The Research Proposal

Topic Description
This topic is designed to equip you with knowledge, skills and attitudes to help you to get started
in writing your proposal. You will acquire competencies that would enable you to read widely and
prepare content for:
Background of the concept/Study
Statement of the problem
Objectives of the study
Research questions
Study Hypotheses
Limitations of the study
Conceptual framework
Definition of terms and abbreviations
You will then do a write up of chapter one in consultation with your supervisor following the
KSTVET recommended format

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain the approach of developing the background component of the proposal
b) Write a statement of the problem
c) Develop objectives for a study
d) Formulate research questions
e) Formulate study hypotheses
f) Identify limitations of a study
g) Develop a conceptual framework of a study
h) Define terms and abbreviations used
Details of research proposal - Chapter 1 components:
The introduction section
This component compresses of several sub-section. We shall briefly outline what each entails.
Activity
Let us for a moment think of why we always wish to let someone know who we are, what we do,
where we come from and incase of a teacher, the subjects and classes that we teach. You could
list any idea that crosses your mind. Think of situations when you did introduce yourself to
someone or to a group of people why was it necessary?

Now we can turn to the introduction as a component of a research proposal. It states the problem
and cites important previous research. The researcher justifies the importance of the problem,
hence the need for the study and oft times may try fitting it into a theoretical context. The
introductions thus;
 provides a basis for the study
 usually constitutes the first chapter of the proposal and is an important component, which
if well written, tells a lot of what is to follow in the rest of the proposal.

An introduction should: stimulate the reader’s interest in the research problem; create a good
impression about the author and the research project as a whole; and acquaint the reader with the
problem to be investigated by providing relevant background information.

An introduction section should include the following sub-section:

 The background of the problem
 The statement of the problem
 The objectives of the study
 Research questions or hypotheses (if any)
 The rationale or justification of the study
 The limitations and underlying assumptions (if any)
 The theoretical framework or conceptual model (wherever possible),
 Operational definition of terms.
The background to the problem: The background to the problem is an essential part in any
research proposal. It broadly introduces the background and theoretical framework of the study.
It is a concise, descriptive, informative and climate building preamble culminating in a statement
of the problem being addressed. It should be written in a logical and balanced way to portray the
researcher’s vision of topical issues to be investigated.
It is in the background to the problem that a global, regional and national overview of the research
topic is briefly discussed. It should be relevant and help the reader to establish that there is need
for investigation. It describes briefly prior studies in the same field and points out specific areas
that have not been fully studied or areas that have doubtful facts and gaps in knowledge that remain
to be investigated. For example; if we take the area :
“Female Education in Kenya”
Then you should give an overview of the status of female education globally, regionally (in Africa)
and nationally (in Kenya). This will enable the reader have an idea of what is happening regarding
the area under investigation. It should also show how the study relates to developing trends in
educational thinking. The researcher is expected to justify why resources should be committed to
the proposed work. You must indicate the benefits likely to accrue from the findings in relation
to what has been done, in that, ultimately research findings are for the benefit of the people.
The background to the problem should indicate clearly how the proposed study departs from or
adds to what exists in that educational discipline. You need to quote authoritative sources in order
to establish a frame of reference. You will have a pretty clear idea on how to organize the
introduction by addressing some questions outlined herein.
 What current and previous studies have been done on the issues to be studied?
 What is the available information on the magnitude, nature, and causes of the problem?
 What are the present gaps in knowledge and what makes the problem worth studying?
 What do you intend to do to solve the problem?
