Hmax and take-off distance.
The number of engines and their location need to be chosen. Airplanes have been
designed with one, two, three, four and eight engines. The following considerations decide the
number of engines used in the airplane.
(a) The ratings of the available engines.
(b) Cost of the engine.
(c) Ease of maintenance
(d) Performance and stability of the airplane with one engine being inoperative.

The low speed general aviation aircraft usually have a single engine. Similarly, military
airplanes in light weight and medium weight category also have a single engine.
 UNIT 4

The transport airplanes have two or more engines from the considerations of safety in the event
of failure of one engine.

Location of engines on different airplanes

The locations of engines in case of one, two, three and four engines are briefly dealt with
in this subsection. The airplanes with engine-propeller combination and jet engines are
considered.
A) Single engine-propeller combination
In this case, three arrangements are mainly used. These are:
(a) Tractor propeller ahead of engine located in nose of fuselage
(b) Pusher propeller behind the engine located at the rear end of the fuselage
(c) Pod mounted engine with tractor or pusher propeller.

In a tractor configuration the propeller is in front of the engine and is driven by a shaft in
tension. Below Figure shows such a configuration. In a pusher configuration the propeller is
mounted behind the engine so that the drive shaft is in compression.

An amphibian airplane can land and take-off both on land and on water. In such airplanes the
propeller should be away from the surface of water. In some amphibian airplanes the propeller
is mounted on a pod above the fuselage.
 UNIT 4

(i) Suggests other possible locations for single engine with propeller. Like engine nacelle
mounted on top of vertical tail with either tractor or pusher configuration
(ii) The relative advantages and disadvantages of tractor and pusher propeller
configurations are as follows. For obvious reasons a tractor installation moves the c.g. of the
airplane forward and pusher installations moves the c.g. rearwards.
(a) The contribution of a tractor propeller is destabilizing to longitudinal, directional
and lateral stability. Whereas, the contribution of a pusher propeller is stabilizing
(b) A pusher propeller is in the wake of the wing and fuselage. Consequently, it is
slightly less efficient than a tractor propeller
(iii) Many military airplanes have a single jet engine. In these cases the engine is located
in the rear part of the fuselage. The air intakes are generally located on the sides of fuselage. The
location of engine, in military airplanes, inside the fuselage has two advantages. (a) The engine
is less vulnerable to enemy attack.(b) The fuselage is elongated which results in slender fuselage
and provides longer tail arms for horizontal and vertical tails.

(B) Twin engine configuration

Twin engine configurations with propellers may be driven by piston engines or
turboprop engines. The engines are commonly mounted on the wings with tractor propellers.
The configuration with pusher propellers mounted on rear fuselage has also been used
In the twin engine passenger airplanes with jet engines, the engines are located on
pylons on the wings or mounted on rear fuselage. Fig shows a typical configuration with wing
mounted engines.
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(C) Configurations with three engines

Some jet airplanes have 3 engines. In this case two engines are located with pylons on
the wing. The third engine is located at the rear end of fuselage.

(D) Four engine airplanes

There have been four engined airplanes with piston engines. Presently, the four engined
airplanes are either with turboprop engines or jet engines. the turboprop engines are more
economical than the turbofan engines. Hence, the turboprop engines are utilised on airplanes
flying at Mach numbers from 0.5 to 0.7. Figure shows the Lockheed C-130 Hercules airplane
with four turboprop engines mounted in nacelles attached to the wing.
In the case of jet transport airplanes the engines are mounted in nacelles attached
through pylons to the wings (Fig.1.8a and b) or near the rear end of fuselage. In a few cases like
HS Nimrod the engines are buried in the wing root. Figure 6.15 shows an image of this airplane.

Image of a jet airplane with engines buried in wing root

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Image of a jet airplane with four engines mounted on pylons near the rear end of fuselage

Configuration with engines under the wing seems to be the most preferred
one. The advantages and disadvantages of the above three configurations are pointed out
below.

a) Engines held by pylons on wing:

The Advantages are as follows.
I) The engines act as a relieving load on the wing and the weight of the wing structure
could be decreased by about 15 percent.
II) The space inside the wing can be fully utilized for fuel.
III) Easy access for maintenance, inspection and replacement of engines. The
disadvantages are as follows.
I) Smaller ground clearance increases the possibility of foreign objects being ingested in
the engines.
II) Failure of outboard engine creates a large yawing moment. To counteract this
moment requires larger vertical tail area and rudder deflection as compared to other
locations of engines. These result in higher structural weight and drag.
III) Noise level in the cabin is higher as compared to airplanes with engines mounted on
rear fuselage.

b) Engines located in the wing root

The Advantages are as follows.
I) There is very little increase in frontal area of the airplane due to installation of power
plants.
II) Almost the entire wing span can be utilized for ailerons and high lift devices.
 UNIT 4

The disadvantages are as follows.

I) The space in the root section of the wing cannot be used for accommodating fuel.
II) The intake is located at a place where the boundary layer on the fuselage affects the
flow in it (intake).
III) The weight of the wing structure is increased due to presence of the cuts in wing
spars.

c) Engines located on the rear fuselage

The advantages are as follows.
I) There is less engine noise in the cabin.
II) The entire wing space can be used for storing fuel and for high lift devices.
III) The flow over the wing is clean due to absence of pylons.
The disadvantages are as follows.
I) The fuel is located far from the engines, therefore the length of the pipeline is
increased and special fuel pumps are needed.
II) Due to engines being located at rear, the c.g. of the airplane moves aft.
Consequently, the tail arms of the horizontal and vertical tails are reduced.

