Problem Solving and Reasoning

“Expect problems and eat them for breakfast.” —Alfred A. Montapert

Let us consider the following sequence.

4, 8, 12, 16, 20,…
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, …

Logic is the science of correct reasoning

Two Types of Logical Reasoning: Inductive Reasoning , Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a process that makes a generalization based on pattern observation on specific
examples. The conclusion formed is called a conjecture .
• is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples.
• When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according to some pattern
you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
• The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture , since it may or may
not be correct.

Example 1: Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 3,6,9, 12, 15, 18

Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that the next number in
the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.

b. 1,3, 6, 10, 15, 21

The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It appears that the
difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding difference.

Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21

Inductive Reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In Example 2, we will use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an arithmetic procedure

Example 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.

Example 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following results:

Original number: 𝟓
Multiply by 8: 8 × 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 +6= 46
Divide by 2: 46÷2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23−3 = 𝟐𝟎
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original number
produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40

Example 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Solution Cont.

Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number is four times
the original number.

We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.

Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) used
inductive reasoning to discover that the time required for a pendulum to complete one
swing, called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo
did not have a clock, so he measured the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats.”

The following table shows some results obtained for pendulums of

various lengths. For the sake of convenience,a lengthof 10 inches
has been designated as 1 unit

Example 3: Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period

a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length.
Thus, we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of
7 heartbeats

b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of
a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a
pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.

Take Note Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may be incorrect. As an illustration, consider
the circles shown below. For each circle, all possible line segments have been
drawn to connect each dot on the circle with all the other dots on the circle. The
maximum numbers of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle
.
For each circle, count the number of regions formed by the line segments that connect the dots on the
circle. Your results should agree with the results in the following table
Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6
dots

Maximum 1 2 3 8 16 ?
number of
regiions

● There appears to be a pattern. Each additional dot seems to double the number of regions.
● Guess the maximum number of regions you expect for a circle with six dots.
● Check your guess by counting the maximum number of regions formed by the line
segments that connect six dots on a large circle.
● There appears to be a pattern. Each additional dot seems to double the number of
regions.
● Guess the maximum number of regions you expect for a circle with six dots.
● Check your guess by counting the maximum number of regions formed by the line segments that
connect six dots on a large circle.
● Your drawing will show that for six dots, the maximum number of regions is 31 (see the figure at
the left), not 32 as you may have guessed.
● With seven dots the maximum number of regions is 57.
● This is a good example to keep in mind. Just because a pattern holds true for a few cases, it does
not mean the pattern will continue. When you use inductive reasoning, you have no guarantee
that your conclusion is correct

Counterexamples
• A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases.
• If you can find one case for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement
is a false statement.
• In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a false statement by finding a counterexample for each

Example 4: Finding a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.

For all numbers 𝑥:

a. 𝑥 >0
b. 𝑥2 >𝑥

Example 4: Finding a Counterexample

Solutio: A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only fi nd one counterexample to
verify that the statement is false.

a. 𝑥 >0 Let 𝑥 = 0. Then 0 >0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for
all numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 >0”is a false statement.
b. 𝑥2 > 𝑥 For 𝑥 =1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample. Thus
“for all numbers 𝑥, 𝑥2 > 𝑥 ” is a false statement

Deductive Reasoning : is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,

procedures, or principles.
• Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.
• Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general principles and procedures .

Example 5: Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is four times the
original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sumby2, and
subtract 3.

Example 5: Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the
number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sumby2, and subtract 3.

Solution Let 𝑛 represent the original number.

Multiply the number by 8: 8𝑛
Add 6 to the product: 8𝑛 + 6
Divide the sum by2: 8𝑛+6 2 =4𝑛+3
Subtract 3: 𝟒𝒏+𝟑 −𝟑= 𝟒𝒏
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces a number that is four
times the original number. Inductive Reasoning VS Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning VS Deductive Reasoning

Example 6: Determine Types of Reasoning

We analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or deductive reasoning. Determine
whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the tree did not
produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
improvement will cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost more than $35,000.

Example 6: Determine Types of Reasoning

We analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or deductive reasoning. Determine
whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the tree did not
produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

Solution This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an example of inductive
reasoning

Deductive Reasoning The classic example: All men are mortal. (major premise) Socrates is a man.
(minor premise) Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion) The above is an example of a syllogism.
Examples:
1. All students eat pizza. Claire is a student at CDU. Therefore, Claire eats pizza.
2. All athletes work out in the gym. Barry Bonds is an athlete . Therefore, Barry Bonds works out in the
gym

Syllogism : An argument composed of two statements or premises (the major and minor premises),
followed by a conclusion.
• For any given set of premises, if the conclusion is guaranteed, the arguments is said to be valid.
• If the conclusion is not guaranteed (at least one instance in which the conclusion does not follow), the
argument is said to be invalid.
• BE CAREFUL, DO NOT CONFUSE TRUTH WITH VALIDITY!

3. All math teachers are over 7 feet tall. Mr. A. is a math teacher. Therefore, Mr. A is over 7 feet tall. • The
argument is valid, but is certainly not true. • The above examples are of the form If p, then q. (major
premise) x is p. (minor premise) Therefore, x is q. (conclusion)

Venn diagrams show relationships between different sets of data. Can represent
conditional statements

A are B ( if A, then B) no A are B

Construct a Venn Diagram to determine the validity of the given argument. #14 All smiling
cats talk. The Cheshire Cat smiles. Therefore, the Cheshire Cat talks. VALID OR INVALID?
Ans. valid argument: x is cheshire cat