Chapter 10

Foundation
10.1 FOUNDATION SYSTEMS
The foundation of a structure supports the weight of the structure and its applied loads.
"foundation" includes the soil or rock upon which a structure rests, as well as the structural
system designed to transmit building loads to the supporting soil or rock. foundation failure
usually refers to collapse or excessive settlement of a building's supporting structure resulting
from soil movement or consolidation rather than from a failure of the foundation structure
itself. "foundation" will be used in its more limited sense to designate those structural
components that transfer loads to the supporting soil or rock.
A foundation is a part of a building's substructure-that portion of the building which is
located below the surrounding ground surface. The principal types of foundation systems
include spread footings, piles, and piers.
One method of describing a building's construction is based on the location of the
lowest building floor. In this method, the types of construction include slab-on-grade con-
struction, crawl space construction, and basement construction.
In slab-on-grade construction, the lowest floor of the building rests directly on the
ground. In crawl space construction, the lowest floor of the building is suspended a short
distance (less than a full floor height) above the ground.
The crawl space provides convenient access to utility lines and simplifies the
installation of below-the-floor utilities. Basement construction provides one or more full
stories below ground level.
The use of basements provides storage space or additional living space at relatively
low cost. Unless carefully constructed, however, basements are often troubled by water
leakage or dampness.
10-2 SPREAD FOOTINGS
A spread footing is the simplest and probably the most common type of building
foundation. It usually consists of a square or rectangular reinforced concrete pad that
serves to distribute building loads over an area large enough so that the resulting
pressure on the supporting soil does not exceed the soil's allowable bearing strength.
The principal types of spread footings are illustrated in Figure. They include
individual footings, combined footings, and mat foundations.

Individual footings include isolated (or single) footings, which support a single
column, and wall footings,which support a wall.

Combined footings support a wall and one or more columns, or several columns.

Mat or raft foundations consist of a heavily reinforced concrete slab extending

under the entire structure, in order to spread the structure’s load over a large area.
Because such foundations are usually employed for large buildings, they generally
involve deep excavation and large- scale concrete pours.

A floating foundation is a type of mat foundation in which the weight of the soil
excavatcd approximately equals the weight of structure being erected. Thus, in theory,
the erection of the building would not result in any change in the load applied to the
soil and hence there would be no settlement of the structure. In practice, however,
some soil movement does occur, because the soil swells (or rebounds) during
excavation and then recompresses as the building is erected.
If the underlying soil can be strengthened, the allowable bearing pressure on the soil
surface will be increased.
As a result, it may be possible to use spread footings for foundation loads that
normally would require piles or other deep foundation methods.

