CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

1.1 A Brief History of Network Technology

Computer networking is one of the greatest breakthroughs of our age. Well before the Internet took over
our daily lives, engineers and scientists worked to connect computers to each other. The work they did
established our current state of networking. If you’re new to network cables, it’s not a bad idea to review
the history of network technology to understand how we got to where we are now.

The history of modern computer networking technology goes back to 1969, when ARPANET (Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network) became the first connected computer network. It implemented the
TCP/IP protocol suite, which later became the Internet. ARPANET was developed by the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA), a subset of the US Department of Defense. Why did the DoD need to
develop networked computers? The Cold War, of course! The goal of ARPANET was to keep lines of
communication open if the USA and the USSR decided to exchange nuclear devices.

ARPANET revolutionized communications by using packet-switching instead of direct connections. Data

that is communicated through a packet-switching system is formatted into packets with an address of the
destination machine, and then sent onto the network and picked up by the next machine. The address in the
protocol tells the machine where to send the packet. This way, the information will reach its intended
destination, even if there isn’t a direct connection between the two machines.

While it changed the need for there to be direct connections between machines to communicate, the
ARPANET system still relied on phone lines. It was originally a four-node network between university
computers at Stanford, the University of Utah, UCLA, and UCSB, but expanded to 40 machines in 1972.

In 1986, Data point Corporation developed ARCNET, a communications protocol for local area networks
(LANs). It was the first widely available networking system and was used widely in the 1980s for office
automation. Unlike other computer systems that required all networked computers to be homogenous,
ARCNET was the first solution that did not make assumptions about why types of computer networking
technology would be connected. ARCNET speed was limited to 2.5 Mbit/s, and while it was popular during
its reign, it was less reliable and less flexible than other systems, particularly Ethernet.

Figure 1: Token Ring Network Example

In the 1980s, token ring protocols became more popular, mostly as a response from IBM to the openness
of the new Ethernet protocol. This local area network (LAN) set-up connects all the computers in a ring or

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star wherein data is passed from host to host. This protocol prevents collisions of information packets on a
network by ensuring that only a host that holds a token can send data, and that tokens are only released
when data receipt is confirmed.

IBM’s Token Ring technology was launched in October, 1985 and ran at 4 Mbit/s. The star-wired physical
topology was run over shielded twisted-pair cabling, and became the basis for the ANSI/IEE standard 802.5.
Eventually a 16 Mbit/s Token Ring was standardized, and increased to 100 Mbit/s just near the end of its
existence. Many scientists argued that token ring LANs were better than Ethernet, which had recently been
developed. However, Ethernet provided more cost effective methods for networking, which helped make
commercial token ring systems virtually non-existent by the 2000s.
The fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) uses optical fiber to convey data transmission in a LAN. It
offered speeds of up to 100 Mbit/s, blowing ARCNET out of the water. FDDI is a ring-based token network,
but uses a protocol derived from the IEEE 802.4 token bus timed token protocol as opposed to the IEEE
802.5 protocol. The data network technology can also cover a large range, extending up to 120 miles.

FDDI and its later cousin made of copper, CDDI, were popular in the 1990s, when Ethernet was still young
and could only offer 10 Mbit/s. But most FDDI systems have been completely replaced by Ethernet since
the introduction of the faster and less expensive Gigabit Ethernet in 1998.

Ethernet was developed in 1973 by Bob Metcalfe at Xerox PARC, and it wasn’t patented until 1975. The
open Ethernet standard took another five years, and was standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3. The first
Ethernet system used coaxial cable as a shared medium, and started out with speeds of 2.94 Mbit/s. Over
time, Ethernet has moved on to twisted pair or fiber optic links as well as switches, allowing it to increase
in speed, which currently stands at a blazing 40 Gb/s.

Ethernet offered a less expensive alternative to many previous networking standards, especially as it
adapted to new cable types like twisted pair and fiber optic cabling. Other standards were limited to the
types of cable they could use. Because Ethernet operated on an open-source protocol as opposed to a
proprietary one, it was also easier to implement. Ethernet is now relatively ubiquitous, and is considered
one of the main components of the Internet as we know it.