 What is the conceptual framework on which your study will be based and what are the
tentative hypotheses to be employed in answering the questions?
 Does the solution to the problem have any practical or theoretical significance?
 Have you stated the assumptions relevant to the study?
 What are the social, economic, political, technical and environmental considerations
involved?
You could now take note that when you have answered all these questions you will be able to state
reasons why the proposed study must be undertaken.
The statement of the problem: the statement of the problem refers to an explicit statement of the
specific research topic to be investigated. It should be clear, specific and manageable identifying
as far as possible all the variables in the study, outlining them in conceptual rather than operational
form.
In much the same way, we can look at another example of a research problem.
“Failure in mathematics among girls in secondary schools”
In this topic, you should describe factors that make the stated problem a critical issue to necessitate
the study, thus, making a case for the research. So how would you go about it?
Example:
Topic: “Elaborate on the consequences of girls failing in mathematics.
Look at the Topic, List in the given Boxes as may factors as possible.
Here is a list of some of the consequences which we considered. Compare it with yours.
 Low enrolment of women in science and Engineering
 Gender inequality
 Few women in Management
 More women in social sciences
 Negative attitude towards mathematics by the girl child
 Lack of interest
 Lack of motivation
Now for something that may surprise you: The problem statement should range from half (½) to
two (2) pages, for you have to refer to relevant literature to describe the effects. What this all adds
up to is that a short and uncomplicated problem statement is recommended.
Qualities of a good problem statement
You need to evaluate your statement of the problem before you plunge deeper into the literature
review. According to Best (1983), Borg and Gall (1989) and Mulusu (1990) cited in Mwiria and
Wamahiu (1995), qualities of a good problem statement are:
 The ability to communicate to a sophisticated audience who do not necessarily have the
technical knowledge of the researcher
 A clear fit within the broader context of current theory and relevant research, meaning that
the problem addresses a significant issue both theoretically and practically.
 The research ability that is if it is feasible to collect the necessary data?
 Clarity and limited scope: if the problem is manageable with the resources and time
available to the researcher.
 A logical and clear relationship to the hypotheses, the research questions or the specific
objectives that follow the problem statement.
In summary, the statement of the problem justifies the research project especially when the
problem is limited in scope and is well stated to facilitate the development of the purpose,
objectives and hypotheses of the study. It is usually drawn from a brief review of the most
important literature and the theoretical background, outlined in the preceding section [section 4].
The statement of the problem leads to the development of the purpose which is presented here
below.
The statement of purpose: This is a broad statement indicating what the researcher intends to do
about the problem being investigated. It identifies the goal of the study, emphasizing mainly the
practical outcomes. It serves to elaborate upon the information implied in the title of the study. It
should be brief but specific giving a quick overview of the study itself. It helps to focus the
problem more clearly identifying the variables to be examined.
The purpose of the study can be written in two ways. One way is to state it at the end of the problem
statement section as follows:
“The purpose of this study is to find out the consequences of girls failing in mathematics in
secondary schools.”
It is hoped that the study would provide information that could be used to develop policy
recommendations for gender or creative procedures of teaching mathematics. Using this format,
the researcher states the problem, and narrows down to the purpose statement towards the end of
the section. The first part of the statement of purpose is stated in declarative form to describe the
intended purpose. On the other hand, the second part shows how a statement of purpose can also
include how the outcomes would be used to improve the subject or object of study.
Another way is for the researcher to have a separate subsection on the purpose statement and then
follow it with a brief rationale of the stated purpose.
Whichever way it is presented, the purpose of the study should not exceed ONE paragraph.
 Activity
Identify a research problem in Education and write the statement of purpose.