Location of nacelle relative to wing leading edge

It is observed that nacelle of the wing mounted engine projects beyond the leading edge
of the wing. The following considerations need to be taken into account.
(a) The interference between wing and nacelle should minimise loss of lift of wing and
increase of drag of airplane as a whole.
(b) In case of engines with propellers the slipstream of the propeller passes over the
wing. The slip stream has a dynamic pressure higher than the free stream dynamic
pressure and would result in increase in wing lift. The increase in dynamic pressure
would be higher when the propeller is farther ahead of the wing. However, an
overhanging nacelle would need a heavier engine mount. The optimum overhang of the
nacelle would have to be decided after detailed aerodynamic and structural calculation.
 UNIT V

5.1) Landing gear

Landing Gear Types Aircraft landing gear supports the entire weight of an aircraft
during landing and ground operations. They are attached to primary structural members of the
aircraft. The type of gear depends on the aircraft design and its intended use.
Most landing gear has wheels to facilitate operation to and from hard surfaces, such as
airport runways. The landing gear is also called undercarriage or alighting gear.
The following three types of landing gears are mainly used on airplanes.
(i) Tail wheel type landing gear (also known as conventional gear),
(ii) tricycle-type landing gear.
(iii) Bicycle with outrigger wheels on wings.
(iv) Tandem landing gear
i) Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear
Tail wheel-type landing gear is also known as conventional gear because many early
aircraft use this type of arrangement. The main gear are located forward of the center of gravity,
causing the tail to require support from a third wheel assembly. A few early aircraft designs use
a skid rather than a tail wheel. This helps slow the aircraft upon landing and provides
directional stability. The resulting angle of the aircraft fuselage, when fitted with conventional
gear, allows the use of a long propeller that compensates for older, underpowered engine
design. The increased clearance of the forward fuselage offered by tail wheel-type landing gear
is also advantageous when operating in and out of non-paved runways.
Today, aircraft are manufactured with conventional gear for this reason and for the
weight savings accompanying the relatively light tail wheel assembly. The proliferation of hard
surface runways has rendered the tail skid obsolete in favour of the tail wheel. Directional
control is maintained through differential braking until the speed of the aircraft enables control
with the rudder. A steerable tail wheel, connected by cables to the rudder or rudder pedals, is
also a common design. Springs are incorporated for dampening.

Tail wheel configuration landing gear

 UNIT V

ii) Tricycle-Type Landing Gear

The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type landing gear. It
is comprised of main gear and nose gear. Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small
aircraft with the following benefits:
1. Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking,
which enables higher landing speeds.
2. Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and ground
maneuvering.
3. Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is forward
of the main gear, forces acting on the center of gravity tend to keep the aircraft moving forward
rather than looping, such as with a tail wheel-type landing gear.
The nose gear of a few aircraft with tricycle-type landing gear is not controllable. It
simply casters as steering is accomplished with differential braking during taxi. However, nearly
all aircraft have steerable nose gear. On light aircraft, the nose gear is directed through
mechanical linkage to the rudder pedals. Heavy aircraft typically utilize hydraulic power to steer
the nose gear. Control is achieved through an independent tiller in the flight deck.
The main gear on a tricycle-type landing gear arrangement is attached to reinforced
wing structure or fuselage structure. The number and location of wheels on the main gear vary.
Many main gear have two or more wheels. Multiple wheels spread the weight of the aircraft
over a larger area. They also provide a safety margin should one tire fail.
Heavy aircraft may use four or more wheel assemblies on each main gear. When
more than two wheels are attached to a landing gear strut, the attaching mechanism is
known as a bogie. The number of wheels included in the bogie is a function of the gross
design weight of the aircraft and the surface type on which the loaded aircraft is required to land.
The tricycle-type landing gear arrangement consists of many parts and assemblies. These
include air/oil shock struts, gear alignment units, support units, retraction and safety devices,
steering systems, wheel and brake assemblies, etc.

Tricycle-type landing gear

 UNIT V

Triple bogie main landing gear assembly

iii) Tandem Landing Gear

Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear. As the name implies, this type of
landing gear has the main gear and tail gear aligned on the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Sailplanes commonly use tandem gear, although many only have one actual gear forward on
the fuselage with a skid under the tail.
The VTOL Harrier has tandem gear but uses small outrigger gear under the wings for
support. Generally, placing the gear only under the fuselage facilitates the use of very flexible
wings.

iv) Bicycle type landing gear

In this type of landing gear the front and rear wheel(s) are located on the fuselage centre
line. Outrigger wheels are provided on wing tips to prevent the airplane from toppling sideways.

Image of an airplane with bicycle type landing gear; the outrigger wheel on right wing is also seen
 UNIT V

Other important parameters: i) Other types of landing gears (ii) retraction mechanism (iii) tyre
sizes and pressures (iv)Height of landing gear, wheel base and wheel track and (v) books on
landing gear design.