Figure 10.1 Foundation System

Figure 10.2 Types of spread footing

10-3.PILES
A pile is nothing more than a column driven into the soil to support a structure by transferring
building loads to a deeper and stronger layer of soil or rock. Piles may be classified as either
end-bearing or friction piles, according to the manner in which the pile loads are re-sisted.
Pile Types
The principal types of piles include timber, precast concrete, cast-in place concrete,
steel, composite, and bulb piles. Timber piles are inexpensive, easy to cut and splice, and
require no special handling. However, maximum pile length is limited to about 100 ft, load-
carrying ability is limited, and pile ends may splinter under driving loads. Timber piles are
also subject to insect attack and decay.
Precast concrete piles may be manufactured in almost any desired size or shape.
Commonly used section shapes include round, square, and octagonal shapes.
High strength and resistance to decay. The heaviest type of pile available for a given
pile size. Because of their britteness and lack of tensile strength, they require care in handling
and driving to prevent pile damage. Little strength in bending, they may be broken by
improper lifting procedures. Cutting requires the use of pneumatic hammers and cutting
torches or special saws. Splicing is relatively difficult and requires the use of special cements.
Cast-in-place concrete piles (or shell piles) are constructed by driving a steel shell into
the ground and then filling it with concrete. Steel mandrel or core attached to the pile driver is
placed inside the shell to reduce shell damage during driving. Straight shells may be pulled as
they are filled with concrete. Shells driven into expansive soils should be filled with concrete
as soon as possible after driving to reduce the possibility of shell damage due to lateral soil
pressure.
Steel pile are capable of supporting heavy loads, can be driven to great depth without
damage, and are easily cut and spliced. Common types of steel piles include H-plies and pipe
piles, where the name indicates the shape of the pile section. Pipe piles are usually filled with
concrete after driving to obtain additional strength. The principal disadvantage of steel pile is
its high cost.
Composite piles are piles made up of two or more different materials. The lower
section of pile might be timber while the upper section might be a shell pile. This would be
an economical pile for use where the lower section would be continuously submerged while
the upper section would be exposed to decay.
Bulb piles are also known as compacted concrete piles, Franki piles, and pressure-
injected footings. They are a special form of cast-in-place concrete pile in which an enlarged
base (or bulb) is formed during driving.
Minipiles or micro piles are small-diameter [2 to 8 in. (5 to 20 cm)], high-capacity [to
60 tons (54 t)] piles. They are most often employed in areas with restricted access or limited
headroom to underpin building foundations. Some other applications include strengthening
bridge piers and abutments, anchoring or supporting retaining walls, and stabilizing slopes.
While they may be driven in place, minipiles are often installed by drilling a steel cased hole
2 to 8 in. (5 to 20 cm) in diameter, placing reinforcing in the casing, and then bonding the
soil, casing, and reinforcement together by grouting.
 Determining Pile Load Capacity
The problem of determining pile load capacity is a complex one since it involves pile-
soil-hammer interaction during driving, pile-soil interaction after the pile is in place, and the
structural strength of the pile itself. The geotechnical engineer designs the foundation must
provide a pile design that is adequate to withstand driving stresses as well as to support the
design load of the structure without excessive settlement. The best measure of in-place pile
capacity is obtained by performing pile load tests as described later in this section.
A number of dynamic driving equations have been developed in attempting to prediet
the safe load capacity of piles based on behavior during driving. The traditional basis for such
equations is to equate resisting energy to driving energy with adjustments for energy lost
during driving. These equations treat the pile as a rigid body. A number of modifications to
basic driving equations have been proposed in an attempt to provide better agreement with
measured pile capacity. Equation 10-2, for determining the safe capacity of piles driven by
powered hammers, has been incorporated in some U.S. building codes. Minimum hammer
energy may also be specified by the building code.

R= ( s +0.1
2E
) ( Wr+
Wr+ W p )
KW p
Eq-(10.2)

where R = safe load (Ib)

S = average penetration per blow, last six blows (in.)
E = energy of hammer (ft-lb)

K = coefficient of restitution

{
0.2 for piles weighing 50 lb /ft ∨less weighing
0.4 for piles weighing50 100lb/ ft ¿ 0.6 for piles lb /ft ¿
100
¿

Wr = weight of hammer ram (Ib)

Wp = weight of pile, including driving appurtenances (Ib)
10.6 PROTECTING EXCAVATIONS AND WORKERS
Excavation cave-ins are responsible for the greatest number of U.S. construction fatalities,
accounting for over 300 deaths during a recent year. Because of the frequency and severity of
cave-in accidents, OSHA has established a number of safety regulations affecting excavation
operations. While it may be possible to avoid placing workers into an excavation through the
use of remote-controlled equipment or robots, in most cases workers must enter the
excavation and OSHA regulations will apply. These regulations require, among other things,
that workers in an excavation be protected from cave-ins by one of the following methods:
 Sloping or benching of the sides of the excavation.
 Supporting the sides of the excavation by shoring.
 Placing a shield between workers and the sides of the excavation.
 The only exceptions to these requirements are when the excavation is made entirely in
stable rock, or the excavation is less than 5 ft (1.524 m) in depth and examination of
the ground by a competent person provides no indication of a potential cave-in. As
defined by OSHA, competent person means one who is capable of identifying
existing and predictable hazards in the surroundings, or working conditions which are
unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take
prompt corrective measures to eliminate them.

Quantity of Mortor Required

Volume per brick (in3 ) =[t][W][L+H+t]
t = Joint thickness (in)
W = brick width (in)
L = brick Length (in)
H = brick height (in)
 Chapter 13
Concrete Form Design
13.4 Slab Form Design

13-6 DESIGN OF LATERAL BRACING

Many failures of formwork have been traced to omitted or inadequately designed

lateral bracing. Minimum lateral design load values were given in Section 13-2.Design
proce-dures for lateral bracing are described and illustrated in the following
paragraphs.
Lateral Braces for Wall and Column Forms
For wall and column forms, lateral bracing is usually provided by inclined rigid braces
or guy-wire bracing. Since wind loads, and lateral loads in general, may be applied in
either direction perpendicular to the face of the form, guy-wire bracing must be placed
on both sides of the forms. When rigid braces are used they may be placed on only one
 side of the form if designed to resist both tension and compression forces. When forms
are placed on only one side of a wall with the excavation serving as the second form,
lateral bracing must be designed to resist the lateral pressure of the concrete as well as
other lateral
forces.
Inclined bracing will usually resist any wind uplift forces on vertical forms. However,
uplift forces on inclined forms may require additional consideration and the use of
special anchors or tiedowns. The strut load per foot of form developed by the design
lateral load can be calculated by the use of Equation 13-11. The total load per strut is
then P' multiplied by strut spacing.