Objectives of the study: An objective is s statement of purpose or the intended specific outcomes
of the study with or without criteria of achievement; specified in long or short-term parameters.

Every study must have specific objectives to guide the investigation and they should be cohesive,
precise, testable, brief and logically arranged. Objectives should be relevant to the problem
statement and show the relations between variables.

What purpose do objectives serve in a research study?

The table below lists some purposes of objectives

Purposes of objectives
They set the scope of the study
They determine the kind of research questions which will be asked.
They determine the data collection and analysis procedures to be used.
They help to further clarify focus and specify the problem more accurately.

Activity
Visit your nearest library and consult research reports, theses or journals to get an idea of how to
state titles, purposes and objectives of the study.
Here is an example to illustrate what you should do:

Title: The distribution of educational resources and opportunities in Kenya by location,

sex and level.
General aim: Determine factors influencing the distribution of educational resources.

Objectives: (i) examine the factors determining the levels and nature of
educational resources and opportunities
(ii) analyze the socio-economic differences within regions and social groups in
relation to organization and financing of educational system.
Research questions or hypotheses: Research questions and hypotheses are normally used
alternatively. The questions are usually posed so that when answered, the responses will help in
achieving the objectives of the study.
To set the research questions, you convert the objectives into questions. The only difference
between research questions and objectives is that research questions are stated in question form
while objectives are in statement form, hence when both are referring to the same phenomenon
then one set becomes redundant. You, therefore, choose only one set either research questions or
objectives to be included in the study. However, it is possible to have both in a proposal but only
when the objectives are broader and the research questions more specific.
Look at this example of how the preceding first two objectives can be converted to research
questions:
 What are the causes of failure in Mathematics by girls in secondary schools?
 What are the consequences of girls’ failure in Mathematics at the secondary school level?
Activity
Look at your research problem and the objectives and convert them into research questions.
Compare your questions with the example we have given.
Hypotheses: The research proposal should contain a clear set of research hypotheses that are
proposed to be tested. Hypotheses are educational or intelligent guesses about possible solutions
or explanations to the problem. A hypothesis is a proposition about the solution to a problem, the
relationship between two or more variables or the nature of some phenomena. They are based on
the research objectives.
A hypothesis may be directional or non-directional Verma and Beard (1981) elaborately define a
hypothesis as a: A tentative proposition, which is subject to verification through subsequent
investigation.
In many cases, hypotheses are hunches that the researcher has about the existence of relationship
between the variables in the study [Mwiria
& Wamahiu 1995].
Usually about 4 to 6 hypotheses are quite adequate for a study (Borg and Gall, 1984).
Both the research working hypothesis and null hypothesis can be tested statistically.
How to state a hypothesis
Once you have identified a research problem, you then formulate plausible solutions to the
problem. Using your experience, intuition and consultations, then go through a variety of questions
to come up with guiding hypotheses and techniques for verifying them.
For example:
 Is the hypothesis testable?
 Why is the hypothesis valid?
 To whom is the problem relevant?
 Will the results solve the problem?
 How much will it cost in terms of time and money to the study?
 What are the likely outcomes and impact?
 What are the constraints to carrying out the study?
 Are there alternative solutions to the problem?
(Keya, and Makau, 1989)
Many researchers experience problems in stating the hypotheses and the problem at hand. Yet it
is extremely important to state the problem, hypotheses, themes, or arguments in the clearest terms
for readers to follow the thrust of the argument.
Two examples of hypotheses are used, the directional hypotheses and the null hypotheses.
Directional hypothesis state that “a relationship exists between the variables while a null
hypothesis state that; no relationship exists between the variables or there is no difference between
the experimental treatments.
Directional hypothesis
Examples of directional hypotheses
 There is a positive and significant relationship between teaching style and girls’
performance in Mathematics in Secondary school.
 There is a positive relationship between standard eight (8) pupils’ attitudes towards science
education and the level of achievement in science by the pupils in Kenya.
You can now easily state a directional hypothesis for your research problem.

Null hypotheses
Examples of null hypotheses
 There is no relationship between teaching style and girls’ poor performance in Mathematics
in secondary school.
 There is no significant difference between achievement of class one (1) pupils with pre-
school education and those without pre-school education.

Note that each hypothesis implicitly states the research problem since it gives the lines of
investigation and the variables to be studied.
Qualities of a good hypothesis
Assess your hypotheses by looking for the following: A hypothesis should
 State the relationship between two or more variables.
 Be reasonable and consistent with the existing body of knowledge.
 Be testable and verifiable.
 Be as clear and brief as possible.
However, whether directional or null hypotheses are stated, the differences or relationships
guessed refer to population differences not sample differences. There are no hard and fast rules
regarding when a researcher should use hypotheses, research questions or objectives. The choice
depends on the academic disciplines and upon the nature of the study or problem.
Significance of the study: What do you imagine would go into this component? Some researchers
refer to this subtopic as rationale or justification of the study. The words may be used
synonymously to outline the reasons and importance for conducting the study.
 You should be fully convinced about the usefulness of the study before you begin.
 You should only investigate a research problem if it demonstrates value to the community
school or country in general in terms of providing a solution to a particular problem.
 A research problem is also significant if its findings can contribute to the advancement of
knowledge and theory or verification of theory.
 The results of the study should also be useful to professionals, planners, practitioners or
the lay public.
 You should highlight what may be lost if the study is note done immediately. This will
further strengthen the case for the study.
Keep in mind the questions that you should consider in writing the rationale for carrying out the
study. Suggested questions are:
(i) Why do you think the study is important?
(ii) What is the study going to contribute to the extension and refining of existing
knowledge both theoretically and practically?
(iii) What contribution will the study make to the improvement of the related situation?
(iv) What gaps in knowledge will the study address?
(v) Is the study worth it?
(vi) How will the results be used?
We will now conclude by stating that the researcher should explain why the study is meaningful,
viable and worth spending time and other resources on. The practical significance can, for
example, be described to point out issues such as who really needs the study and to whom the
findings are likely to be useful.
The justification or rationale or significance must be strong enough to warrant the use of time,
energy and money in carrying out the research.
Did you also realize that whether the researcher uses
 Significance
 Rationale or
 Justification of the Study;
depends mainly upon his choice and type of study and the target population?
Activity
Think of your research topic and give a justification for the study. Identify who will benefit from
the results and briefly explain how.
Limitations and assumptions of the study: Limitations refer to constraints both theoretical and
practical, that the researcher has little or no control over. Limitations are an aspect of the study
that the researcher knows may negatively affect the results or generality but over which he has no
control.