5.2) Configuration of Landing gear

i) Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear

Further classification of aircraft landing gear can be made into two categories: fixed and
retractable. Many small, single engine light aircraft have fixed landing gear, as do a few light
twins. This means the gear is attached to the airframe and remains exposed to the slipstream as
the aircraft is flown.
As the speed of an aircraft increases, so does parasite drag. Mechanisms to retract and
stow the landing gear to eliminate parasite drag add weight to the aircraft. On slow aircraft, the
penalty of this added weight is not overcome by the reduction of drag, so fixed gear is used. As
the speed of the aircraft increases, the drag caused by the landing gear becomes greater and a
means to retract the gear to eliminate parasite drag is required, despite the weight of the
mechanism.
A great deal of the parasite drag caused by light aircraft landing gear can be reduced by
building gear as aerodynamically as possible and by adding fairings or wheel pants to
streamline the airflow past the protruding assemblies. A small, smooth profile to the oncoming
wind greatly reduces landing gear parasite drag.
The thin cross section of the spring steel struts combine with the fairings over the wheel
and brake assemblies to raise performance of the fixed landing gear by keeping parasite drag to
a minimum. Retractable landing gear STOW in fuselage or wing compartments while in flight.
Once in these wheel wells, gear is out of the slipstream and does not cause parasite drag. Most
retractable gear have a close fitting panel attached to them that fairs with the aircraft skin when
the gear is fully retracted.
NOTE: The parasite drag caused by extended landing gear can be used by the pilot to
slow the aircraft. The extension and retraction of most landing gear is usually accomplished
with hydraulics.

ii) Shock Absorbing and Non-Shock Absorbing Landing Gear

In addition to supporting the aircraft for taxi, the forces of impact on an aircraft during
landing must be controlled by the landing gear. This is done in two ways:
1) The shock energy is altered and transferred throughout the airframe at a different
rate and time than the single strong pulse of impact,
2) The shock is absorbed by converting the energy into heat energy.
 UNIT V

a) Leaf-Type Spring Gear

Many aircraft utilize flexible spring steel, aluminum, or composite struts that receive the
impact of landing and return it to the airframe to dissipate at a rate that is not harmful. The
gear flexes initially and forces are transferred as it returns to its original position. The most
common example of this type of non-shock absorbing landing gear are the thousands of single-
engine Cessna aircraft that use it. Landing gear struts of this type made from composite
materials are lighter in weight with greater flexibility and do not corrode.
b) Rigid
Before the development of curved spring steel landing struts, many early aircraft were
designed with rigid, welded steel landing gear struts. Shock load transfer to the airframe is
direct with this design. Use of pneumatic tires aids in softening the impact loads. Modern
aircraft that use skid-type landing gear make use of rigid landing gear with no significant ill
effects. Rotorcraft, for example, typically experience low impact landings that are able to be
directly absorbed by the airframe through the rigid gear (skids).

Rigid type

c) Bungee Cord
The use of bungee cords on non-shock absorbing landing gear is common. The geometry
of the gear allows the strut assembly to flex upon landing impact. Bungee cords are positioned
between the rigid airframe structure and the flexing gear assembly to take up the loads and
return them to the airframe at a non-damaging rate. The bungees are made of many individual
small strands of elastic rubber that must be inspected for condition. Solid, donut-type rubber
cushions are also used on some aircraft landing gear.
 UNIT V

d) Shock Struts
True shock absorption occurs when the shock energy of landing impact is converted into
heat energy, as in a shock strut landing gear. This is the most common method of landing shock
dissipation in aviation. It is used on aircraft of all sizes. Shock struts are self- contained
hydraulic units that support an aircraft while on the ground and protect the structure during
landing. They must be inspected and serviced regularly to ensure proper operation.
 UNIT V

There are many different designs of shock struts, but most operate in a similar manner.
A typical pneumatic/hydraulic shock strut uses compressed air or nitrogen combined with
hydraulic fluid to absorb and dissipate shock loads. It is sometimes referred to as an air/oil or
oleo strut. A shock strut is constructed of two telescoping cylinders or tubes that are closed on
the external ends. The upper cylinder is fixed to the aircraft and does not move. The lower
cylinder is called the piston and is free to slide in and out of the upper cylinder. Two chambers
are formed. The lower chamber is always filled with hydraulic fluid and the upper chamber is
filled with compressed air or nitrogen.
An orifice located between the two cylinders provides a passage for the fluid from the
bottom chamber to enter the top cylinder chamber when the strut is compressed. Most shock
struts employ a metering pin similar to that shown for controlling the rate of fluid flow from the
lower chamber into the upper chamber. During the compression stroke, the rate of fluid flow is
not constant. It is automatically controlled by the taper of the metering pin in the orifice. When a
narrow portion of the pin is in the orifice, more fluid can pass to the upper chamber. As the
diameter of the portion of the metering pin in the orifice increases, less fluid passes. Pressure
build-up caused by strut compression and the hydraulic fluid being forced through the metered
orifice causes heat. This heat is converted impact energy. It is dissipated through the structure
of the strut.
On some types of shock struts, a metering tube is used. The operational concept is the
same as that in shock struts with metering pins, except the holes in the metering tube control
the flow of fluid from the bottom chamber to the top chamber during compression. Upon lift off
or rebound from compression, the shock strut tends to extend rapidly. This could result in a
sharp impact at the end of the stroke and damage to the strut.
It is typical for shock struts to be equipped with a damping or snubbing device to
prevent this. A recoil valve on the piston or a recoil tube restricts the flow of fluid during the
extension stroke, which slows the motion and prevents damaging impact forces.
 UNIT V

