STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY AN PATTER

EXERCISE 1: COCKPIT LAYOUT

Your student will be issued with a checklist, which should be memorised as early on in the training as
possible. It must be stressed that the more effort that the student puts into preparation the more
efficient and cost effective the training will become.

The sequence in which you show him around the cockpit must be the same as the sequence on the
checklist. You must get your student used to this sequence from the first lesson, as he must be
disciplined to use the checklist methodically every time he flies. Emphasise the difference between
checklist and an action list.

Students tent to try and rush this part so it is very important that you make the student touch each
instrument / control, positively identify it, and understand the reason why the check (or procedure)
is being accomplished.

Only in this way will the checklist become meaningful to your student and introduce him to the self-
discipline required to make him a safe pilot.

Establishing the routine will quickly enable your student to learn the position and names of the
instruments and control making his and your task easier with each successive fight.

The following Points Must Be Covered In This Exercise

• Visual inspection of the aircraft when walking up to it on the apron

• The concept of a pre-flight inspection
• Entering and leaving the cockpit
• Securing the doors
• Seat adjustment
• Seatbelt operation
• Positioning of feet on rudder pedals
• Uses of the brakes/handbrake
• Position and function of flying controls
• Position and function of fuel controls
• Position and function of engine control – Grouping of instruments/ radios and their function
• Checklist sequence and terminology (i.e. gyro toppled/ erect)
• Stowage of cargo / first aid kit/ strips / fire extinguisher / aircraft documents
• Minimum equipment

Introduce your student to the terminology used for establishing command:

Challenge: “I HAVE CONTROL”

Response: “YOU HAVE CONTROL”

EXERCISE 2: PREPARATION FOR FLIGHT

As the instructor, you must be thorough and methodical in your approach to this second exercise so
that your student is left with the impression that the checks and procedures are of vital importance
to the safe conduct of the flight.

This exercise must cover the following

• Correct clothing and footwear

• Flight authorization (ensure both you and your student UNDERSTAND what you are signing
for)
• The importance of a pre-flight inspection before EVERY flight
• No smoking
• Positioning of aircraft: general appearance
• Pre-flight inspection (per aircraft owner’s manual)
• Precaution when handling the propeller
• Airmanship
• Proximity to other aircraft/ building / people.
• Dust, slipstream, gravel surface etc.
• Pre-start checks/ Start up/ After start checks
• Pre-taxi checks and radio call (Refer excercise5 taxiing)
• Pre take-off engine run-up
• Pre take-off vital actions
• Lookout before entering runway

Also included….

• Running down and engine shutdown

• Parking aircraft in dispersal
• Picketing aircraft (tie down)
• Post flight inspection
• Flight authorization and records completion after flight. Stress the importance of the flight
folio and authorisation sheet.
 EXERCISE 3: AIR EXPERIENCE

You will be using patter form future exercises to explain what you are doing when operating
the controls to change the speed, attitude direction and engine power of the aeroplane.

This is the first air exercise and it is very important that you, the instructor, set a good
example at the start to impress upon your pupil the need for thoroughness, accuracy and
smoothness in the operation of the aircraft controls, checks, procedures, safety and
airmanship.

This exercise must cover the following:

• Introduce the student to the sensation of flying

• Familiarise the pupil with local landmarks and orientation with the airfield and the airfield
layout
• Build student awareness for the constant need for safety checks, inside and outside the
aeroplane
• Assess the students reaction to flying
• Allow the student to get used to the sensation of flight
• Apply Crew Resource Management (CRM) principles: you are to build up the student
through mutual cooperation in all aspects of the cockpit environment. Do not “set out to
show off”

In this exercise you will introduce the student to:

• The primary effects of the elevator, ailerons and rudder

• Straight and level flight using the horizon as a reference
• Instrument indications to monitor aircraft performance
• The correct method of handling the controls
• Attitude flying
• Turning
EXERCISE 4: EFFECTS OF CONTROLS

Of all the flight instructions exercises, “effects of control” is one of the most important and the one
to which Designated Examiners attach particular emphasis in using the correct terminology.

The student must fully understand the primary and further effects of the ELEVATOR, AILERON and
RUDDER as well as the flaps, undercarriage, trim, throttle, mixture and carburettor heat.

PRIMARY EFFECTS OF ELEVATR, AILERON AND RUDDER:

“I am now going to show you the primary effect of the three main flying controls. These are the
elevator, the ailerons and the rudder.

Remember I explained that movement in the PITCHING PLANE is controlled by the ELEVATOR
PITCHES about its LATERAL AXIS which runs from wingtip to wingtip.

Movement in the ROLLING PLANE is controlled by the AILERONS operated by sideways pressure on
the control column and the aircraft ROLLS about its longitudinal axis which runs from the nose
through to the tail.

Movement in the YAWING PLANE is controlled by the RUDDER which is operated by LEFT and RIGHT
pressure on the rudder pedals and the aircraft YAWS about its NORMAL axis which runs roughly
between our seats here from the cockpit roof toward the undercarriage.

Notice we are flying straight and level.

• We are flying straight towards that point on the horizon, in the “4 finger” attitude
(approximately)
• Our wings are level – notice the wingtips are the same distance above the horizon (C172)
• Our nose is in the level flight attitude – the 4 finger attitude
• Our airspeed is 100 mph
• Our attitude is 7500 ft.
• Our VSI is on zero
• Our rev counter shows 2400 rpm

These will be our reference points for this exercise.

First we use our three normal safety precautions:

• LOOKOUT for other traffic (use the clock code)

• We are in the General flying Area and have sufficient height
• Engine TEMPERATURES and PRESSURES (parameters) in the green

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

Now I will show you the primary effects of the ELEVATOR

Notice that when I apply back pressure on the column like this, the nose moves above the horizon in
the direction of the cockpit roof, our airspeed decreases and you can hear a decrease in the engine
rpm.
When I apply forward pressure on the control column forward like this, the nose moves below the
horizon in the direction of the undercarriage, airspeed increases and you can hear the engine rpm
increase.

This effect is called pitching and is controlled by the ELEVATOR. The aircraft pitches about its
LATERAL AXIS.

Do you have any questions?

I would now like to try – you have control”

Now I will show you the primary effects of the AILERONS

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

Notice we are flying straight and level. Our wingtips are the same distance above the horizon (172)

Notice that when I apply pressure to the control column to the left like this the left wingtip moves
below the horizon in the direction of the undercarriage. When I apply pressure to the control
column to the right like this the right wingtip moves below the horizon in the direction of the
undercarriage.

This effect is called ROLLING and is controlled by the AILERONS. The aircraft rolls about its
LONGITUDINAL AXIS.

Do you have any questions?

I would now like you to try – you have control”

Now I show you the primary effect of the RUDDER

Notice we are still flying straight and level and that we are keeping straight on that point in the
distance.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

Notice that when I apply left rudder like this, the nose moves in the direction of the left wingtip and
when I apply right rudder like this the nose moves in the direction of the right wingtip.

This movement is called YAWING and is controlled by the RUDDER. The aircraft YAWS about its
NORMAL AXIS.

Do you have a question?

I would now like you to try – you have control

Now I am going to show you how these controls have the same effects relative to the aircraft
regardless of its attitude.

• First we will look out for other aircraft – All clear your side?
• We are still in the General Flying Area and have sufficient height
• The engine temperatures and pressures are in the green.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

Notice that the aircraft is banked to the left. As I ease the control column back like this the nose
moves toward the cockpit roof. As I ease the control column forward like this the nose moves
toward the undercarriage.

As I apply left rudder like this the nose moves in the direction of the left wingtip and as I apply right
rudder like this the nose moves in the direction of the right wingtip.

As I ease the control column to the left like this… the aircraft rolls to the left … as I ease the control
column to the right like this the aircraft rolls to the right”

So you can see that the controls produce the same effects relative to the aircraft irrespective of the
aircrafts attitude.”

Do you have any questions?

I would like you to try – you have control.”

Adverse aileron Yaw: Co-ordination of aileron and rudder

I am now going to show you the effect of adverse aileron yaw and how to co-ordinate aileron and
rudder.

Remember on the ground I explained that when we roll the aircraft the down-going aileron causes
lift and drag and that the drag causes yaw in the opposite direction to the desired roll. This is known
as ADVERSE AILERON YAW.