Because Ethernet is a protocol and not a type of cable, there are many different kinds of Ethernet cables
available. You might choose a fiber optic version for networking over a long distance. If you require power
over Ethernet (PoE) then copper is required. You may opt for Cat6 cable vs Cat5e for better speeds, or vice
versa for price reasons.

Now that you have a brief history of network technology under your belt, trueCable has the Ethernet cable
and expertise to help you pick the right set up for your network, whether it’s at home or the office. Contact
us today for more information!

1.2 Impact of Networking in Our Everyday Lives

Networking technology has become an integral part of our daily lives, playing a significant role in how we
communicate, access information, and engage with the world around us. From the devices we use to the
platforms we interact with, networking technology silently weaves its way into our routines.

We will explore the various ways in which networking affects our everyday lives, often without us even
realizing it. We will discuss the following topics:

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  Seamless communication
 Internet access and web browsing
 Social networking
 Mobile connectivity
 Smart devices and the Internet of Things (IoT)

Seamless Communication

Networking technology enables seamless communication across vast distances, allowing us to connect with
friends, family, and colleagues effortlessly. Whether it’s through email, instant messaging, video calls, or
social media platforms, networks facilitate real-time interactions, bridging the physical gaps between
individuals. We can share updates, exchange ideas, and engage in meaningful conversations, regardless of
geographical barriers.

Internet Access and Web Browsing

The ability to access the vast ocean of knowledge known as the internet is made possible through
networking. Whether using wired or wireless connections, networks provide us with internet access,
allowing us to browse websites, search for information, and stay updated on the latest news and trends.
From online shopping and banking to streaming movies and music, our daily activities are intertwined with
the networking infrastructure that enables our digital lives.

Social Networking

Social media platforms have revolutionized how we connect and interact with others. These platforms rely
heavily on networking technology to bring people together, enabling us to share moments, thoughts, and
experiences in real-time. From posting photos and videos to liking, commenting, and sharing content, our
social interactions are facilitated by the intricate networking systems that power these platforms.

Mobile Connectivity

Our smartphones have become extensions of ourselves, providing constant connectivity and access to
information. Mobile networks allow us to make calls, send messages, and access the internet on the go.
Whether we’re checking emails during a commute, using GPS for navigation, or engaging in mobile
banking, networking technology enables the seamless transfer of data and keeps us connected wherever we
are.

Smart Devices and the Internet of Things (IoT)

The proliferation of smart devices has transformed our homes and workspaces. From smart speakers and
thermostats to wearable devices and home automation systems, these interconnected devices rely on
networking technology to communicate and function. Networks facilitate the exchange of data, enabling us
to control and monitor our environments remotely, creating a more efficient and convenient lifestyle.

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 1.3 The Network as a Platform

The network has become a platform for distributing a wide range of services to end users in a reliable,
efficient, and secure manner.

Modern networks are constantly evolving to meet user demands. Early data networks were limited to
exchanging character-based information between connected computer systems. Traditional telephone,
radio, and television networks were maintained separately from data networks. In the past, every one of
these services required a dedicated network, with different communication channels and different
technologies to carry a particular communication signal. Each service had its own set of rules and standards
to ensure successful communication.

Consider a large school in the early 1990s. Back then, classrooms were cabled for the public announcement
network, the telephone network, a video network for televisions, a data network, and perhaps a security
network. These separate networks were disparate, meaning that they could not communicate with each
other, as shown in Figure 2-a.

Figure 2: Multiple Networks versus Converged Networks

Advances in technology are enabling us to consolidate these different kinds of networks onto one platform,
referred to as the converged network. Unlike dedicated networks, converged networks are capable of
delivering voice, video streams, text, and graphics among many different types of devices over the same
communication channel and network structure, as shown in Figure 2-b. Previously separate and distinct
communication forms have converged onto a common platform. This platform provides access to a wide
range of alternative and new communication methods that enable people to interact directly with each other
almost instantaneously.

In a converged network, there are still many points of contact and many specialized devices, such as
personal computers, phones, TVs, and tablet computers, but there is one common network infrastructure.
This network infrastructure uses the same set of rules, agreements, and implementation standards.