Most shock struts are equipped with an axle as part of the lower cylinder to provide
installation of the aircraft wheels. Shock struts without an integral axle have provisions on
the end of the lower cylinder for installation of the axle assembly. Suitable connections are
provided on all shock strut upper cylinders to attach the strut to the airframe.
The upper cylinder of a shock strut typically contains a valve fitting assembly. It is
located at or near the top of the cylinder. The valve provides a means of filling the strut with
hydraulic fluid and inflating it with air or nitrogen as specified by the manufacturer. A packing
gland is employed to seal the sliding joint between the upper and lower telescoping
cylinders. It is installed in the open end of the outer cylinder. To keep the piston and wheels
aligned, most shock struts are equipped with torque links or torque arms. One end of the links
is attached to the fixed upper cylinder. The other end is attached to the lower cylinder (piston)
so it cannot rotate. This keeps the wheels aligned. The links also retain the piston
in the end of the upper cylinder when the strut is extended, such as after takeoff.
 UNIT V

5.3) Elements of Computer aided and Design

 A set of methods and tools to assist product designers in

 Creating a geometrical representation of the artefacts they are designing
 Dimensioning, Tolerance
 Configuration Management (changes)
 Archiving
 Exchanging part and assembly information between teams organization
 Feeding subsequent design steps
 Analysis (CAE)
 Manufacturing (CAM)

Elements of CAD

CAD consist of 3levels namely drafting modelling analysis and blended of two main
factors i.e. Machine and human factor, working together to achieve the optimum design, the
computer graphic capability and computer power allows the design to test their ideas.
Interactively in real time without creating a real prototype as in traditional methods of design.

Human Factor:

The human factors are the key factor in their success of CAD system. This concern the
training of the designer or the engineer, without whom the CAD system becomes redundant.
The trained designer may be actively involved in CAD process due to the following factors

 Computer Aided analysis

 UNIT V

 Computer Aided Visualization

 Computer Aided Synthesis

Computer Aided Analysis:

The computer is highly useful in solving of analytical problems consisting of higher

order of variables. This is also useful to solve numerous equations in a short span of time. This
not only helps design engineers to work on the analytical part but also saves time to work on
the other aspects of the product. The result interpretation will also get improved if the designer
is left with some more time to analyze it.

Computer Aided Visualization:

A Designer needs a better visualization to analyze the overall development of the

product. A designer can visualize hr product by:

 An automobile drafting tool and presentation of graphics.

 A means for presenting numerical data in form of graphical sheets such as
graphs and pie charts.
 Animating a product in virtual space to visualize the working of the product in
actual cycle.
 Visualizing the aesthetic look by creating a 3D material properties.

The effecting visualization not only saves time money effort but also improves the
quality of work. The designer not only looks at product from one points but is free to look for all
the possible directions.

Computer Aided Synthesis:

The synthesis process is carried out with the help of the computer is carried out with the
help of the computer. The preliminary design ideas for similar products are created in a
common database. This common database can be used by other elements of CAE to perform the
computer aided synthesis. The evaluation of the various preliminary design need to develop the
various model for the problem and thus computer aided synthesis helps to develop the model in
real time and evaluate the performance of the design.

System Factor: The system of Cad consist of two components namely hardware and the
software.
 UNIT V

Advantages of CAD

 Increases productivity
 Higher quality designs
 Reuse and easily change designs
 Designing physical objects in a virtual workspace.

Disadvantage of CAD

 Work can be lost because of the sudden breakdown of computer

 Work is prone to viruses
 Work could be easily hacked

Application

 It is used for manufacturing, planning, computer aided analysis. When it comes

to materials requirements, CAD inventory control and production planning and
it also used in purchasing.

5.4) STABILITY ASPECTS ON THE DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES

STABILITY AND CONTROL:

Aircraft stability deals with the ability to keep an aircraft in the air in the
chosen flight attitude. Aircraft control deals with the ability to change the flight direction and
attitude of an aircraft. Both these issues must be investigated during the preliminary design
process.

FLIGHT MECHANICS:

 Stability and control are collectively referred to as flight mechanics.

 The study of mechanics and dynamics of the flights is the means by which:
 We can design an airplane to accomplish efficiently a specific task
 We can make the task of the pilot easier by ensuring good handling
qualities
 We can avoid unwanted or unexpected phenomena that can be
encountered in flight
 UNIT V

AIRCRAFT DESCRIPTION:

The pilot has direct control only of the flight control system. However, he tailor his
inputs to the FCS by observing the airplane’s response while always keeping an eye on the task
at hand.