• Fist we will look out for other aircraft – All clear your side?
• We are still I the General Flying Area and have sufficient height
• The engine temperatures and pressures are in the green.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me. We are flying straight and level using that point in the distance to keep tracking towards. I
am now slowing the aircraft down to 80mph, and re-trimming for this slower condition. This allows a
more effective demonstration of the exercise.

I am going to move the control column abruptly to the left (or right) rolling the aircraft through 30
degrees without moving the rudder pedals.

Notice that as I move control column to the left like this the nose yaws to the right. Notice also how
the ball swings to the same side as the aileron input, indicating the need for rudder in this direction.

To prevent the nose yawing in the opposite direction, and to keep the ball in the centre we apply
rudder in the same direction as the aileron like this.
Notice how the nose now rolls smoothly around our point on the horizon and the ball is in the
middle. This is the correct co- ordination if aileron and rudder.

Remember, whenever we turn we apply sufficient rudder in the direction of the turn to keep the ball
in the middle. When we roll out of the turn we apply sufficient rudder in the direction of the roll-out
to keep the ball in the middle.

Use aileron and rudder in the ratio of approximately 2:1, leading with aileron.

Do you have any questions?

I would now like to try – you have control.

Secondary of Further Effects of Controls

I am now going to show you the secondary or further effects of controls.

Remember I told you that the further effects are as a result of applying a control movement and
keeping in there.

Because there is no further effect of elevator (apart from changing airspeed), we will only be dealing
with AILERON and RUDDER.

With both these controls the further effect results in a spiral dive.

Before starting, we use our three normal safety precautions.

• First we will look for other aircraft – All clear your side?
• We are still in the General Flying Area and have sufficient height
• The engine temperatures and pressures are in the green.

Notice we are flying straight and level at 7500 ft. our airspeed is 80 mph and revs are 2000 rpm.

I am now going to show you the further effects of the AILERONS

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me. OK your side and below?

Notice as I ease the control column to the left and hold it there, the aircraft rolls to the left and
almost immediately the nose yaws to the left. Due to the lift and weight vectors now being
unbalanced, the aircraft starts to sideslip to the left. The aircraft weathercocks and enters a spiral
dive. Notice how the speed is increasing and the altitude is decreasing.

To recover, I close the throttle, roll the wings level with aileron and rudder, and ease the control
column back to return the nose to the climbing attitude, and as the speed decreases through
100mph, smoothly apply climb power, balancing with rudder.

Do you have questions?

I would now like you to try – you have control

Now I am going to show you the further effect of RUDDER

We use our 3 normal safety checks

• First we will look out for other aircraft – All clear your side?
• We are still in the General Flying Area and have sufficient height
• The engine temperatures and pressures are in the green.

Notice we are flying straight and lever at 7500ft. at 80mph with 2400rpm.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

All clear your side?

Notice that as I apply left rudder and hold it there, the right wings speeds up creating extra lift and
rolls the aircraft to the left. The rudder is still fulfilling its primary function and yawing the nose
toward the left wing tip, which is now below the horizon, and the aircraft enters a spiral dive to the
left.

See how the speed is increasing and the height is decreasing.

To recover, I neutralise the rudder pedals, close the throttle, roll the wings level with aileron and
rudder, and apply back pressure on the control column and return the nose to the climbing attitude ,
and as the speed decreases through 100mph, smoothly apply climb power, balancing with rudder.

Now you have seen how the further effect of rudder causes the aircraft to enter a spiral div the
direction of the applied rudder.

Do you have any questions?

OK, I would like you to try – you have control

The Effects Of Airspeed And Slipstream

I am now going to show you the effect of airspeed and slipstream on the aircraft.

Notice that we are flying straight and level at 100mph. When I move the elevator, ailerons and
rudder they all have a normal feel and response.

Now I am going to apply carb heat, close the throttle lower the nose to increase the speed to
120mph. Notice how all the controls are firmer and more responsive and require smaller
movements for the same effect. Now I am going to raise the nose, which will decrease the airspeed
to 60mph. Feel how ‘sloppy’ and unresponsive all the controls have become. Now maintaining
60mph. I return the carb heat to cold, apply full power, adjusting the pitch attitude for our selected
speed. Apply right rudder to balance.

Notice how the elevator and rudder, which are inside the propeller slipstream are firm and
responsive while the ailerons which are outside the slipstream are ‘sloppy’ and less responsive.
Therefore, aileron response is a good indication of airspeed.

Do you have any questions?

I would like you to try – you have control

The Effects Of Trim

I am now going to show you the effects of the elevator trimmer.

We are flying straight and level – our normal ‘4 finger’ attitude.

You have control.

Maintain the nose in the level flight attitude. Notice, if I wind the elevator trimmer to the ‘nose up’
position like this… forward pressure is required on the control column to maintain level flight.

With your left hand on the control column now use your right hand to wind the trimmer to reset the
position where no forward or backward pressure is required on the control column to maintain level
flight.

Maintain the nose in the flight attitude.

Notice, if I wind the trimmer to the “nose down” position like this, backward pressure is required on
the control column to maintain level flight.

With your left hand on the control column now use your right hand to wind the trimmer to reset the
position where no forward or backward pressure is required on the control column to maintain level
flight.

Remember – never use the trimmer to change the attitude of the aircraft. Always change, check and
hold on the control column and then try out the residual pressure.”

(Explain that any changes to power, airspeed and flap settings will require re-trimming)

Do you have any questions?

The Effects Of Flap

I am now going to show you the effects of flaps.

Remember on the ground I explained that the flap gives extra lift and drag and that every aircraft
has a flap extension limiting speed measured by the white arc on the ASI. If wee exceed this white
arc we can damage the aeroplane if we have flaps extended.

We are now flying straight and level and our speed is 90mph in the white arc.

Notice that when I apply flap like this the nose tries to pitch up and we have an increase in lift.
Although I kept the nose in the level flight attitude we have gained xxx ft. Notice that our speed has
decreased – this is due to the increased drag.

I will now raise the flaps. Notice that the aircraft sinks, the nose tries to pitch down and the airspeed
increases. Although I kept the nose in the level flight attitude we have lost xxx ft.

Remember, anticipate the change of nose attitude as you raise or lower the flaps by applying
sufficient pressure to keep the nose in the correct attitude.

Remember also to raise the flaps in stages in order to control the sink which is a sudden loss of lift.
This is very important when you are near the ground or flying at a low airspeed.

Do you have any questions?

I now would like you to try – you have control

Effects Of Throttle (Power)

Now I will show you the effects of the throttle.

We are flying straight and level and our power is set as 2200 rpm. The aircraft is trimmed so I can
leave my hands and feet off the controls.

Watch the nose as I throttle back to idle. Notice how the nose pitches down, yaws and rolls to the
right. To stop that happening and to hold the straight and level attitude apply a little left rudder and
up elevator like this.

(Return the aircraft to straight and level at 2200 rpm and trim “hands off”).

Now watch the nose as I apply full power. Notice how the nose pitches up, yaws and rolls to the left.
To stop that happening and to hold the straight and level attitude apply a little right rudder and
forward pressure on the control column to hold the straight and level attitude like this. (Return the
aircraft to straight and level at 2200 rpm and trim “hands off”).

Do you have any questions?

I would now like you to try – you have control

Remember, always use the throttle smoothly. Harsh use of the throttle is a sign of poor airmanship
and can damage the engine.

Effects Of Mixture

During subsequent flights cover the following

• The correct use of the mixture control. Use of EGT.

• Read the manufactures operating procedures and control column to them
• Effect on engine temps and result of incorrect leaning
• Always richen mixture before descending. Freda checks
• Connect leaning process on cross-country. Use of EGT.
• Richen mixture for climbing
•

Effect Of Carburettor Heat

There is no specific patter for this section

During subsequent flights cover the following

• Do not use on loose surface. Excessive engine wear

• Carb icing and instrument indications
• Increase fuel consumption
• Only use as recommended in owners operating manual
EXRCISE 5: TAXING

I am now going to show you how to taxi.

Remember I explained to you that from now on when I say “I have control” take your hands and feet
off the controls and when I say “you have control” you will take control of the aircraft.

Before we start taxing we have to consider the following:

• Ensure after start checklist is complete

• Check the windsock to anticipate which runway is in use
• Call the tower for taxi instructions
• Set the QNH on the altimeter
• Check all clear in front and in the direction of taxi.
• Brief on the anticipated routing

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

To start taxiing we throttle back, apply front brakes, release the park brake, then release the foot
brakes and slowly apply sufficient power to overcome inertia and start the aircraft moving. Now
throttle back and test the brakes by bringing the aircraft to a full stop like this.