Hxhxl
P' = ' ' (eq 13.11)
h x l
l = (h'2 + l ' 2)1/2 (eq 13.12)
where , P' = strut load per foot of form (Ib/ft) [kN/m]
H = lateral load at top of form (Ib/ft) [kN/m]
h = height of form (ft) [m]
h' = height of top of strut (ft) [m]
l = length of strut (ft) [m]
l' = horizontal distance from form to bottom of strut (ft) [m]
If struts are used on only one side of the form, the allowable unit stress for strut design will be
the lowest of the three possible allowable stress values (F. F' c, or Ft .)

13-6 Lateral Braces for Slab Forms

For elevated floor or roof slab forms, lateral bracing may consist of cross braces
between shores or inclined bracing along the outside edge of the form similar to that
used for wall forms. The following example illustrates the method of determining the
design lateral load for slab forms.
Eg 13.1Design the formwork (Figure 13-2) for an elevated concrete floor slab 6 in. (152 mm)
thick. Sheathing will be nominal 1-in. (25-mm) lumber while 2 x 8 in. (50 x, 200 mm)
lumber will be used for joists. Stringers will be 4 x 8 in. (100 x 200 mm) lumber. Assume that
all members are continuous over three or more spans. Commercial 4000-1b (17.8-kN) shores
will be used. It is estimated that the weight of the formwork will be 5 lb/sq ft (0.24 kPa).The
adjusted allowable stresses for the lumber being used are as follows: Maximum deflection of
L
form members will be limited to .
360
Use the minimum value of live load permitted by ACI. Determine joist spacing, stringer
spacing, and shore spacing.

Sheathing psi Other

[kPa] Members psi [kPa]

Fb 1075 [7412] 1250 [8619]

Fv 174 [1200] 180 [1241]
Fc± 405 [2792]
Fc 850 [5861]
E 1.36 x 106 1.40 x 106
[9.4 x 106] [9.7 x 106]

Solution;

Design Load

Density of Concrete = 150 lb / cu ft (Assume)

6
Wt of Concrete = 1sq-ft x ft x 150 lb / cu ft
12
= 75 lb / sq-ft
Wt of Formwork = 5 lb / sq-ft
Live Load = 50 lb / sq-ft
Design Load = 130 lb / sq-ft

Deck Design
Uniformiy loaded a strip of decking (sheathing) wide = 12 in or 1 m
Assume the strip = continuous over three or more span.
12
w = 1 sq-ft x ft x 130 lb / sq-ft
12
= 130 lb / ft
 (a) Bending;

( )
1
F b
l = 4.46 d b 2
w

( )
1
1075 x 12 2
= 4.46 x 0.75 x
130
= 33.3 in
(b) Shear;
Fv A
l = 13.3 +2d
w
13.3 x 174 x 12 x 0.75
= + (2 x 0.75)
130
= 161.7 in
(c) Deflection;

( )
1
EI 3
l = 1.69
w

( )
3 1
Ebd 3
= 1.69
w 12

= 1.69 ( )
6 3 1
(1.36 x 10 ) x 12 x 0.75 3
130 x 12
= 27.7 in (ok)

Deflection governs in this case and the maximum allowable span is 27.7 in.
Therefore we will select 24 in- joint spacing as a modular value of the design.

Joist Design

Length of Joist spacing = 24 in

Joist of lumber Area = 2 x 8 in
Assume the joist = continuous over three span.
24
w = ft x 130 lb / sq-ft
12
= 260 lb / ft
(a) Bending;

( )
1
Fb S 2
l = 10.95
w

( )
1
1250 x 13.14 2
= 10.95
260
= 87.0 in
(b) Shear;
 Fv A
l = 13.3 +2d
w
13.3 x 180 x 10.88
= + (2 x 7.25)
260
= 114.7 in
(c) Deflection;

( )
1
EI 3
l = 1.69
w

( )
6 1
(1.4 x 10 ) x 47.63 3
= 1.69
260 x 12
= 107.4 in (ok)

Bending governs and the maximum joist span is 87 in.