CONTROL SURFACES:

 Aircraft control is accomplished through control surfaces and power

 Control deflections were first developed by the Wright brothers from watching bird
 Aircraft flight control surfaces are aerodynamic devices allowing a pilot to adjust and
control the aircraft’s flight attitude. Development of an effective set of flight control
surfaces was a critical advance in the development of aircraft.
 The main control surfaces are,
a) Ailerons
b) Rudder
c) Elevators
 UNIT V

AILERONS:

Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter- clockwise,
the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that
wing and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and
the right wing to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the left.
Centering the stick returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle. The aircraft
will continue to turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight.

ELEVATORS:

The elevator is the moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of the
fixed part of the horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together.

When the pilot pulls the stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward
causes the elevators to go down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to
pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack, which generates more lift and
more drag. Centering the stick returns the elevators to neutral and stops the change of pitch.

In the canard arrangement, the elevators are hinged to the rear of the fore plane and
move in the opposite sense, for example when the pilot pulls the stick back the elevators go
down to increase the lift at the front and lift the nose up.

RUDDER:

The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of the
empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right
pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and
causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral
and stops the yaw.
 UNIT V

MODERN CONTROL SURFACES:

OTHER DEVICES:

AXES OF MOTION:

Aircraft principal axes

Rotation around the three axes

 UNIT V

An aircraft is free to rotate around three axes that are perpendicular to each other
and intersect at its center of gravity (CG). To control position and direction a pilot must be able
to control rotation about each of them.

TRANSVERSE AXIS:

The transverse axis, also known as lateral axis passes through an aircraft from wingtip
to wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction that the
aircraft’s nose is pointing. The elevators are the primary control surfaces for pitch.

LONGITUDINAL AXIS:

The longitudinal axis passes through the aircraft from nose to tail. Rotation about this
axis is called roll. The angular displacement about this axis is called bank. The pilot changes
bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other. This differential lift
causes rotation around the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are primary control of bank. The
rudder also has the secondary effect on bank.

VERTICAL AXIS:

The vertical axis passes through an aircraft from top to bottom. Rotation about this axis
is called yaw. Yaw changes the direction the aircraft’s nose is pointing, left or right. The primary
control of yaw is with the rudder. Ailerons also have a secondary effect on yaw.

AIRCRAFT DEGREES OF FREEDOM:

Six degrees of freedom:

 3 displacements
 x: horizontal motion
 y: side motion
 z:vertical motion
 3 rotations
 x: roll
 y:pitch
 z:yaw

V: resultant linear velocity, cg: center of gravity, ω: resultant angular velocity

 UNIT V

STATIC STABILITY:

 Most aircraft (apart from higher performance fighters) are statically stable
 Static stability implies:
 All the forces and moments around the aircraft’s cg at a fixed flight condition and
attitude are balanced
 After any small perturbation in flight attitude the aircraft returns to its
equilibrium position
 The equilibrium position is usually called the trim position and is adjusted
using the trim tabs

AERODYNAMIC REFERENCE CENTRES

 Centre of pressure (cp): The point at which the resultant aerodynamic forces F
acts. There is no aerodynamic moment around the cp.
 Half-chord: The point at which the aerodynamic force due to camber, Fc, acts
 Quarter-chord ( or aerodynamic centre ): The point at which the aerodynamic
force due to angle of attack , Fa, acts. The aerodynamic moment around the
quarter-chord, Mo, is constant with the angle of attack.

AIRPLANE GEOMETRY:
 UNIT V

AIRPLANE REFERENCES (1) :

AIRPLANE REFERENCES (2):

AIRPLANE REFERENCES (3):

 UNIT V

AIRFOIL WITH CENTRES:

By placing all of the lift and drag on the aerodynamic centre we move the lift and drag
due to camber from the half-chord to the quarter chord. This is balanced by the moment Mo.

PITCHING MOMENT EQUATION:

EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS:
 UNIT V

STABLE OR UN STABLE ?

DEGREE OF STABILITY:

PITCHING MOMENT STABILITY (1):

 UNIT V

PITCHING MOMENT STABILITY (2):

WING-TAIL FLOW GEOMETRY:

PITCHING MOMENT STABILITY (3):

 UNIT V

PITCHING MOMENT STABILITY (4):

CONTROLS FIXED STABILITY:

STABILITY MARGIN:
 UNIT V

CONTROLS FREE STABILITY:

 Pilots don’t want to hold the controls throughout the flight.

 The trim tab can be adjusted such that, if the elevator is allowed to float
freely, it will at an angle corresponding to the desired trim condition.
 This is sometimes called a hands-off trim condition.
 Therefore the pilot can take his hands off the elevator control and the aircraft
will remain in trim.

CONTROLS FREE STABILITY MARGIN:

 UNIT V

CONTROLS FREE NEUTRAL POINT:

SUMMARY OF LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

 As with controls fixed stability margin, the controls free stability margin is
positive when the aircraft is stable.
 Similaly, the centre of gravity position must be ahead of the contols free
nuetral point if the aircraft is to be stable.