Planning for the Future

The convergence of the different types of communications networks onto one platform represents the first
phase in building the intelligent information network. We are currently in this phase of network evolution.

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The next phase will be to consolidate not only the different types of messages onto a single network but to
also consolidate the applications that generate, transmit, and secure the messages onto integrated network
devices.

Not only will voice and video be transmitted over the same network, but the devices that perform the
telephone switching and video broadcasting will also be the same devices that route the messages through
the network. The resulting communications platform will provide high-quality application functionality at
a reduced cost.

The pace at which the development of exciting new converged network applications is occurring can be
attributed to the rapid growth and expansion of the Internet. With only about 10 billion of potentially 1.5
trillion things currently connected globally, there is vast potential to connect the unconnected through the
IoE. This expansion has created a wider audience for whatever message, product, or service can be
delivered.

The underlying mechanics and processes that drive this explosive growth have resulted in a network
architecture that is both capable of supporting changes and able to grow. As the supporting technology
platform for living, learning, working, and playing in the human network, the network architecture of the
Internet must adapt to constantly changing requirements for a high quality of service and security.

1.4 Network Architecture

Networks must support a wide range of applications and services, as well as operate over many different
types of cables and devices, which make up the physical infrastructure. The term network architecture, in
this context, refers to the technologies that support the infrastructure and the programmed services and
rules, or protocols, that move messages across the network.

As networks evolve, we are discovering that there are four basic characteristics, as shown in Figure 3, that
the underlying architectures need to address in order to meet user expectations:

 Fault tolerance (Figure 3-a)

 Scalability (Figure 3-b)
 Quality of service (QoS) (Figure 3-c)
 Security (Figure 3-d)

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 Figure 3: Characteristics of a Reliable Network

Fault Tolerance in Circuit-Switched Networks

With our reliance on networks, certain precautions must be taken to ensure that the network functions as
designed, even if things go wrong.

Fault Tolerance

The expectation is that the Internet is always available to the millions of users who rely on it. This requires
a network architecture that is built to be fault tolerant. A fault-tolerant network is one that limits the impact
of a failure so that the fewest number of devices are affected by it. It is also built in a way that allows quick
recovery when such a failure occurs. These networks depend on multiple paths between the source and
destination of a message. If one path fails, the messages can be instantly sent over a different link. Having
multiple paths to a destination is known as redundancy.

Circuit-Switched Connection-Oriented Networks

To understand the need for redundancy, we can look at how early telephone systems worked. When a person
made a call using a traditional telephone set, the call first went through a setup process. This process
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identified the telephone switching locations between the person making the call (the source) and the phone
set receiving the call (the destination). A temporary path, or circuit, was created for the duration of the
telephone call. If any link or device in the circuit failed, the call was dropped. To reconnect, a new call had
to be made, with a new circuit. This connection process is referred to as a circuit-switched process and is
illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Circuit Switching in a Telephone Network

Many circuit-switched networks give priority to existing circuit connections at the expense of new circuit
requests. After a circuit is established, even if no communication is occurring between the persons on either
end of the call, the circuit remains connected and resources used until one of the parties disconnects the
call. Because there are only so many circuits that can be created, it is possible to get a message that all
circuits are busy and a call cannot be placed. The cost to create many alternate paths with enough capacity
to support a large number of simultaneous circuits, and the technologies necessary to dynamically re-create
dropped circuits in the event of a failure, is why circuit-switched technology was not optimal for the
Internet.

Fault Tolerance in Packet-Switched Networks

Because of the technical issues and cost associated with building a fault-tolerant circuit-switched network,
network designers turned their attention to packet-switched technologies.

Packet-Switched Networks

In the search for a network that was more fault tolerant, the early Internet designers researched packet-
switched networks. The premise for this type of network is that a single message can be broken into multiple
message blocks, with each message block containing addressing information to indicate the origination
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point and final destination. Using this embedded information, these message blocks, called packets, can be
sent through the network along various paths, and can be reassembled into the original message when
reaching their destination, as illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Packet Switching in a Data Network

The devices within the network itself are typically unaware of the content of the individual packets. Only
visible is the address of the final destination. These addresses are often referred to as IP addresses, which
can be represented in a dotted-decimal format, such as 10.10.10.10. Each packet is sent independently from
one location to another. At each location, a routing decision is made as to which path to use to forward the
packet toward its final destination. This would be like writing a long message to a friend using ten postcards.
Each postcard has the destination address of the recipient. As the postcards are forwarded through the postal
system, the destination address is used to determine the next path that postcard should take. Eventually,
they will be delivered to the address on the postcards.

