BY MR PHIRI P

NON METALS /POLLUTION

Elements that tend to gain electrons to form anions during chemical reactions are called non-
metals
physical properties of Non-metals
 They can be solids(carbon), liquids(bromine) or gases (such as oxygen) at room
temperature
 They have low boiling and melting points
 They are non- malleable and non-ductile
 They are not lustrous
 They are bad conductors of both electricity and heat except graphite
 They have low densities
Note: clean dry air is a mixture of gases, the table below shows the typical composition of dry air
component percentage
Nitrogen, N2 78%
Oxygen, O2 21%
Carbon dioxide, CO2 0.04%
Noble gases (mainly argon) 0.93%

Hydrogen gas
Formula:H2
At room temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas exists as a diatomic molecule, H2
Occurrence
Hydrogen occurs in water, oils and natural gas
Preparation of hydrogen gas

1. Laboratory preparation of hydrogen

In the laboratory, hydrogen gas can be prepared by reacting:

 a reactive metal with a dilute acid

 a reactive metal with water

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 Reaction of reactive metal with a dilute acid
Example
 Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

The gas is collected over water

Drying agent: Concentrated Sulphuric acid

Method of collection: Upward delivery since it is less dense

Reaction of a reactive metal with water

Example
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Note
 Potassium and sodium float on water as they react with it, they must be wrapped in a wire
mesh to make them sink.
 The reaction of potassium with water produces a lilac flame and the reaction of sodium
with water produces a yellow flame

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2. Industrial preparation of hydrogen
On the scale, hydrogen gas is manufactured by the reaction of methane and steam
CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)

Conditions
1. Catalyst: Nickel metal
2. Temperature: 1000oC
3. Pressure: 50 atmospheres
More steam is then added and the gases are passed over a catalyst iron (III) oxide to remove the
carbon monoxide
CO(g) + H2O(g)⇌ CO2(g) + H2(g)
Carbon dioxide is removed by dissolving it in water under pressure

3. Hydrogen can also be produced by cracking of alkanes

Test for hydrogen (describing)

When a burning (lighted) splint is brought on the mouth of a gas jar or test tube containing
hydrogen, the splint burns with a pop sound. In a nutshell, Hydrogen gas burns with a pop sound
when a burning splint is introduced to it

Physical properties of hydrogen

1. It is colourless

2. It is odorless

3. It is less dense than air

4. It has a boiling point of -253oC

5. It is not poisonous and does not support life

Chemical properties of hydrogen
1. It has no effect on litmus paper

2. It burns in oxygen with a blue flame producing a pop sound

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
3. It is a reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of metals below it in the reactivity series
Example
CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
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4. Hydrogen burns in chlorine with a white flame forming hydrogen chloride
Example
H(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
A mixture of hydrogen and chlorine is explosive in sun light

Uses of hydrogen gas

1. It is used in the manufacture of ammonia in Haber process

2. It is used in the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oil in the process called catalytic
hydrogenation

3. Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets because it does not pollute the air.

4. It is used as a reducing agent

Oxygen gas
Formula: O2
Oxygen gas exits as a diatomic molecule, O2
It makes up about 21% of air by volume
Preparation of oxygen
1. Laboratory preparation of oxygen
In the laboratory, oxygen gas can be prepared using the following chemicals:
(a) Potassium chlorate, KClO3
(b) Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2

[A] Potassium chlorate

Potassium chlorate is mixed with a catalyst manganese (IV) oxide upon heating and decomposes
into potassium chloride and oxygen gas
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

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Note: This experiment is explosive

[B] Hydrogen peroxide

Oxygen gas is also prepared by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution using
manganese (IV) oxide as a catalyst. No heating is required
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

Oxygen gas is collected over water

Method of collection: Down ward displacement 5of water

Drying agent: Concentrated sulphuric acid
2. Industrial preparation of oxygen gas
On the large scale, oxygen gas is manufactured by fractional distillation of liquid air. Liquid
oxygen boils at -183oC while liquid nitrogen boils at -196oC
Nitrogen gas which has a lower boiling point distils off first

Test for oxygen (describing)