 Usually,the constants of the elevator and tab are such that

 An aircraft that is stable controls fixed will usually be also stable controls free

LATERAL STABLITY:

 There are two types of lateral motion for an aircraft:

 Roll
 Yaw
 UNIT V

 The aircraft must be stable in both of these directions of motion

ROLL STABILITY MECHANISM:

 There is no active stabilizing mechanism for lateral stability (e.g. tail for
longitudinal stabilty, rudder for yaw stability)
 Wing dihedral, Γ , is the only stabilizing mechanism
 The higher the dihedral angle, the more stable the aircraft
 As usual, too much stability can be a bad thing

ROLL MOTION:

SIDESLIP ANGLE:
 UNIT V

HIGH WING AIRCRAFT:

LOW WING AIRCRAFT:

DIHEDRAL:
 UNIT V

RESTORING MOMENT:

ROLL STABILITY:

ROLL CONTROL:
 UNIT V

AILERON ADVERSE YAW:

 Increasing the lift also increases drag and vice versa.

 When deflecting ailerons, there is a net yawing moment in an opposite
direction to the rolling moment.
 When rolling left ( in order to turn left), there is a yawing
moment to the right
 This can make turning very difficult, especially for high
aspect ratio wings

ROLL CONTROL BY SPOILERS:

 Another way of performing roll control is by deforming a spoiler on the

wing towards which we want to turn. To turn left:

FRISE AILERONS:

This idea is counteract the higher lift induced drag of the down wing with higher
profile drag on the up wing. Frise ailerons are especially designed to create very high profile
drag when deflected upwards. When deflected downwards the profile drag is kept low.
Thus, they alleviate or, even, eliminate adverse yaw.
 UNIT V

DIFFERENTIAL AILERON DEFLECTION:

The roll rate of the aircraft depends on the mean aileron deflection angle. The

individual deflection and do not have to be equal.

YAW STABILITY:
 UNIT V

FIN MOMENT:

The lift coefficient of the fin can be expressed as

YAW STABILITY:

 The stability condition for yaw motion is then

 Note that, in this case, it makes no sense to differentiate the yawing moment by the lift
since the two are independent.

 The side wash factor, , is very difficult to estimate.

SIDEWASH FACTOR:

 There are three main contributions to side wash:

 Fuselage: it acts as a lifting body when at a yaw angle
 Wing: the flow over the wing is asymmetric. The resulting side wash is more pronounced
for low aspect ratio sweptback wings.
 Propeller: the flow behind the propeller is also yawed, causing additional asymmetry.
 Side wash factors can be estimated most accurately by carefully designed wind tunnel
experiments.

YAW CONTROL:

 During most flight conditions the yaw angle must be zero-this minimizes drag
 UNIT V

 This is achieved through the deflection of the rudder

 Rudder power: rate of change of fin moment with rudder angle

 This quantity must be large enough to maintain zero yaw even at the most extreme flight
conditions.

TAKEOFF AND LANDING (1):

 During cruise, aircraft tend to turn towards the wind in order to minimize their drag.
Therefore, the objective is to achieve 0 yaw.
 At take-off and landing this is not possible. The aircraft must remain aligned with the
runway, even in the presence of a very strong side wind.
 Therefore, the rudder must be able to provide a moment that can keep the aircraft
aligned with the runway.

TAKEOFF AND LANDING (2):

ROLL-YAW COUPLING:

 Roll and yaw are always coupled.

 There several reasons for the coupling:
 Rolling produces sideslip
 Ailerons causes adverse yaw
 Dihedral causes additional coupling
 Sweepback causes additional coupling
 The fin causes additional coupling
 UNIT V

MODES OF VIBRATION OF AIRCRAFT:

 Stability must also be investigated in a dynamic sense

 Aircraft have several modes of vibration:
 Longitudinal modes:
 Short period oscillation
 Phugoid
 Lateral modes:
 Spiral mode
 Roll subsidence
 Dutch roll

PHUGOID OSCILLATIONS:

 Phugoids are long period oscillations that occur only in the longitudinal direction
 The angle of attack is constant; the aircraft climbs and descends in an oscillatory
manner.
 Phugoids are also very lightly damped.
 Phugoid periods:
 Microlight aircraft: 15-25s
 Light aircraft: over 30s
 Jet aircraft: minutes
 Phugoids are neutralized by re-trimming the aircraft in the new flight condition.

PHUGOID APPROXIMATION:

The lanchester approximation states that the phugoid damping ratio and frequency
are given by:
 UNIT V

MORE ABOUT PHUGOIDS:

 Phugoid period increases with airspeed. Phugoid damping increases with

airspeed.
 Compressibility effects

Nhalf= number of periods until the amplitude is halved SHORT

PERIOD OSCILLATIONS:

 Short period oscillations have a much higher frequency than phugoids.

 They are driven by the angle of attack
 Speed changes are negligible
 They occur after abrupt input changes. Slower input changes do not cause significant
short period oscillations

SHORT PERIOD DEPENDENCIES:

 UNIT V

 The period generally decreases with airspeed. The damping can either decrease or
increase
 Compressibility effects
 Period and damping for Boeing 747 at several altitudes and Mach numbers

SPIRAL MODE:

 This mode is quite visible in the impulse response of the lateral equations
 It is the non-oscillatory mode with large time constant
 It is mainly a yaw movement with a little roll
 This mode can be stable or unstable. It is unstable quit often but that is not a problem
because of its large time constant
 The typically half-life of the spiral is of the order of a minute
 The spiral movement is usually stopped by a corrective control input

ROLL SUBSIDENCE:

 An impulse aileron input will start the aircraft rolling.