We open the throttle again to get the aircraft moving and close it slightly so the aircraft does not go
too fast. Try and keep a constant throttle setting like this.

We maintain a fast walking pace and control the speed with the throttle and brakes. We judge the
speed by looking at the ground close to the aircraft.

If we are taxing too fast, close the throttle and apply brakes as necessary like this. If we are going too
slowly, apply sufficient power to increase the speed like this.

NEVER use the brakes without first closing the throttle fully, and be aware of heating up the brakes
unnecessarily while taxiing as this will degrade braking performance.

To stop the aircraft, we close the throttle completely and apply brakes like this. Once stationary we
set the rpm to 1000. Park brake on, and keep pressure on the pedals in case of park brake failure.

Now I will show you how to control direction on the ground. To turn left apply left rudder pressure
like this… to turn right apply right rudder pressure like this. Apply opposite rudder and centralise the
pedals to taxi straight ahead.

If you have full rudder travel and you still need to turn more sharply apply toe brake in the direction
of the turn … like this. This slows us down and we need a little more power to keep moving.

• Always taxi in the centre of the taxiway

• Always keep one hand on the throttle and one on the control column
• Before we enter or cross over a runway, stop well clear and make sure that other aircraft are
not using the runway.
• Ensure that clearance is obtained before entering any active runway.
• Aircraft (including helicopters) taking off, landing and approaching to land have right of way
• Be aware of the wingspan and tail moment when manoeuvring in confined areas.
In subsequent sorties cover the following:

• Right of way rules on the ground

• Control positions when taxiing in the wind
• Effects of surface , gradient, slope
• Effects of slipstream / prop-blast and jet-blast
• Radio terminology
• Parking and magneto check at refuelling bay
• What to do in case of brake failure
• Sufficient turning space e.g. tail swings out, wingtips etc.
• Positioning for the run-up
• Use a strobe lights
• Holding points: turning to avoid prop-blast
• Entering runway and lining up
• Marshalling signals
• Engine handling
• Brake handling
• Instrument checks during turns

EXERCISE 6: STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

Straight and level in the cruise.

I am now going to show you how to fly straight and level.

Keep a constant lookout for other aircraft and tell me immediately (using the clock code) should you
see any.

Notice the horizon is a large circle around us-the wingtips are an equal distance from the horizon
and the aircraft is flying straight ahead. Notice particularly the position of the nose relative to the
horizon (approximately 4 fingers)… this is the correct straight and level attitude and if we maintain
this attitude with cruise power setting we will remain in level flight.

We are flying at a steady height of 7500 feet and towards a point on the horizon, and I am not
applying any effort to keep us flying like this.

Place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow me through.

Now notice, should the nose pitch down like this… we ease back on the control column and
centralise when the nose is in the level attitude again.

Should the nose pitch up like this … we ease forward on the control column and centralise when the
nose is in the level attitude again.

Similarly, we can make small corrections with aileron to maintain wings level, with small coordinated
use of rudder to maintain our track towards our point on the horizon.

Do you have any questions?

Now I would like you to try – you have control.

Straight And Level At Various Power Settings

Now I will show you how to fly straight and level at various power settings. Conduct a thorough
lookout, place your hands and feet lightly o the controls and follow through with me.

Notice we are flying straight and level at cruise power of 2400 rpm, the airspeed is 100mph and the
attitude is 7500ft.

While still maintaining the original attitude and direction we now increase power to full throttle.
Notice that the aircraft climbs and yaws left, so to fly straight and level we must adjust the attitude
and trim.

Now notice the lower nose attitude at the high power setting. The airspeed has increased to xxx
mph and the engine speed has increase to xxx rpm.

While maintaining this attitude we now reduce power to xxx rpm. Notice that the aircraft descends,
so to fly straight and level we must adjust the attitude and trim.

Now notice the high nose attitude at the low power setting and the airspeed has decreased to xxx
mph.

If we decrease the power further we have to pitch the nose to a higher attitude still and the airspeed
fails further.

Eventually we reach a power setting which is too low to enable the aircraft to maintain level flight.

Do you have any questions?

I would now like you to try – you have control

Straight And Level At Various Airspeeds

Now I will show you how to fly straight and level at various airspeeds. Conduct a thorough lookout,
place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through with me.

Notice we are flying straight and level at cruise power of 2400rpm, the airspeed is 100 mph and the
attitude is 7500 ft.

We now require an increase in airspeed to xxx mph. We increase power tit e approximate setting for
the required speed, prevent yaw and as the aircraft accelerates, we gradually lower the nose to
maintain height and allow the speed to settle. We now adjust the power and attitude to give us
exactly xxx mph and trim the pressure off the control column.

Notice the lower nose attitude

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like you to try - you have control

We now wish to reduce speed to the slow safe cruising speed of xxx mph. We reduce power to the
approximate setting required of xxx rpm and prevent yaw. As the aircraft slows down we gradually
raise the nose to maintain attitude and allow the airspeed to settle. We now adjust the power and
attitude to give us exactly xxx mph.

Notice the high nose attitude.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like you to try – you have control

I will now demonstrate two airspeeds for one power setting.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

We will first establish ourselves in straight and level flight 80mph. Notice that to maintain this speed,
we need a relatively high power setting of 2200rpm. I will now increase the airspeed simply by
lowering the nose attitude and letting the sped increase to 105mph. As you saw, I did not touch the
throttle, so therefore we are approximately at the same power setting as previously.

The rpm have increased slightly, simply as a result of changing efficiency with changing airspeed.

Straight And Level With Flaps

Now I will show you the effect of flaps on straight-and level fight.

Notice we are flying straight and level at cruise power of 2200 rpm, the airspeed is 90mph (in the
white arc) and the attitude is 7500 ft.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

While maintaining this attitude we apply 10 degrees flap like this. Notice the nose up pitch and our
attitude increasing. To maintain level flight we need a lower nose attitude like this. Notice our new
attitude for level flight and our airspeed has reduced for the same power setting. We now trim.

While maintaining this nose attitude we now retract the flap. Notice the nose down pitch and our
attitude is decreasing and the speed increasing. So to maintain level flight we raise the nose like this
and trim. This is referred to as ‘sink’ and we must bear this in mind whenever we raise flap close to
the ground.

To summarise then, we need a lower nose attitude with flap to maintain straight and level flight and
a higher nose attitude without flat to maintain straight and level flight.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like you to try – you have control

EXERCISE 7: CLIMBING

Now I am going to show you how to climb.

Notice we are flying straight and level. Before we enter the climb we lookout for other aircraft
particularly ahead and above in the direction of the climb.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me

We will use the mnemonic P.A.S.T (Power, Attitude, Speed, Trim) and C.C.H.A.T (Change, Check,
Hold, Adjust, Trim) To enter the climb we open the throttle smoothly and fully and gently ease back
on the control column, while maintaining balance with rudder, and raise the nose into the climbing
attitude like this, and hold it in this position.

To maintain the climb - we hold the nose in the climb attitude, allow the speed to settle to the
correct airspeed and trim the elevator.

Notice the wingtips are the same distance from the horizon and we are flying straight to our point
on the horizon.

Notice carefully the position of the nose relative to the horizon. This is the correct climbing attitude
and if we maintain this attitude the aircraft will be flying at the correct climb speed of 80 mph,
provided we have climb power set.

If the nose attitude is too low, like this… the speed will increase so we ease back on the control
column to return the nose to the correct attitude like this and trim.

If the nose attitude is too high like this the airspeed will decrease, so we lower the nose to the
correct attitude like this… and trim.

Notice we have full throttle so we use the elevator to control the airspeed.

As we cannot see ahead of the aeroplane due to the high nose attitude we must lower the nose
briefly form time to time to look ahead.

Check the engine temp and pressure frequently during the climb as the combination of high power
and low airspeed increases the engine temperature.

Note the flight instrument indications in the climb, the airspeed is correct, the altimeter is
increasing, the VSI shows a steady rate of climb, the AH shows the nose in a high attitude and the-
wings are level.