When a glowing splint is brought on the mouth of a test tube containing oxygen, the glowing
splint is relighted (rekindles). In short oxygen gas relights a glowing splint introduced in its
container
Uses of oxygen
1. It is used in the manufacture of steel in the blast furnace

2. It is used in oxygen tents in hospitals for patients in the intensive care unit

3. It used for welding in the oxy-acetylene flame

4. It used by deep sea divers and mountain climbers

5. It is used as liquid oxygen in rockets when in outer space to support burning of hydrogen

Physical properties of oxygen

1. It is colorless

2. It is odorless

3. It is slightly soluble in water

4. It is slightly denser than air

5. It supports burning

6. It boils at −183oC

7. It does not burn

Chemical properties of oxygen

1. Respiration
Respiration is the process by living organisms oxidize glucose to produce carbon dioxide, water
and energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

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2. Combustion
Alternative term: Burning
Combustion is the process by which a substance reacts with oxygen to produce an oxide and
heat. It is also defined as the burning of substances in oxygen.
Example
Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and heat energy.
C + O2 → CO2 + energy

3. Rusting
Iron reacts with oxygen in air in the presence of water to form rust.
Sulphur dioxide
Formula:SO2
Sulphur burns in oxygen with a blue flame to form Sulphur dioxide

Properties of Sulphur dioxide

1. It has a smell

2. It does not burn or support burning

3. It is fairly soluble in water forming sulphurous acid

4. It decolorizes the solution of acidified potassium permanganate since it is a reducing agent

5. It turns aqueous potassium dichromate (VI) from orange to green

6. It is denser than air

Uses of Sulphur dioxide

1. It is used as a bleaching agent in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper

2. It is used as a food preservative since it kills bacteria

3. It is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid in contact process

Nitrogen gas
Formula: N2
Nitrogen exists as a diatomic molecule,
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Physical properties of nitrogen
1. It is colourless

2. It is odorless

3. It does not burn and does not support burning except magnesium which burns with it.
Chemically, nitrogen gas is very unreactive due to the strong bonds between the nitrogen atoms
in the molecule However, under forced conditions; nitrogen reacts with hydrogen gas to form
ammonia in the presence of the iron catalyst

Manufacture of nitrogen gas

Nitrogen gas is manufactured by fractional distillation of liquid air
Uses of nitrogen
1. It is used in the manufacture of ammonia

2. It is used to provide an inert atmosphere during the arc welding of aircraft parts and in electric
bulbs.
The need for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds in plant life
Nitrogen is essential in the manufacture of proteins while phosphorus is mainly needed for
enzyme activity. Potassium is important in the controlling of rates of photosynthesis and
respiration.

Ammonia
Formula: NH3
Physical state: Gas

Preparation of ammonia

[A] Laboratory preparation of ammonia

In the laboratory, ammonia gas can be prepared by the action of heating an alkali with an
ammonium compound.

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Example
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

The test tube must be tilted downwards to prevent the water formed from running back into the
reaction mixture which may boil and cause an explosion.

Method of collection: Ammonia gas is collected by upward displacement of air because it is less
dense than air.
Drying agent used: Calcium oxide

Drying agents like calcium chloride and concentrated sulphuric acid should not be used because
they easily react with ammonia.

Physical properties of ammonia

1. It is a colourless gas with a pungent choking smell

2. It is less dense than air

3. It is very soluble in water

4. It is easily liquefied, either by cooling to -33oC or by compressing. This makes it easy to

transport in tanks and cylinders.

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Chemical properties of ammonia
1. It turns damp red litmus paper blue

2. It burns in pure oxygen with a yellow - brown flame

3. It dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide

NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)

Note
NH3(g) + H2O(l)⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4OH(aq) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
4. It is a reducing agent because it reduces oxides to metals low in the reactivity series of metals.
Example
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) → 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)
5. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form a white smoke
Test for ammonia gas

Ammonia gas turns damp red litmus paper blue. It is alkaline in nature

[B] Industrial preparation of ammonia

The industrial preparation of ammonia is called Haber process
Ammonia gas produced industrially from nitrogen and hydrogen
Importance of Haber process
Haber process is important because it produces ammonia on a large scale
Raw materials for Haber process
 Nitrogen