Therefore we will select joist span of stringer spacing 84 in.

Stringer Design;
Assume Stringer = continuous over three spans
Length of Stringer = 7 ft
Stringer of lumber area = 4 x 8 in
w = 7 ft x 130 lb / sq-ft
= 910 lb /ft
(a) Bending;

( )
1
Fb S 2
l = 10.95
w

( )
1
1250 x 30.66 2
= 10.95
910
= 71.1 in
(b) Shear;
Fv A
l = 13.3 +2d
w
13.3 x 180 x 25.38
= + (2 x 7.25)
260
= 81.3 in
(c) Deflection;

( )
1
EI 3
l = 1.69
w

( )
6 3 1
(1.4 x 10 ) x 111.1 3
= 1.69 = 93.8 in (ok)
910
Bending governs and the maximum joist span is 71.1 in.
Checking shore length before stringer span (shore spacing).
 4000
l = x 12 = 52.7 in
910

maximum limit of stringer span = 52.7in

Therefore a shore spacing of 4 ft as a modular value.

Check for crushing at the point each joist rests on a stringer.

84
P = 260 x = 1820 lb
12
Bearing Area A = 1.5 x 3.5 = 5.25 sq – in
P 1820
Fc± = =
A 5.25
= 347 psi < 450 psi (OK)

Final Design
Decking : Nominal 1 in lumber.
Joists ; 2” x 8” at 24 in spacing.
Stringers ; 4” x 8” at 84 in spacing.
Shore ; 4000 lb commercial shores at 48 in intervals.

Eg 13.2

Forms are being designed for an 8-ft (2.44-m) -high concrete wall to be poured at a rate of 4
ft (1.219 m/h), internally vibrated, at a temperature of 90° F (32° C). The concrete mixture
will use Type I cement without retarders and is estimated to weigh 150 lb/cu. ft (2403 kg/m').
Sheathing will be 4 x 8-ft (1.2 x 2.4-m) sheets of ¾ in. (19 mm) thick Class I Ply-form with
face grain perpendicular to studs (see Figure 13-3). Studs and double wales will be 2 x 4-in.
(50 x 100-mm) lumber. Snap ties are 3000-1b (13.34-KN) capacity with 1½in.
(38-mm) -wide wedges bearing on wales. Deflection must not exceed l/360. Determine stud,
wale, and tie spacing. Use Ply-form section properties and allowable stress from Table 13-6
and lumber section properties from Table 13-7. Allowable stresses for the lumber being used
for studs and wales are:

Fb = 1810 lb / sq in
Fv = 120 lb / sq in
Fc± = 485 lb / sq in
E = 1.7 x 106 lb / sq in

Solution:

Design Load
Weight of Concrete =150 lb/cu ft
Unit Weight Concrete coefficient, Cw = 1.0 (Table 13.1)

Cement type = Type I ,Without retarders

Concrete Chemistry coefficient ,Cc =1.0 (Table 13.2)

9000 R
p = Cw Cc ( 150 + ) (13-1A)
T
( 9000 x 4 )
= 1 x 1 { 150 + }
T
= 550 lb / sq ft
Use minimum pressure p = 600 lb / sq ft

Select Stud Spacing (Three or more spans)

Material = ¾ in (Class I Plyform)

Consider a strip = 12 in = 1 ft
Unit Weight of concrete = 1 x 1 x 600 =600 lb/ft
(a) Bending ;

( )
1
Fb K S 2
l = 10.95 (Table 13.6)
w

= 10.95 ( )
3 1
0.878 x 10 2
600
= 13.2 in

(b) Shear ;
 F b Ib /Q
l = 20 + 2d
w
3
20 x 0.517 x 10
= + (2 x ¾ )
600
= 17.2 + 1.5 = 18.7 in
( c ) Deflection ;

( )
1
EI 3
l = 1.69
w

( )
6 1
0.298 x 10 3
= 1.69
600
= 13.4 in
Bending governs
Maximum Sheathing Span =13.2 in
Use 12 in stud spacing.