To level off form the climb we use the mnemonic A>S>P>T> (Attitude, Speed, Power, Trim). Ease the
control column forward and return the nose to the “straight and level attitude”. We allow the speed
to increase to our normal cruise speed and gradually reduce power until we are at the correct cruise
power setting of xxx rpm. We then trim the elevator. Notice how the aircraft yaws to the right as we
reduce power, which we correct with the left rudder.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like to try – you have control.

Now I will show you the effect of flap in the climb. Place your hands lightly on the controls and
follow through with me.
Notice we are in the normal climb attitude the speed is xxx mph, the rate of climb on the VSI is xxx
ft. /min, the ball is in the middle and the aircraft is correctly trimmed.

Now we apply xx degrees of flap. Notice the change of trim as the nose pitches up/down. To
maintain the same climb speed we must pitch the nose onto a lower attitude. Note the reduced rate
of climb at xxx ft. /min.

Now I will show you the effect of retracting the flap quickly. This is not the correct method and is for
demonstration purposes only. As we retract the flap fully in one movement like this… notice the
aircraft sinks considerably, that there is a large attitude change and that large control loads are
required to maintain the correct glide speed. A large trim correction is also required.

Because of the sink and the difficulty of maintaining control, it may be dangerous to retract flap
quickly close to the ground.

Now I will show you the correct method of retracting flap.

Notice we are in a steady climb with xxx flap at xxx mph with the aircraft trimmed.

Now we slowly ease off xx degrees of flap and control the sink with the elevator. The control loads
are light and trim changes are small. Notice the improved rate of climb.

Now wee slowly ease off xx degrees of flap and again note that the sink is controllable and the rate
of climb improved. Now re-trim.

Remember that to control the sink we must retract flap slowly.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like you to try – you have control.

Note: This may be incorporated as one demonstration

EXERCISE 8: DESENDING

Now I will show you how to descend. Notice we are flying straight and level at cruising power.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through with
me.

We will use the mnemonics P.A.S.T. and C.C.H.A.T.

To enter the glide, apply carburettor heat and close the throttle fully while maintaining the nose in
the “level flight attitude”. We allow the speed to decrease in the level flight attitude until just
before the gliding speed of xxx mph when we lower the nose to pitch below the horizon like this …
into the gliding attitude and hold it there. Notice the yaw to the right as we closed the throttle,
which we correct with left rudder.

To maintain the glide we trim the elevator. Notice the wingtips are an equal distance from the
horizon and we are flying straight ahead.

Take careful note of the position of the nose relative to the horizon. This is the correct gliding
attitude and if we maintain this attitude the speed will always be xxx mph which give us our best
gliding distance.
If the nose attitude is too high like this speed will decrease and if it is too low like this… the speed
will increase. Return the nose to the correct gliding attitude like this and the speed will always be at
the correct gliding speed.

Notice, because of the lower nose attitude, we can see clearly ahead and below the aeroplane.

For every 2000 ft. of descent we must do an engine warm-up to prevent plug fouling and carburettor
ice. We apply carburettor heat and gently open the throttle to the beginning of the green are on the
rpm gauge and count to 5 seconds. At the same time we raise the nose slightly to maintain the
speed at the correct gliding speed. We then smoothly close the throttle and lower the nose to the
correct gliding attitude.

To level off from the glide we set the carb heat to cold and smoothly open the throttle to the normal
cruise power of 2400 rpm, ease the nose up into the straight and level and hold it there.

With the aircraft stabilised in straight and level flight allow the speed to increase to the normal
cruise speed of 100 mph and trim the pressure off the elevator. (Power, attitude, speed, trim)

Notice the yaw to the left as we apply power, which we correct with right rudder (and trim).

Check on the VSI and altimeter that the aircraft is in level flight and adjust the attitude as necessary.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would like you to try – you have control

The Effect Of Flap and Power on The Descent

Now I will show you the effect of flap in the glide.

Notice we are in a straight glide in the correct attitude, the airspeed is 80 mph and the rate of
descent is 700 ft/min.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me. Notice the aircraft is correctly trimmed.

Now we apply 10 degrees of flap. Notice the nose pitches up/down so to maintain the correct glide
speed we must pitch the nose into a lower attitude. Notice the increased rate of descent at xxx
ft/min which gives us a steeper angle of descent.

Now we apply full flap. Notice the additional pitch change and the lower nose attitude to maintain
the same glide speed. Notice the high rate of descent now xxx ft/min.

Now I will demonstrate the effect of power on the descent. Notice we are gliding in a straight line in
the correct attitude; the airspeed is 80mph and the rate of descent is 700 ft/min.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me. Notice that the aircraft is correctly trimmed.

If we now increase power to xxx rpm, balancing with rudder like this and adjust the attitude with the
elevator to maintain airspeed at xxx mph notice the rate of descent is reduced to xxx ft/min.
A further increase in power to xxx rpm results in a higher nose attitude and a lower rate of descent
at xxx ft/min.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like you to try – you have control

That was fine – I have control.

EXERCISE 9: MEDIUM TURNS

I will now show you how to do a medium turn.

Remember in the classroom I explained to you a medium turn requires 30 deg. angle of bank and
that you use this mark on the artificial horizon to establish the correct angle.

Before we attempt to turn we look out all around us, above and below the horizon, and especially
behind us in the direction of the turn. We are looking for other aircraft, the position of the sun, any
cloud and the reference point we wish to roll out on. We maintain a careful lookout during and after
the turn.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

To enter the turn we ease the control column to the left and apply a little rudder to maintain
balance like this… and at the correct angel of bank we centralise the aileron and the rudder and hold
it there.

To maintain the turn, we must note that the nose is sweeping smoothly round the horizon but that
the nose tends to pitch below the level attitude. To prevent this happening we apply a slight back
pressure on the control column like this to hold the nose in the level attitude.

This is the correct attitude for a 30 degree bank level turn to the left. (It will be different to the right,
which I will demonstrate shortly). Notice that when we apply too much left rudder the ball moves to
the outside of the turn indicating a skid. We ease off excessive left rudder like this… and notice the
ball returns to the centre.

Now notice that when we apply too much right rudder the ball moves to the inside of the turn
indicating a slip. We now apply left rudder like this… and the ball returns to the centre and the
aircraft is in a balanced turn.

If the angle of bank should increase like this … we apply right aileron and right rudder to return to
the correct angle, like this. If the angle of bank is too little like this … we apply left aileron and left
rudder to increase it to the correct angle, like this.

Notice the position and angle of the nose relative to the horizon. If we maintain this attitude we will
be in a level turn at a constant rate.

Notice that the airspeed is constant at xxx mph, slightly less than level flight. This is normal and is
due to the increased drag in a turn. Notice that the VSI is on zero and that the altimeter is at a
constant xxx ft, so we are not gaining or losing height, that the Turn indicator and DI show a steady
turn to the left, while the ball is in the middle showing we are in a balanced flight and that the AH
shows 30 degrees of bank with the nose on the horizon.
The roll out of the turn, we first anticipate the heading we want to roll out on. Slightly before we get
there we apply right aileron and sufficient rudder to maintain balance like this, centralise the
controls as the wings come level and ease the back pressure off the control column to maintain the
nose in the level flight attitude.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like you to try – you have control

EXERCISE 9: CLIMBING AND DESCENDING TURNS

Now I will show you how to do a climbing turn.

Remember in the classroom I explained that a climbing turn requires 15 degrees angle of bank and
that you use the mark on the Aircraft Horizon to establish the correct angle.

Notice that we are climbing straight ahead at the correct airspeed of 80mph, the rate of climb is xxx
ft/min and the aircraft is in balanced flight.

I will be demonstrating a climbing turn to the left. Before we enter the turn we have a good lookout
for other traffic particularly in the direction of the turn.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

To enter the turn we apply left aileron and sufficient left rudder to maintain balance like this… and at
the correct angle of bank we centralise the aileron and maintain slight rudder input to achieve
balance and hold it there.

Notice the airspeed has increased due to the extra drag in the turn. We must therefore lower the
nose slightly to maintain the correct climbing airspeed of 80mph.

Maintaining the turn. Notice that there is a strong tendency to over-bank, so to maintain a constant
angle of bank we need to “hold off” bank slightly with the ailerons. We maintain balance with
rudder.

Notice the small angle of bank compared to the medium turn and the slow rate at which the nose is
moving around the horizon.

The normal climbing speed is maintained by small adjustments controlled by the elevator. Notice the
lower nose attitude to maintain the same speed.