Activity
Explain why stating limitations are important in a research study.
We came up with the following reasons:
 They assist the researcher to avoid
- Pitfalls
- Over expectations
- Under estimations
- Frustrations in the course of the research project
 They show the scope of the study so as to enable an enthusiastic reader make tenable
generalizations of the findings.
 They give the necessary precautions during data interpretation and generalization of the
results.
Compare these reasons with the ones you gave in the Activity. Indeed, all of them help to explain
why you need to state limitations of the study. How about looking at a few examples of the
limitations?
 Financial
 Design of instruments
 Language use in questionnaires
 Sample size due to inadequate time, information funds etcetera.
 Length of the study
 Data collection procedures.
When visualizing your study topic verses these limitations, what is likely to affect your findings?
Give reasons why and explain how.
You need to be very honest in stating the limitations so that readers can make intelligent deductions
from the results. Never hesitate to state a limitation for there is no perfect study that lacks
limitations.

Assumptions of the study: You have been making some assumptions in previous activities. Here
we indicate what assumptions are:
 They are statements about what the researcher takes or believes to be true but cannot verify.
 The researcher makes assumptions concerning the conditions or important factors affecting
the study.
 They are unique under the conditions, which the study is carried out.
Kathuri and Pal (1993:77) say that there is a multiplicity of variables in any research and so only
a few variables are selected to be included in the study while the rest are controlled. The researcher
may be aware of other variables, which can neither be included in the research nor be controlled.
These could be stated as assumptions if the researcher is convinced that they may not influence
the relationship of the variables selected for the study.
Why and how you state assumptions
Stating assumptions will help you to justify the study and consequently the findings. The results
should be interpreted in the light of the stated underlying assumptions. You could either agree or
disagree with the assumptions. The assumptions may either be convincing or not this will influence
the acceptability of the findings.
Examples of assumptions/when given a research topic
Topic: Poor performance of girls in Mathematics in secondary schools.

Assumptions:
 All mathematics teachers are trained and qualified.
 Mathematics exercises are given regularly to the students.
 Girls have an interest in Mathematics

You can now state your assumptions based on your research problem. Keep in mind that even
though assumptions are not a subject of investigation, they should be clearly stated in the proposal.
Theoretical framework or conceptual model: This is a really challenging part of the research
proposal. If the researcher wants to test an existing theory, then he/she should show how the
research question is related to the theoretical background. The theoretical framework should be
clearly explained and we can describe it as a well-developed coherent (logical and consistent)
explanation for an event: for example, Piaget’s theory of child development.
The researcher may specify a theoretical framework for the following reasons:
o To locate their research
o To test a theory
o To apply a theory
Here is an example of an extract from a theoretical framework:

This research is informed by Carl Roger’s theory of person-centred which holds that the core
conditions (empathy, geniuses and unconditional positive regard) are both necessary and
sufficient in dealing with human beings (clients)
While working within Roger’s framework, this research will also explore the validity of the use of
core-conditions in schools set-ups and other intra as well as interpersonal relationships.

Using core conditions and verifying if and how it works. Look at the example and comment as to
whether it is testing, applying or simply locating the proposed

Activity
Now try to describe a theoretical framework, which may apply in your study, and explain how it
will be used in your research.

You may be wondering about the difference between a theoretical framework and a conceptual
framework. A conceptual framework is a less well-developed explanation for events. For example,
it might link two or three key concepts or principles without being developed into a full-blown
theory.

The researcher should conceptualize the relationship between variables in the study and show it
graphically and diagrammatically.

 It is a hypothesized model identifying the concepts under study and their relationships.
 The conceptual model helps the reader to see at a glance the proposed relationships and
hence their importance.
The conceptual framework is illustrated below:
A conceptual framework

CAUSES OF POOR
Lack of interest
PERFORMANCE IN Inadequate textbooks
MATHEMATICS BY
Overloaded curriculum
GIRLS IN SECONDARY
SCHOOLS Poor teaching skills
Lack of time
Social Cultural Beliefs
Lack of motivation

Activity
Study the example illustrated above and develop a conceptual framework for your study.
It is important that you are aware that not all studies require explicit theoretical frameworks. For
example, they may not be needed in explorations of new areas of research, which lack well-
developed theories. However, considering the conceptual / theoretical framework in a study assists
in making visible assumptions built into the research.

Definition of terms: It is worth mentioning that the researcher should define terminologies or
concepts to be used in the context of the study. This will give an understanding of the sense in
which the terms have been used.