 Hydrogen

Reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Essential conditions needed for the manufacture of ammonia in Haber process
1. Catalyst: Iron
2. Temperature: 450oC
3. Pressure: 200 atmospheres

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 The reaction scheme

Nitrogen is unreactive. To make it react with hydrogen, a process called Haber process is used
:1. The two gases are mixed. The mixture is cleaned or scrubbed, to get rid of any impurities

2. Next the mixture is compressed. This pushes the gas molecules closer together

3. Then the mixture goes to the convertor. This is a round tank containing beds of hot iron. The
iron is a catalyst for this reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
The double headed arrow in the equation means the reaction is reversible. So it does not go to
completion. A mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia leaves the convertor.
4. The mixture is cooled until the ammonia condenses. At the end of the reaction, about 10% of
ammonia is produced. The unreacted gases of nitrogen and hydrogen are pumped back to the
convertor (iron catalyst) for another chance to react.
5. The ammonia is run into tanks and stored as a liquid, under pressure.
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Uses of ammonia
1. It is used in the refrigerating plants as a refrigerant

2. It is used in the manufacture of explosives

3. It is used in the manufacture of plastics and glue

4. It is used in the manufacture of nitric acid

5. It is used as a cleaning agent

6. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and
ammonium phosphate.
Note
1. Ammonium sulphate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen and Sulphur needed by
plants

2. Ammonium nitrate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen needed by plants

3. Ammonium phosphate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen and phosphorous

needed by plants

4. The three essential elements present in many fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium (N.P.K)
Pollution
pollution is the contamination of the environment with harmful substances. The harmful
substances are called pollutants.
Types of pollution
There are three main types of pollution.
 Land pollution

 Air pollution

 Water pollution

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[A] Land pollution
Land pollution occurs when pollutants are added to the land. The major causes of land pollution
are materials which do not rot or decay. These materials resist bacterial action and are said to be
non-biodegradable.
Examples of land pollutants

 Plastics
 Glass

[B] water pollution

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are added to water.

Examples of water pollutants
1. Oil spillage: Oil spillage by oil tankers and leaking engines of speed boats pollutes the water.
It disturbs marine life since oxygen supply is cut off.
Solution: You can scoop the oil from the surface of the water
2. Weeds: Weeds usually prevent smooth transport and make H.E.P generation very difficult.
Solution: You can cut and remove all the weeds from the water
3. Industrial wastes: Acidic industrial effluents make the water slightly acidic. This disturbs the
balance of living things.
Solution: Industrial wastes should be treated with slaked lime to neutralize them. You can also
set up dumping sites
4. Acid rain: Acid rain reduces the PH of the water

5. Debris: Debris include solid particles and plant parts

[C] Air pollution
Air pollution occurs when pollutants are added to the atmosphere
Examples of air pollutants
 Carbon monoxide

 Sulphur dioxide

 Oxides of nitrogen

 Soot
 Lead compounds

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Carbon monoxide

Formula: CO
Source: Incomplete combustion of fuel in car exhausts.
Carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon containing compounds in
limited supply of air such as in engines of vehicles and blast furnace

Effects: When carbon monoxide is inhaled in the body, it enters the blood stream; it combines
with hemoglobin making it difficult for red blood cells to transport oxygen. This may lead to
suffocation, unconsciousness or death.
Solution: Use alternative source of fuel like hydrogen which does not pollute the air. Avoid
incomplete combustion of fuels

Sulphur dioxide (an acidic gas with a sharp smell)

Formula:SO2
Source: Combustion of fossil fuels.

Sulphur dioxide is produced as a result of the combination of fossil fuels containing Sulphur
compounds (power stations are the main source of this pollutant). Sulphur dissolve in rain to
form acid rain
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
Adverse effects of acid rain
Acid rain has a lot of adverse effects on buildings, roofing sheets, monuments, vegetation and on
the lungs
1. Acid rain make the soil to become acidic and hence destroy vegetation

2. Acid rain dissolve monuments (statues) made of calcium carbonate

3. Acid rain erodes buildings and iron roofing sheets. Iron roofing sheets rust rapidly because of
the presence of an electrolyte
4. Sulphur dioxide combines with water vapour in the lungs to form an acid. The acid can cause
temporary or permanently damaged to the lungs

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Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2 are acidic gases)
Source: Combustion of fuels in car exhaust. Oxides of nitrogen are found in car exhaust gases

Effects: Compounds of nitrogen form cumulative poison in tissues of living things. they are
formed when Nitrogen and air react together, inside car engines and hot furnaces, they cause
respiratory problems and dissolve in rain to give acid rain.