Notice the rate of climb is now xxx ft/min and the AH indicated a bank to the left with the nose
above the horizon.

To roll out of the turn we first anticipate the heading we want to roll out on. Slightly before we get
there we ease the control column to the right and then apply a little right rudder like this…
centralising the controls when the wings are level.

Now we raise the nose to the normal climbing attitude to maintain the correct climbing airspeed of
80mph.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like you to try – you have controls.

Now I will show you how to enter and maintain a gliding turn.

Remember I explained that a gliding turn requires 15 to 30 degrees of bank. Notice we are gliding
straight ahead at the correct airspeed for 80mph, the rate of descent is 700ft/min and the aircraft is
in balanced flight.

I will be demonstrating a gliding turn to the left.

Before we enter turn we have a good lookout for other traffic particularly in the direction of the
turn.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

To enter the turn we first lower the nose slightly and hold it there, like this. Now we ease the control
column to the left and apply sufficient left rudder to maintain balance, like this … at the correct
angle of bank we reduce the amount of control deflection and hold it there. Note: descending turns
require bank held on, while level and climbing turns require bank held off.

Maintaining the turn. Notice there is a tendency to under-bank, so to maintain a constant angle of
bank we have to “hold on” bank with the ailerons. We maintain balance with the rudder.

The normal gliding speed is maintained by small adjustments to the attitude, controlled by the
elevator.

Notice the rate of descent is now xxx ft/min and that the AH indicates a 15 deg. angle of bank to the
left with the nose below the horizon.

To roll out of the turn we first anticipate the heading we want to roll out on. Slightly before we get
there, ease the control column to the right. Apply sufficient right rudder to maintain balance, like
this … centralising the controls when the wings are level. Now we maintain the nose in the normal
gliding attitude to achieve the correct gliding speed of 80 mph.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would like you to try – you have control

EXCERISE 10: STALLING

The Students First Stall

The student’s training is planned so that he is introduced to the first stall at the end of the sortie
prior to the sortie in which he will practise stalls. The objective is to assist the student overcome any
misapprehension he might have about stalling.

Introduce the stall in the following manner.

I am now going to demonstrate a wings level, power off, stall. Some students may be apprehensive
about stalling, so for this demonstration I want you to sit back and watch.

First of all there are safety precautions we have to take. Our vital actions in this case are based on
the mnemonic HASSELL.
HEIGHT: Sufficient height to recover 2000 ft above ground level (therefore allow a minimum
of 3000 ft AGL to allow 1000 ft for the manoeuvre itself).

AIRFRAME: Brakes fully off, undercarriage retracted, flaps retracted.

SECURITY: Harness tight, seats locked, no loose articles in the cockpit.

ENGINE: Temps and pressures in the green, mixture set for the recovery (slightly richer), carb
heat as required, pitch fine, fuel pump on, fuel on fullest tank.

LOCATION: Not over built-up area or gathering of people, not over a large expanse of water, not
over rugged terrain, not in an airfield ATZ, not in an airway. Forced landing field in
sight and within easy gliding distance.

LOOKOUT: 30 degrees banked level turn to the left, 360 degree circumference. After 270
degrees we can apply full throttle and enter a steep turn to remain within the radius
inspected. All clear of other aircraft below. Note cloud and position of the sun for
rollout, check forced landing site.

As we roll out of the lookout turn, I will level the wings, apply carb heat, close the throttle and
ease the control column to maintain height and check the yaw to the right with left rudder to keep
straight.

Notice the airspeed is decreasing, the high nose attitude, the controls are becoming ineffective
(sloppy) and the aircraft is getting quitter. We feel a slight buffet in the airframe and the stall
warning comes on.

I now ease the control column fully back and there… the nose pitches down and the aircraft stalls.

I now recover into the level flight attitude, and apply full power and carb heat to cold.

That wasn’t a violent of unpleasant manoeuvre, was it?

Notice also how easily we regained control of the aircraft.

The Effect Of Power On The Recovery

I will now show you how to recover from a stall with power. This is for a recovery when ground
contact is a factor.

First we carry out the HASSEL checks. Let’s go through them together. Repeat HASSEL as above.

Now notice we are flying straight and level 7500ft and 100mph.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through with
me.

First we apply carb heat, close the throttle fully and ease the control column back to maintain
height. Notice the airspeed decreasing, the aircraft becoming quieter, ineffective controls, then,
slight buffet and the stall warning comes on. I now ease the control column fully back and there
… the nose pitches down and the aircraft stalls.
To recover we ease the control column forward and hold the nose on the horizon and immediately
apply full power, returning carb heat to cold, balancing with rudder. Let the speed build up into
the green arc. We then ease into a climb and accelerate to 80mph, while maintaining full power.

Notice our height is now xxx ft, we have lost xxx ft during the recovery and we stalled at xxx mph.
Let us now complete the manoeuvre by carrying out the after take-off checks.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would now like you to try – you have control

The Effect Of Power On The Stall

Now I will show you the effect of power on the stall. First we do our vital actions – HASSEL.

Notice we are flying straight and level 7500 ft and 100 mph.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through
with me.

We reduce power to 1800 rpm and progressively ease back on the control column. Note that the
speed reduces slower with power.

The elevator and rudder remain effective at the low speed due to the slipstream effect, but the
ailerons are less effective.

Note the speed as the aircraft stalls and the suddenness of the stall. There is a tendency to drop a
wing, which you must resist the use of aileron to correct, and use rudder instead.

Recover with power, and complete the after take-off checks.

Do you have any questions?

OK I would like you to try – you have control

Effect Of Flap On The Stall

Now I will show you the effect of flap on the stall. First we do our vital actions – HASELL. However,
we will only re-configure the aircraft as we commence the manoeuvre.

Notice we are flying straight and level at 7500 ft and 90 mph and we are applying full flap. Place
your hands and feet on the controls and follow through with me.

WE apply carb heat, close the throttle and progressively ease the control column back to maintain
height. Note how rapidly the speed decreases. Note the speed and attitude as the aircraft stalls
and the suddenness of the stall. There may be a tendency to drop wing.

Recover with power, and retract flap immediately to 20 degrees. Hold the nose on the horizon
until reaching 80mph, positive rate of climb and flap to 10 degrees. Climb away, balance with
rudder and after take-off checks, retracting flap completely. Did you notice the difference in stall
speed with flaps extended?

Do you have any questions?

OK I would like you to try – you have control

 EXERCISE 12: TAKE-OFF

The instructor must cover the following points:

• Facing into the wind for the run-up, looking out behind, clear of the runway,
• Engine run-up, use of the checklist.
• Vital actions before take-off, use of the checklist
• Lookout, take-off radio clearance before lining up
• Lining up on runway centreline, without reducing available runway unnecessarily
• Check DI/ compass set to runway heading, check windsock, check runway ahead clear

Conventional take-off into wind.

Now I will show you how to accomplish a normal take-off.

Before we take-off, we need to mentally prepare ourselves and recap exactly what we are about to
do. This is best accomplished by a “before take-off briefing”, which is as follows.

“This will be a normal (/short field / soft field) take-off from runway xx. I will accelerate to 55 mph
and then get airborne at 65mph, climbing away at 80mph. In the event of a decision to stop, I will
close the throttle, simultaneously applying brakes and stop on the runway. I will then inform ATC,
and assess the situation. Once airborne, with sufficient runway ahead, I shall close the throttle,
apply full flap, land back on the runway, stop and inform ATC. With insufficient runway, I shall
choose a field within 30 degrees of my heading, and will consider speed, field, fault, flaps, final and
land in the selected area”

Now that we briefed ourselves, we close the throttle, release the braked, add power and line up on
the runway centreline. Select a reference point on the horizon with which we can keep straight on.
Check the windsock for correct wind direction, DI and compass set to runway heading and runway
ahead is clear. Taxi forward a short distance to ensure that the nose-wheel is straight along the
required take-off path, check engine temperatures and pressures are in the normal range. Place your
heels on the floor (to prevent inadvertent brake application). Hold the control column in the central
position and open the throttle progressively (take about three seconds to achieve full throttle) and
use the rudder pedals to control our direction.

Check the engine rpm is approximately 2300 rpm for full power, check airspeed alive and the aircraft
accelerates normally. As the speed increases we ease back slightly on the control column to reduce
pressure on the nose-wheel and get the aircraft into the take-off attitude. At approximately 60 mph
we ease back a little more on the control column and the aircraft leaves the ground.