If a previously used path is no longer available, the routing function can dynamically choose the next best
available path. Because the messages are sent in pieces, rather than as a single complete message, the few
packets that might be lost can be retransmitted to the destination along a different path. In many cases, the
destination device is unaware that any failure or rerouting occurred. Using our postcard analogy, if one of
the postcards is lost along the way, only that postcard needs to be mailed again.

The need for a single, reserved circuit from end to end does not exist in a packet-switched network. Any
piece of a message can be sent through the network using any available path. Additionally, packets
containing pieces of messages from different sources can travel the network at the same time. By providing
a method to dynamically use redundant paths, without intervention by the user, the Internet has become a
fault-tolerant method of communication. In our mail analogy, as our postcard travels through the postal

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system, it will share transportation with other postcards, letters, and packages. For example, one of the
postcards might be placed on an airplane, along with lots of other packages and letters that are being
transported toward their final destination.

Although packet-switched connectionless networks are the primary infrastructure for today’s Internet, there
are some benefits to a connection-oriented system like the circuit-switched telephone system. Because
resources at the various switching locations are dedicated to providing a finite number of circuits, the quality
and consistency of messages transmitted across a connection-oriented network can be guaranteed. Another
benefit is that the provider of the service can charge the users of the network for the period of time that the
connection is active. The ability to charge users for active connections through the network is a fundamental
premise of the telecommunication service industry.

Scalable Networks

Not only must a network be fault tolerant, but it must also be able to grow to accommodate new users and
services.

Scalability

Thousands of new users and service providers connect to the Internet each week. For the Internet to support
this rapid amount of growth, it must be scalable. A scalable network can expand quickly to support new
users and applications without impacting the performance of the service being delivered to existing users.

The fact that the Internet is able to expand at the rate that it is, without seriously impacting the performance
experienced by individual users, is a function of the design of the protocols and underlying technologies on
which it is built. The Internet has a hierarchical layered structure for addressing, for naming, and for
connectivity services. As a result, network traffic that is destined for local or regional services does not
need to traverse to a central point for distribution. Common services can be duplicated in different regions,
thereby keeping traffic off the higher-level backbone networks.

Scalability also refers to the ability to accept new products and applications. Although there is no single
organization that regulates the Internet, the many individual networks that provide Internet connectivity
cooperate to follow accepted standards and protocols. The adherence to standards enables the manufacturers
of hardware and software to concentrate on product development and improvements in the areas of
performance and capacity, knowing that the new products can integrate with and enhance the existing
infrastructure.

The current Internet architecture, while highly scalable, might not always be able to keep up with the pace
of user demand. New protocols and addressing structures are under development to meet the increasing rate
at which Internet applications and services are being added.

Providing QoS

As new Internet applications and services are added, it becomes increasingly apparent that some mechanism
is required to handle the different types of traffic encountered in a converged network.

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Quality of Service

Quality of service (QoS) is an ever-increasing requirement of networks today. New applications available
to users over internetworks, such as voice and live video transmissions create higher expectations for the
quality of the delivered services.

Networks must provide predictable, measurable, and at times, guaranteed services. The packet-switched
network architecture does not guarantee that all packets that comprise a particular message will arrive on
time and in their correct order, or even that they will arrive at all.

Networks also need mechanisms to manage congested network traffic. Network bandwidth is the measure
of the data-carrying capacity of the network. In other words, how much information can be transmitted
within a specific amount of time? Network bandwidth is measured in the number of bits that can be
transmitted in a single second, or bits per second (bps). When simultaneous communications are attempted
across the network, the demand for network bandwidth can exceed its availability, creating network
congestion. The network simply has more bits to transmit than what the bandwidth of the communication
channel can deliver.