Select Wale Spacing (Three or more spans)

Stud spacing = 12 in
design load = 1 ft wide (each stud.)

w = 1 x 1 x 600 = 600 lb/ft

(a) Bending ;

( )
1
F S
l = 10.95 b 2
w

( )
1
1810 x 3.063 2
=10.95
600
= 33.3 in
(b) Shear;
Fv A
l = 13.3 +2d
w

13.3 x 120 x 5.25

l = +(2 x 3.5)
600
=21.0 in
( c ) Deflection ;

( )
1
EI 3
l = 1.69
w

( )
6 1
1.7 x 10 x 5.359 3
= 1.69
600
= 41.8in
Shear governs
Maximum Stud Span (wale spacing) = 22.23 in
Use 16 in wale spacing.
Select Tie Spacing ( Three or More Spans)
Wale Spacing = 16 in
16
w = x 600 = 800 lb / ft
12
(a)Bending ;

( )
1
Fb S 2
l = 10.95
w

( )
1
1810 x 2 x 3.063 2
=10.95
800
= 40.8 in
(b) Shear;

Fv A
l = 13.3 +2d
w

13.3 x 120 x 2 x 5.25

l = +(2 x 3.5)
800
= 27.9 in
( c ) Deflection ;

( )
1
EI 3
l = 1.69
w

( )
6 1
1.7 x 10 x 2 x 5.359 3
= 1.69
800
= 47.9 in
Shear governs.
Maximum wale span = 27.9 in.
Use 24 in tie spacing.

(d) Check tie load;

P = Wale Spacing x Tie Spacing x p
16 24
= x x 600
12 12
=1600lb / tie < 3000 lb (OK)

(e)Check Bearing
(a) Stud on wales;
Bearing Area , A = 2x 1.5 x 1.5 = 4.5 sq-in (for double wales)

Load at each point P = Load of stud x Wale spacing

16
= 600 x = 800 lb
12
 P 800
fc = = = 178 lb/sq-in < 485 lb/sq-in (Fc⊥) (ok)
A 4.5

Final Design;
Sheathing 4 x 8 ft sheets of ¾ in. ClassI Plyform placed with the long axis horizontal.
Studs: 2 X 4's (S0 × 100 mm) at 12 in. (304 mm) on center.
Wales: Double 2 X 4's (50 X 100 mm) at 16 in. (406 mm) on center.
Ties: 3000-1b (13.34-kN) snap ties at 24 in. (610 mm) on center.

EXAMPLE 13-3Determine the maximum spacing of nominal 2 x 4-in. (50 × 100-mm) lateral
braces for the wall form of Example 13-2 placed as shown in Figure 13-4. Assume that local
code wind requirements are less stringent than Table 13-3. Allowable stress values for the
braces are as follows.
Allowable Stress

Ib/sq in. kPa

Fc 850 5861

Ft 725 4999

E 1.4 × 106 9.7 × 106

SOLUTION;
Wall weight = 8ft
the design lateral force per unit length of form. H = 100 lb/ft (Table 13-3)
the length of the strut , l = (h'2 + l ' 2)1/2

= (62 + 52) ½ = 7.81 ft

The axial concentrated load on the strut produced by a unit length of form,
Hxhxl
P' = ' ' (eq 13.11)
h x l
100 x 8 x 7.81
= = 208.3 lb /ft of form
6 x5
Next, the allowable compressive stress for each strut
l/d ratio of the strut,
7.81 x 12
1/d =
1.5
= 62.5 > 50
l/d ratio exceeds 50, each strut must be provided lateral bracing to reduce its unsupported
length. Try a single lateral support located at the midpoint of each strut, reducing l to 46.9 in.
0.3 E
F' c = 2
1/d
0.3 x 1.4 x 10 6
= 2
46.9/1.5
= 430 psi
F' c < Ft < Fc , F' c governs.
Maximum allowable compressive force per stut ,
P = 1.5 x 3.5 x 430 = 2257 lb
P 2257
Maximum stud spacing , s = = = 10.8 Ft
P' 208.3

EXAMPLE 13-4Determine the design lateral force for the slab form 6 in. (152 mm) thick, 20
ft (6.1 m) wide, and 100 ft (30.5 m) long shown in Figure 13-5. The slab is to be poured in
one pour.Assume concrete density is 150 Ib/cu ft (2403 kg/m') and that the formwork weighs
15 1b/sq ft (0.72 kPa).

SOLUTION;

Dead load = (1/2 x 1 x150) + 15

= 90 lb/ sq ft

H = 0.02 x dl x ws

For the 20-ft face, the width of the slab is 100 ft ,

H20 = ( 0.02 x 90x 100)
 = 180 lb/lin ft

For the 100-ft face, the width of the slab is 20 ft,

H100 = (0.02 x 90 x 20)
= 36 Ib/ft < 100 lb/ft (minimum value)
Therefore, use H100 = 100 lb/ft = minimum load.

Figure 13-5 Slab form bracing design, Example 13-4.