Remember that we now control airspeed with elevator, so ease off the back pressure slightly on the
control column and allow the aircraft to accelerate to the correct climb speed, then raise the nose into
the climbing attitude, hold it there and trim. Maintain the ball in the middle with steady pressure on
the right rudder pedal, and maintain direction with reference to our point on the horizon. Keep your
right hand on the throttle at all times.
As we reach 300 ft we do our actions after take- off

B Brakes on and off

U Undercarriage fixed/up

P Power set, full power for the take-off

P Pitch set for the climb

M Mixture set

F Fuel pump off, pressure in the green*

F Flaps retracted

L Landing lights off

At 500ft AAL we look out for other aircraft and enter a climbing turn to the left (or right) onto
crosswind.

Engine assisted approach and landing

Now I will show you how to make an engine assisted approach and landing.

On the downwind leg, ensure that any drift away from or towards the runway is properly compensated
for to ensure a correctly spaced circuit. Target airspeed 90mph. Abeam the tower, we can make our
downwind radio call as appropriate, and then start the pre-landing vital actions:

B Brakes on and off (to ensure that we still have brake pressure)

U Undercarriage fixed / down and locked *

M Mixture set richer in anticipation of the go-around

P Pitch set to top of green arc

P Power set to maintain 90mph

F Fuel set to correct selection for landing, pump on, quality sufficient for go-around

F Flaps to 10 degrees (check speed in white arc)

L Landing light on.

Notice that the runway threshold is now at 45deg. behind us. We look out for other traffic and enter
a 30deg banked level turn onto left base and allow for drift.

Now we apply carb heat and reduce power to 1700 rpm, select 20 degrees of flap and keep the nose
level until the airspeed reduces to 80mph. We now lower the nose to maintain the correct speed and
trim. We keep looking at the threshold to judge our turn onto final approach, aiming to be 700ft AAL
at the end of our base leg. Use elevators to control speed and throttle to control rate of descent.

Look out carefully for aircraft on final approach and enter a 15 degree banked descending turn onto
final approach.

As the wings come level, carb heat cold, and select flap 30, and trim for 75mph. Radio call “Final
approach runway xx touch and go / full stop”
Now we use the elevators to control the airspeed and power to control the rate of descent. We want
the runway threshold to maintain a constant position on the windshield, and simply become bigger as
we get closer. If the runway moves down the windshield and start disappearing under the nose, we
are overshooting, so we reduce power; if the runway is moving up the windshield, we are
undershooting, so we increase power. We keep adjusting the approach in this way to achieve the
required touch-down point.

We now reduce airspeed to 70 mph and adjust the nose attitude to maintain the correct approach
speed, and trim the elevator. Maintain flap at 30 degrees, unless a short-field landing is required,
where we select full flap.

Keep your hand on the throttle. Now start looking well ahead to the left of the nose cowling.

As we see the ground ‘rush’ up to us (about the height of a first floor building) we close the throttle
completely and simultaneously ease back on the control column until the aircraft is flying just above
and parallel to the ground and check. Focus on a point as far as you can see ahead on the runway.

We now start to “hold off” easing the control column back until almost fully back and the main wheels
touch down. Keep the wings level throughout with aileron, and rudder to control nose direction …
now keep the control column fully back until the nose gently lowers itself and the nose-wheel touches
the ground. If we see we are rising (ballooning), freeze the control position, and wait for airspeed
decay to result in sink, and then continue the hold off. We now keep straight rudder in the normal
way, holding aileron into wind as required. The landing is not over until we slow to walking speed and
vacate the runway.

The glide approach to landing.

Now I will show you how to do a circuit and landing from a GLIDE APPROACH. The object of this
exercise is to develop your ability to judge glide performance from 1000’. This is the basis of a forced
landing.

After we have made our downwind call, we then commence our vital actions with exception of flap.
We keep the aircraft clean until we need to use in the glide decent

Now we look out carefully for other aircraft particularly to the right of base leg. When the runway
threshold passes behind the left aileron we look left and enter a 30 degree banked level turn onto
base leg, where we aim to track at 90 degrees towards the runway. (In strong winds it may be
necessary to head the aircraft into wind as much as 15 degrees to counteract drift).

When we decide that we are within gliding distance of the runway, a position that will vary according
to the wind speed, we apply carb heat, throttle back maintaining level flight and allow the speed to
decrease to 80mph and adopt gliding attitude. On this leg we look at the runway threshold and
determine our rate of descent versus our ground speed, and if necessary, modify the base leg to allow
for undershooting or overshooting situations (hammerhead or cut the corner).

We commence a gliding turn from a position that will bring us in line with the runway when we roll
out, like this… and correct for drift remain on the centreline. Relax and make yourself comfortable for
the final approach. We use flap to add drag increase our rate of descent, so when we are sure of
making the runway, start applying flap, and trim. Once on final approach, radio call as usual. We aim
our glide approach to land 1/3 along the runway, and then bring this point to the threshold with full
flap.
On short final, check carb heat cold for a potential go-around, and be prepared for a more positive
round out and flare, due to our increased rate of descent. The hold off and touch down are as per the
previous exercise.

The Go-around

Now I will show you how to go around in the event of decision to abandon the approach.

Notice we are approaching with full flap, with the elevator correctly trimmed and at the correct speed
of 70mph. conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow
through with me.

I now open the throttle fully, simultaneously returning the carb heat to cold, preventing yaw with right
rudder and set the climb attitude. Do not allow the nose to continue pitching up beyond this attitude
and watch your airspeed carefully. Immediately retract the flaps to 20 degrees, and anticipate the
resultant sink. Once a positive rate of climb is established, retract flap to 10 degrees, and climb away
at 80mph to a point on the horizon.

At 300 ft AGL we carry out the after take-off checks and retract the flap to 0. Adjust the nose attitude
to increase the climb speed to 80mph.

Do you have any questions?

Short/Soft/Rough Field Take-Off

Now I will show you how to get airborne in the shortest possible distance, assuming no obstacle ahead
of us.

We carry out the normal engine run-up and vital actions before take-off, except that we apply the
optimum flap setting of 10 degrees. When lining up, we manoeuvre the aircraft into a position as close
to the runway end as possible to give us the maximum possible take-off run and apply the brakes.

Now we hold the control column in the neutral position and run the engine up to the full power. The
brakes will hold. At high elevation airfields (like Grand Central), we may fine-tune the mixture for
optimum performance. Check engine parameters, hold the control column aft of neutral and release
the brakes, keeping straight with the rudder. Be aware that on loose surfaces, we will keep stationary
for as minimum as possible.

At the correct speed of 55mph ease the control column back to lift the aircraft off, fly level until
achieving a speed of 65mph, then adopt a climbing attitude.

Notice the short take-off run and slightly steeper angle of climb.

At a safe height we increase speed to the normal climb speed of 70 to 80 mph and complete the vital
actions. Retract the flap, adjust the attitude to maintain the correct climb and trim the elevator.

Please note: refer to the POH for obstacle clearance techniques, as this is normally accomplished in
the clean configuration.

Engine Failure After Take-Off

Now I will show you what action to take in the event of an engine failure after take-off. I will
demonstrate this form 500’ AAL.
Should the engine fail now like this… close the throttle and lower the nose into the gliding attitude
and maintain the correct gliding speed of 80mph. simultaneously we complete our vital actions as
follows:

• Throttle closed
• Mixture rich
• Fuel pump on *
• Change tanks *
• Carb heat on
• Primer locked
• Check engine parameters

At the same time choose the best landing area within 30 degrees of our heading. Never try and turn
back to the field as you will not make it. Small turns may be made to either side of the heading to
achieve the best landing area. Open the throttle to check for a possible re-start. If not, select flap as
required and carry out the following (simulate):

• Fuel selector off

• Mixture ICO (idle cut off)
• Throttle closed
• Magnetos off
• Unlatch doors
• Master off (with full flap selected)

Call “Mayday” on the radio if time permits. Instruct your passengers to assume “brace” positions.
Carry out the best possible landing and evacuate the aircraft after coming to a stop.

Short Landing

Now I will show you how to achieve a short-field landing.

We turn onto base leg and commence the descent as for the engine-assisted approach.