 In general, the aircraft will stop rolling with time ( i.e. the roll rate becomes zero after
sufficient time)
 The aircraft will find itself at a roll angle which depends on how fast the roll rate tends
to zero.
 This phenomenon is called roll subsidence

DUTCH ROLL:

 The name Dutch roll is due to the fact that the phenomenon resembles an ice skating
figure called Dutch roll.
 The centre of gravity remains on a straight trajectory while the roll and yaw angles
oscillates.
 The roll velocity also oscillates but the yaw velocity is very low.
 The Dutch roll damping increases with airspeed while its period first increases and
then decreases with airspeed.
 The typical period of a Dutch roll is in the order of 5 to 10 seconds.

SUMMARY ON CONTROL SURFACES:

 Elevators contribute to pitch stability and control pitch angle.

 Rudder contributes to yaw stability and controls yaw angle.
 UNIT V

 Ailerons do not contribute stability. Furthermore, they control the roll rate, not the roll
angle. There is no moment balance the effect of the ailerons: they provide a constant
moment that causes continuous roll rotation, whose rate also depends on the moment
of inertia of the aircraft.

5.5) SPECIAL CONSIDERATION IN CONFIGURATION LAY-OUT

 Elevons contribute to stability and control of both pitch and roll. They are ailerons
that can also move up or down in unison, just like elevators
 Flaperons contribute to stability and control of both pitch and roll. They are ailerons
that can also move downwards only, just like flaps.
 Spoilerons contribute to stability and control of both pitch and roll. They are ailerons
that can also move upwards only, just like spoilers.

5.6) LOADS ON LANDING GEAR

The loads imposed on the landing gear has become increasingly important in the
structural design of airplanes . Prediction of dynamic structural loads on the landing gear and on
the airplane is possible by a number of methods of dynamic analysis which permit reasonable
accuracy in the calculation of the dynamic response when the forcing functions are known.
In order to obtain information on these forcing functions, the ground forces imposed on
the main landing gear of a large airplane under actual landing conditions were measured. The
main landing gear of this airplane was equipped with strain gages and linear and angular
accelerometers in order to measure ground-reaction forces during landing impacts.
The airplane was equipped with various types of special and standard flight instruments
to determine the landing- impact and landing-approach conditions. Symbols
 UNIT V

The quantities measured for the purpose of defining both the landing-approach
conditions and the impact and spin-up conditions are as follows :
UNIT V
 UNIT V

The strain gages were also located in the same lateral position in the horizontal
plane. The strain-gage bridges located in the vertical plane measure the bending moment at
 UNIT V

stations 1 and 2 due to the vertical component of force applied at the axle and the moment due
to side force.
Similarly, the strain gages in the horizontal plane measure the bending moments due to
the horizontal component of force at the axle and the moment contributed by the side force
when it is out of the vertical plane. The linear accelerometers mounted on the outer brake shoe
were used to determine the horizontal and vertical inertia forces. Angular accelerometers
mounted inside the outboard wheels were used to measure angular acceleration of the outboard
wheels.
The mean tire deflections for each pair of wheels were obtained by means of a slide-
wire position recorder connected to a trailing arm which was mounted between the wheels. The
vertical velocity of each truck was measured by an electromagnetic generator attached to the
trailing arm, similar to the arrangement described in reference 1. The angular velocity of each
wheel was measured by a tachometer mounted on the outer brake shoe and geared to the
wheel. The instruments used to measure the approach conditions presented in the foregoing
table, except for drift angle, were standard NACA flight recording instruments. The drift angle
was measured by means of a 16- millimetre motion-picture camera mounted on the bottom of
the airplane fuselage to photograph the runway directly below the camera. The shutter to
appear as streaks on the film when the airplane was in motion. The angle of these streaks
relative to the edge of the picture was a measure of drift angle.
The magnitude of a force, regardless of its lateral position , could be determined by
measuring the moment at two positions located a known distance apart . As a result of inter
action (effects of vertical forces on horizontal strain gages and vice versa) and misalignment of
the strain gages, the final equations for measuring axle forces had the form :

The ground-reaction forces, both vertical and drag, were obtained by adding inertia
corrections to the axle forces. The inertia term was the product of the mass outboard of the
strain-gage stations (wheel, brakes, instruments, etc.) and the vertical or horizontal acceleration
of the center of this mass. The accelerometers used to measure the vertical and horizontal
accelerations could not be located at the mass center but were located as close as possible to
the mass center on the vertical axis and horizontal axis, respectively. Owing to the frequency
response
 UNIT V

characteristics of the instrumentation, the inertia corrections are in error when the force
is changing very rapidly, such as occurs in some cases of spring back when the drag force goes
from a large positive (rearward) value to some negative (forward) value. Because of the nature
of the axle and housing structure it was virtually impossible to locate strain gages which were
primarily sensitive to side force. It became necessary to evaluate the side force Fs for each
wheel by means of the bending moment Mv, 2 produced by the side force and the vertical force
on the axle.