Lead compounds
Source: Combustion of fuels in car exhausts.
Lead compounds are found in car exhaust gases.
Effects: When lead is taken into the body, it may settle and be stored in the bones or membranes
of the brain. This damages the bones, brain and the nervous system.
Quantities of lead in the blood as low as 100 micrograms per cubic decimeter can cause children
to have low intelligence, poorer memories and less muscular coordination than children who do
not carry that burden of lead.
Petrol contains about 0.5g/dm3 to 1g/dm3 of lead. Lead poisoning is an example of global
poisoning.

Solution: Lead tetraethyl is added to petrol, to help it burn smoothly in car engines. It is still
added in some countries
Ozone
Formula: O3
Source: Photochemical smog
Effects: At ground level, ozone is an eye irritant, causes breathing problems and damages plants

Note:
Ozone, O3, is an atmospheric pollutant in the lower atmosphere but is beneficial higher up in the
atmosphere.
Ozone is formed by photochemical reactions (or sparks in air, ultraviolet on O2)

Ozone in the upper atmosphere is being depleted. Ozone is removed by reaction with chlorine
(atoms) and is derived from CFC‟s (chlorofluorocarbons)
Ozone loss causes skin cancers or cataracts or crop damage or skin diseases or eye damage

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General solutions to the problems of pollution
1. Recycling of waste products
2. Setting up protection standards. This involves limiting or banning of the manufacture and
handling of certain products that are a source of pollution
3. Developing engines that use fuels which pollutes less and using catalytic convertors.
4. Setting up advisory boards to monitor pollution. Such boards would advise and give
assistance on the disposal of pollutants

Note: Fossil fuels must be conserved because they are limited and non-renewable energy sources

Water
Chemical formula: H2O
Test for water
If a liquid is water, it will:
(a) turn blue cobalt chloride paper to pink

(b) turn white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate to blue

(c) boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC at natural pressure if it is pure water

Uses of water
(a) It is essential for all living things

(b) In homes, water is used for cooking, washing and flushing

(c) It is used as a solvent

(d) It is used for making beer, cement

(e) It is used for cooling machines in the industry

Water from the source (rivers and underground) is never completely pure because it contains the
following impurities:

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1. Bacteria and tiny organisms: Most bacteria are harmless but some can cause diseases
2. Dissolved substances: Nitrates and sulphates from the soil, gases from air and some calcium
and magnesium compounds from the rocks

3. Solid particles: Solid particles include particles of mud, sand, grit, twigs, dead plants, dead
animals and perhaps tins and rags that people have dumped.
Before the water is safe to drink, the bacteria and solid substances must be removed. This is done
at the water works.
The water works - Purification of water at the water works
The diagram below shows what happens at the water works

The water is pumped through the screen which gets rid of large bits of rubbish. Then the water
gets through following stages:
1. Course sand filter
The course sand filter tank traps the larger particles of solid
2. Sedimentation tank
Here chemicals are added to water, to make the smaller particles stick together. These particles
then settle to the bottom of the tank.
3. Fine sand filter
The fine sand filter traps any remaining particles.
4. Chlorination tank
In this tank, a little chlorine gas is added. Chlorine gas dissolves, and kills any remaining
bacteria. This is called disinfecting or sterilizing the water. In some places, a fluoride compound
is also added to the water, to help prevent tooth decay. Water is now fit to drink.
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5. Storage tank
Water is now pumped into high storage tanks and from there piped to homes and factories

The water that flows from the taps is clean but not quite pure. It still contains dissolved
substances which were not removed at the water works. Pure water can be made by distillation of
tap or rain water
Two main stages in the purification of water
(a) Filtration: Solid particles are removed from the water

(b) Chlorination: Chlorine is added to water to kill the bacteria

The end
Cell:0974457355

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