We look out for other aircraft on finals, check all clear and turn onto final approach and apply flap as
for the engine-assisted approach. Once stabilised, we apply full flap and establish our airspeed at 65-
70mph.

We now control the rate of descent with power and the speed with elevator to bring us to our pre-
selected point. We can expect a positive round-out, and we simultaneously close the throttle fully and
the wheels touch down immediately.

Now we retract flap while still rolling for maximum braking, keeping straight rudder.

Notice the very short landing run.

Note: Be aware of being on the wrong side of the drag curve with full flap and 65mph. Do not descend
below the glide slope.
EXERCISE 11: SPINNING

The students first spin.

It is up to you – the instructor, to remove any apprehension by introducing the student to spinning in
a relaxed and positive way and setting the student at ease.

This is done by demonstrating a spin, usually at the end of the lesson prior to the lesson dealing with
spinning. In this way the ice is broken, so to speak, so that the student knows what to except.

The procedure should be as follow:

Now I will show you a spin to the left.

First of all we carry out the safety checks, HASELL.

As I roll the wings level from the HASELL inspection turn we will be ready to commence. Look ahead.
The entry is similar to a stall, but we induce yaw, which causes the aircraft to spin. Here we go. As the
speed falls below 45mph we ease the control column fully back and hold it there and apply FULL left
rudder and hold it there like this… the left wing will stall and drop.

As the wing drops, hold the control column fully back with full left rudder application.

There, the aircraft spins and we keep the rudder fully applied and the control column right back.

Notice the high rate of descend and the steady low airspeed and that the turn indicator is hard over
to the left.

We complete one turn, and now we recover by applying opposite rudder and releasing the back
pressure on the control column. Immediately the airspeed will increase, so we ease out of the dive,
level wings with aileron, and set the climb attitude. As the speed reaches our climb speed, we set carb
heat to cold and apply climb power and regain altitude.

Notice the positive recovery from the spin and that the sensation is not too unpleasant.

Notice we have lost xxx ft.

Do you have any questions?

I would now like you to try – you have control

The Incipient Spin

Now I will show you how to enter and recover from an incipient spin.

First we carry out our safety checks. HASELL.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through with
me.

We will do this demonstration from wings level entry. As the wings come level from our lookout
inspection turn I reduce the power to 1800rpm and ease back on the control column to give a high
nose attitude like this.

At the same time I apply too much right rudder and keep the aircraft flying straight ahead with
sufficient left aileron, like this... to deliberately keep the aircraft out balance…
Notice the speed decreasing, although I have to open the throttle slightly to maintain 1800rpm…
there, the right wing stalls and drops and the nose pitches below the horizon.

To recover I close the throttle fully. Apply left rudder and ease the control column forward to un-stall
wing.

As the wing come level we centralise the rudder and ease out of the dive. As the nose passes through
the horizon we check the airspeed is below 100mph and apply full power.

We now climb back to our entry height and complete our vital actions after take-off.

Do you have any questions?

I would now like you to try – you have control

EXERCISE 8: SIDESLIPPING (this exercise forms part of descending NB NB NB)

I will now show you a sideslip where wee track straight ahead.

A sideslip is used, usually on the approach for landing, when we want to lose height rapidly without
increasing forward speed. (Note: Side slipping with flap is forbidden in some aeroplanes. Consult the
manufacturers handling notes).

Choose a line feature along which we can track. From our straight and level flight path, we must first
initiate a power off glide. Apply carb heat and smoothly close the throttle, balancing with rudder. Hold
the level attitude. Trim 80mph. Notice we are in a straight glide towards that point on the ground and
our rate of descent is 750ft/min.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through with me.

To enter the sideslip we apply left aileron to roll in the desired sideslip direction and simultaneously
right rudder to stop the secondary effect of roll. We now progressively apply right rudder until we
have full right rudder, using sufficient LEFT aileron to keep straight.

We use the elevator to control the nose attitude and to maintain the correct glide speed.

The rudder is used to control direction and the aileron to control angle of bank, which controls rate of
descent. Aileron may also be used to steer the aircraft along our line feature.

Notice our airspeed is still 80mph, but now our rate of descent is now +/- 1200ft/min.

To recover, we simultaneously slowly level the wings and centralise the rudder, moving the control
column slightly forward to maintain the correct gliding speed. Check balance after the recovery.

Note: Be aware that for a C172, slipping to the left results in airspeed under reading (safe tendency)
and to the right, speed will over read (unsafe tendency).

Do you have any questions?

I would now like you to try – you have control

EXCERSISE 15: STEEP TURNS

Now I will show you how to accomplish a step turn.

Before we start we carry out our safety checks.

• Ensure that we are in the General Flying Area.

• We are at least 2000 ft. above ground level
• Engine parameters are in the green (fuel pump on if required)
• Lookout for other aircraft particularly in the direction of the tur and behind us in that direction.
• Check the position of the sun and any cloud
• Select a point to roll out on
• Speed at 100mph for C17.

Remember on the ground I explained that a steep turn call 45 degrees angle of bank. Which we see
here on the A/H. Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and
follow through with me. We will start with a steep turn to the left.

We enter the turn initially for a medium turn, co-ordinating aileron and rudder, but roll to a much
steeper angle of bank, which is 45 degrees – applying full throttle as we roll through 30 degrees. Hold
the nose on the horizon by progressive backward pressure on the control column. As we reach 45
degrees we centralise the aileron and rudder, and hold a constant attitude with reference to the nose
position and angle of bank in relation to the horizon.

Notice where the nose cuts the horizon o this is the correct attitude for a steep turn to the left. It will
be different to the right, which I will show you in a moment.

Notice the fast rate at which the nose moves around the horizon and that the turn is properly balanced
with the ball in the centre.

To maintain the turn we control the angle of bank with the aileron and the nose attitude with the
elevator, using the rudder to maintain balance. Notice the airspeed has decreased to xxx mph. This is
normal and is due to the increased drag in the turn. Notice we also never trim the aircraft in a turn.

To roll out of the turn we anticipate the heading we want to roll out on and 20 degrees before getting
there we start rolling out to the right with co-ordinated use of aileron and rudder … at the same time
we ease the control column forward and reduce power to normal cruising power like this… We are
now back to straight and level.

Do you have any questions?

I would now like you to try – you have control

I will now show you a steep turn to the right and I want you to take particular note of the difference
in nose attitude. The instructor is to now demonstrate a steep turn to the right.
EXERCISE 17A: FLOW FLYING

The exercise is not allowed to be carried out legally by a solo student.

There are four aspects to be covered in this exercise and the following is recommended as a guide.

1. Descending

When descending for low flying we descend at cruising speed at a moderate rate of descent.
During the descent look out for other aircraft and any obstructions and make gentle turns to
clear the blind spot. Broadcast intentions. As we get closer to the ground notice the
increasing impression of speed and the ground features take on a third dimension not visible
from greater heights.

2. Familiarisation

(Note: The CAR’s state that you may fly below 500 ft. AGL outside of controlled airspace
provided you do not constitute a hazard to people, livestock, buildings, property etc.) Now we
have descended to +- 500 ft. AGL, we set cruising g and trim for level flight with a slight nose
–up tendency, so if we release the control column, the aircraft will climb. Note that we do not
use the altimeter to check our height above ground, so we have to rely on our visual
impressions of speed and height.

Note also that in certain conditions we can expect mild turbulence at low level.

As we approach high ground we must anticipate the need to apply climb power early. Take
care that slope of the ground does not exceed the climb performance of the aircraft. We
always maintain a high airspeed are low level and increase power in turns. Keep a constant
lookout at all times for obstacles such as radio masts, power cables etc.

3. Effect of wind

Notice that the wind is blowing from our left/right. The drift is much more apparent than at
high attitude. To maintain our track we head the aircraft into wind. We must make adequate
allowance for wind drift to avoid obstacles. Notice that we are now flying into wind. The
airspeed is 100mph, but we see the groundspeed appears to be too slow. It is not necessary
to increase power.

Now we are turning downwind. Notice that the wind drift gives us the impression that we are
slipping into the turn. We check the slip indicator for balance and resist the temptation to
apply top rudder. We must be careful turning around obstacles, as we drift more than
anticipation and compromise our clearance.

We are now flying downwind. The airspeed is still 100 mph, but now the speed appears to be
faster. We must not decrease power as the airspeed is correct – it is the groundspeed that has
increased.