The order of magnitude of Ks was determined from results presented in reference 2. The
value of the product Ks Fv was small in comparison with the value of rd so that the actual
value of Ks was not critical.
The side-force results are believed to indicate qualitatively the nature of side-force
build-up and variation with drift angle and vertical force.
The drag force Fh was determined from strain-gage measurements for all of the wheels
and also from angular - accelerometer measurements for the outboard wheels of each truck.
The angular -accelerometer method involved the use of the expression
T = Fh rd = Ie S,
This expression neglects the torque produced by the vertical force Fv acting through
some forward or rearward displacement relative to the axle center line. Although the forces
are of the same order of magnitude Fh = ~v, the moment arm of the vertical force is a small
percentage of the moment arm of the drag force. This method of measuring Fh is similar to
that used, where the agreement with simultaneous dynamometer measurements was good.
On the basis of calibration loading data and of comparisons of Fh determined from both
the strain-gage and angular-accelerometer measurements for the outboard wheels, the drag-
force data determined from the angular-accelerometer method were felt to be the most reliable.
The strain-gage drag-force data for the outboard wheels were generally in good agreement with
the angular-accelerometer drag-force data but the strain-gage drag-force
 UNIT V

data for the inboard wheels were considered unreliable in magnitude but usable to indicate the
shape of the drag-force time history for the impact. In presenting the coefficient-of-friction data,
only Fh obtained by the angular-accelerometer method was used.

Vertical Force
an unequal division of vertical force Fv between two wheels of the same truck, which is
a result of one or more factors, such as airplane roll attitude, landing-gear inclination (in roll
plane) due to wing bending, or differences in tire diameter. During this particular landing, the
value of Fv was low and only the inboard wheel spun up during the first impact while the
outboard wheel partially spun up and then spun up completely during the second impact. This
landing, in which one wheel completed its spin-up during the second impact, was typical of a
number of landings encountered in this test program.
The effect of the sudden release of the shock strut on the vertical force time history is to
decrease the rate of vertical-force build-up and in some cases even to reduce the vertical force
for a short time.
The variation of maximum vertical force on the truck with vertical velocity was
calculated by a numerical integration method similar to that discussed. In order to simplify the
calculations, a symmetrical impact was assumed, the airplane was assumed to be rigid, the
lower or unsprung mass was neglected, the pneumatic force was assumed to be constant, and a
linear approximation of the actual static-force-deflection characteristics of the tire was used.
The physical characteristics of the shock strut of the airplane used in these tests were used
in these calculations,

Drag Force
Typical time histories of drag force, which are presented in figure 4 for a range of
vertical velocities, show that in most cases the drag force builds up to a maximum value as the
wheel comes up to 80 or 90 percent of the free rolling speed. The drag force then drops rapidly
to zero and then negative as the wheel comes up to and then overshoots the free rolling speed .
In some cases, for the left inboard wheel, the drag force starts to build up, then to decrease,
and then to increase again. This type of variation was found in s everal other impacts, not shown
here, in which the drag force near the middle of the spin-up period was greater than that when
the wheel was near 80 or 90 percent of the free rolling speed. Since the changes in drag force
are generally attributable to corresponding vertical-force variations.
The unequal division of vertical force on two wheels of the same truck results in
unsymmetrical drag forces, particularly at the time when one wheel has spun up and its drag
force has decreased while the other wheel is approaching maximum drag force. This
 UNIT V

distribution of drag force results in a severe yawing moment about the vertical axis of the truck
and the resulting yawing oscillation has been observed in slow-motion pictures of the trucks
during impact.
Coefficient of friction:
At the instant of contact the angular velocity of the wheel was zero and the slip ratio was
1 .0; as the wheel velocity approaches the free rolling velocity, the slip ratio approaches
O. The forces were too small to give reliable values of ~ until the slip ratio had decreased to
approximately 0.9. As the wheel comes up to free rolling speed, the value of ~ gradually
increases to a maximum value of 0.73 at a slip ratio of 0.11. The variation from ~max to zero slip
ratio is not shown because the drag force dropped so rapidly in this range that the values
of ~ are unreliable and the slip ratio is difficult to measure accurately in this range.
The mean value of ~ for the dry runway increased gradually from a value of 0.40
near the beginning of spin-up (slip ratio of 0.90) to a maximum value of 0 .72 at a slip ratio of
0.13. The mean value of ~ for the wet runway varied from 0. 20 near the beginning of spin- up
to a maximum value of 0.41 at a slip ratio of 0.07.
The differences in the variation of ~ among landings is believed to be caused primarily
by differences in the condition of the runway surface - for example , for the dry runway the
presence of skid marks, oil, dirt, etc. and for the wet runway by these same effects and the
amount of water present on the runway.

Side Force
The side force builds up gradually during the first part of the spin-up, and, as the wheel
approaches the free rolling speed, the side force increases more rapidly to the full value after
spin-up. The data indicate that generally at the time of maximum drag force the side force is
about 30 to 50 per cent of the maximum value. There were cases where maximum side force
and maximum vertical force occurred Simultaneously and there were several instances in which
maximum drag force and maximum vertical force occurred Simultaneously . However, it would
appear unlikely that all three forces would reach their maximum value simultaneously.
The side force after spin-up is almost the same for each wheel of the truck while the
vertical load is much greater for the outboard wheel; this indicates, for this higher range of Fv,
that the side force is dependent on drift angle rather than on vertical load. This fact is more
clearly indicated in which presents the variation of side force with drift angle for constant
values of vertical force.