We are flying with a crosswind, and it appears that we are skidding. This will be accentuated
in a turn, so we must rely on our slip indicator for correct rudder application. Resist the
temptation to apply more bank.

We must be careful turning in front of obstacles as the aircraft will drift outwards.
 4. Low level turns.

When turning at low level we must keep a careful lookout for other aircraft, obstacles and
change in ground level. Notice the tight radius of a turn into wind… and notice the radius
increases considerably downwind.

EXERCISE 12, 13 E: CROSSWIND TAKE-OFF AND LANDING

Crosswind take-off.

Now I will show you how to take off into a crosswind.

Be aware of the crosswind limitations of both the aircraft and your own ability.

Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and follow through with
me.

Notice the wind is from right. At the start of the take-off roll we apply a significant amount of right
aileron and as we begin to move we prevent weathercock action by the application of left rudder. As
the aircraft accelerates we gradually reduce the aileron and maintain directional control positively
with rudder.

At 65mph ease the control column back to lift the aircraft cleanly off the ground like this… centralise
the ailerons, allow the aircraft to weathercock into wind and track straight along the runway and fly
in a shallow climb until the correct climbing speed of 80mph is reached.

We now continue as for the normal climb out.

Approach and Landing

On the downwind leg we turn the aircraft into wind sufficiently to track parallel to the runway and
continue as for normal downwind. On the base leg we turn the aircraft into wind sufficiently to
counteract any drift and continue as for normal crosswind. Bear in mind that one may have a tailwind
of headwind, which will affect the time we have to complete our normal base leg actions.

As we turn onto final approach we allow for the effect of the crosswind so that we roll out on the
runway centreline. We now head the aircraft into wind on final approach in order to track straight
with the runway. We are being drifted by the wind back onto our desired track, which is called the
crab technique. Conduct a thorough lookout, place your hands and feet lightly on the controls and
follow through with me.

Notice the aircraft is “crabbing” into wind, which is from the right.

At about 100’, we apply rudder to yaw the nose to be in line with the runway centreline and
simultaneously apply into wind aileron like this, varying the amount of rudder and aileron to keep
aligned with the runway, and prevent any drift off the centreline. We continue the approach,
controlling the airspeed with the elevator, the amount of sideslip with the ailerons and keep straight
with the rudder.

Notice if we apply too much bank to the right like this… the aircraft drifts to the right. The angle of
bank controls the degree of sideslip and the rudder is used to keep straight.

We flare in the normal way, adjusting the controls as necessary during the hold-off until the aircraft
touches down on the windward wheel first. We firmly but gently lower the nose-wheel onto the
runway as soon as possible at maintain directional control and hold the ailerons progressively hard
over into wind to prevent the wing from lifting. The direction is controlled with rudder as usual,
although be positive about directional control. The landing is not over until we vacate the runway.

EXERCISE 17B: PRECAUTIONARY LANDING

Students must be shown the entire precautionary landing procedure, which includes:

• Making an early decision. Don’t let conditions deteriorate.

• Selection of the field: Travel downwind to cover more ground.
• Establishing a slow safe cruise. 10degrees flap. 2200 rpm. Speed 80-90 mph and trim.
• Establishing a safe attitude. Approximately 500’ AGL. Distance from cloud/ground.
• Joining the circuit – take note of DI heading to assist in orientation.
• Assessing drift and wind direction with respect to landing direction.
• High level inspection 500’ AGL (Time permitting).
• Low level circuit procedures and flight technique.
• Low level inspection 100 ft. AGL
• Short landing technique. Full flap. Slowest safe speed. Early touchdown.
• No taxing (after landing)
• Notification of ATC/ Police/ Flight school etc. and tying down.

Use of mnemonic

W Wind speed and direction

O Obstacles on overshoot, undershoot and runway

S Slope up / down

S Slope sideways

S Size 10 secs. At 80mph = 400 m

C Civilisation: habitation

S Short landing: minimum speed / full flap. Know the aircraft landing distance over a 50 ft.
obstacle.

Do not allow the student to get “crowded” on the field. Allow enough space for a MAXIMUM
bank angle of 30 degrees onto downwind of final. Follow the left hand race-course pattern only
if conditions permit. Do not allow this procedure to become an emergency in itself.
EXERCISE 16: FORCED LANDING

The student must be shown the entire forced landing procedure which must include

• Vital actions: close throttle, mixture rich, fuel pump on *, change tanks, carb heat hot check
engine parameters Aircraft trimmed for best glide speed: 80mph.
• Field selection: as per ground briefing. Don’t change your mind.
• Plan the descent: select base leg key-point. Check altitude.
• Turn towards field. Keep field in sight at all times.
• Try restart.
• Assess wind
• Mayday call. Correct sequence and info required. Decide on appropriate frequency.
• Passenger briefing
• Shutdown: Fuel off, Mixture ICO, Mags off.
• Engine warm-up – at least every 1000 ft. of descent.
• Downwind checks. Use of undercarriage to lose height.*
• Base leg key point: aircraft at minimum 1000 ft. AGL.
• Check obstacles on overshoot/ undershoot.
• Lower flap as required
• Methods of losing excess height: hammerhead turn onto base, “s” turns, sideslip*
• Final approach
• Open doors
• Final shut down checks: master off.
• Short landing: touchdown within first 150 m
• Evacuation procedures: use of fire extinguisher, first aid kit, signal strips.
• Notification of ATC / Police etc.
• Secure: aircraft tie-down.

The instructor must also cover the overshoot and radio procedures for a simulated forced landing. The
passenger briefing and correct bracing position for front rear passengers must be covered as part of
the air exercise, as well as the evacuation procedures, use of fire extinguishers, operation of door
latched etc. Re-cap on the location of first aid kit and use of strips.
EXERCISE 20: NIGHT FLYING

Although not included in the basic PPL syllabus, it is a logical progression from the PPL. A thorough
ground briefing must be given on all aspects as per the instructors AIC 14.3.

This should cover the following:

• Night flying as defined in CAR’s.

• Pilot/airfield/aircraft requirements: emphasise night VFR conditions and disorientation.
• Pre-flight: emphasis on lights torches, etc.
• Start-up: use of beacon light and “prop clear” call.
• Taxi: Instrument checks while taxiing, taxi speed, use of ground lighting: colours and their
identification.
• Use of landing light /taxi light while taxiing.
• Minimum holding RPM: alternators vs. generators.
• Correct cockpit management in dark environment.
• Lining up and orientation with runway lighting.
• Use of instruments on take-off: transition to instruments at rotation.
• Orientation with lights n airfield proximity
• Circuit and final approach: orientation with runway lighting.
• Overshoot / undershoot with the use of PAPI
• Landing: flare, hold-off, round-out, keeping straight.
• Landing with and without landing light.
• Emergency procedures: engine failure, electrical failure, radio failure.
• Night navigation: Use of radio navigation, MSA’s, terrain awareness and map reading.
Orientation with landmarks and prominent lights.
• Understanding of meteorological phenomena at night: inability to se clouds.
 EXERCISE 18: NACIGATION

Refer to practical test standard for amplified areas of knowledge and skill.

By this stage the student should be proficient at handling the controls and controlling the
aeroplane. There is no specific patter for this exercise. The instructor must brief the student
thoroughly before flight on the following aspects:

PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING: Notam’s AIC, AIP

Met report

Aircraft status: serviceable equipment, sufficient hours to go

Flight plan preparation and filing with ATC

Flight log preparation

Map preparation

Cockpit management

Cockpit preparation

Stowage of maps, pencils

Flight logs, radio frequencies

Aircraft pre-flight

Fuel/ oil accordance with CAR’s

Emergency equipment

Passenger brief

IN FLIGHT: Setting heading. Log keeping

Map reading. Map orientation. Identifying features

Radio procedures

Establishing the cruise

Establishing a flight level. Transition altitude /level

Log keeping

Maintaining track. Drift correction. Visual cues for wind indication.

Regaining track

Maintaining track. Drift correction. Visual cues for wind indication.

Regaining track

Weather conditions. Avoidance of adverse weather

Forced landing. Field selection en-route

Resetting DI to compass, procedure FREDA checks

 Joining procedure at unmanned aerodromes

Lost procedures

Diverting procedure en-route

Use of radio navigation aids

POST FLIGHT A/C inspection

Fuel and oil consumption monitoring

Cancellation of search and rescue

Completion of paperwork