In most cases, when the volume of packets is greater than what can be transported across the network,
devices queue, or hold, the packets in memory until resources become available to transmit them, as shown
in Figure 6. Queuing packets causes delay because new packets cannot be transmitted until previous
packets have been processed. If the number of packets to be queued continues to increase, the memory
queues fill up and packets are dropped.

Figure 6: Using Queues to Prioritize Communication

Achieving the required QoS by managing the delay and packet loss parameters on a network becomes the
secret to a successful end-to-end application quality solution. One way that this can be accomplished is
through classification. To create QoS classifications of data, we use a combination of communication

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characteristics and the relative importance assigned to the application, as shown in Figure 7. We then treat
all data within the same classification according to the same rules. For example, communication that is time
sensitive, such as voice transmissions, would be classified differently from communication that can tolerate
delay, such as file transfers.

Figure 7: Importance of Quality of Service (QoS)

Examples of priority decisions for an organization might include

 Time-sensitive communication: Increase priority for services like telephony or video distribution
 Non-time-sensitive communication: Decrease priority for web page retrieval or email
 High importance to organization: Increase priority for production control or business transaction
data
 Undesirable communication: Decrease priority or block unwanted activity, like peer-to-peer file
sharing or live entertainment

Providing Network Security

As new users and services are added to the network, it becomes important that measures be taken to ensure
that information access is strictly controlled.

Security

The Internet has evolved from a tightly controlled internetwork of educational and government
organizations to a widely accessible means for transmission of business and personal communications. As
a result, the security requirements of the network have changed. The network infrastructure, the services,
and the data contained on network-attached devices are crucial personal and business assets. Compromising
the integrity of these assets could have serious consequences, such as

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  Network outages that prevent communications and transactions from occurring, with consequent
loss of business
 Intellectual property (research ideas, patents, or designs) that is stolen and used by a competitor
 Personal or private information that is compromised or made public without the users’ consent
 Misdirection and loss of personal or business funds
 Loss of important data that takes significant labor to replace or is irreplaceable

There are two types of network security concerns that must be addressed: network infrastructure security
and information security.

Securing a network infrastructure includes the physical securing of devices that provide network
connectivity and preventing unauthorized access to the management software that resides on them.

Information security refers to protecting the information contained within the packets being transmitted
over the network and the information stored on network-attached devices. Security measures taken in a
network should

 Prevent unauthorized disclosure

 Prevent theft of information
 Prevent unauthorized modification of information
 Prevent denial of service (DoS)

To achieve the goals of network security, there are three primary requirements.

Ensuring confidentiality: Data confidentiality means that only the intended and authorized recipients—
individuals, processes, or devices—can access and read data. This is accomplished by having a strong
system for user authentication, enforcing passwords that are difficult to guess, and requiring users to change
the passwords frequently. Encrypting data, so that only the intended recipient can read it, is also part of
confidentiality.

 Maintaining communication integrity: Data integrity means having the assurance that the
information has not been altered in transmission, from origin to destination. Data integrity can be
compromised when information has been corrupted—willfully or accidentally. Data integrity is
made possible by requiring validation of the sender as well as by using mechanisms to validate that
the packet has not changed during transmission.
 Ensuring availability: Availability means having the assurance of timely and reliable access to
data services for authorized users. Network firewall devices, along with desktop and server
antivirus software, can ensure system reliability and the robustness to detect, repel, and cope with
such attacks. Building fully redundant network infrastructures, with few single points of failure,
can reduce the impact of these threats.

1.4 Elements of Computer Network

Computer Network is a system in which multiple nodes are connected to each other to share information
and resources.
A computer network allows sharing of resources between different nodes connected within it.

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Computer Network Elements: The objects basically used in a computer network are known as
Computer Network Elements (CNEs). There are basically 4 computer networking elements:
 Computers
 Transmission medium (wired or wireless)
 Protocols
 Network software
All the elements of a computer network are described below:

A. Computers:

A computer is a digital device that is able to accept data as input, a process that data using predefined
algorithms and data structures, and perform tasks as output – that includes the transformation of raw data
into information, then knowledge, and finally insight about the data’s domain. The output also takes the
form of the performance of physical tasks along with data storage, data transformation, and data retrieval.
The network is also formed by computers for the purposes of data interchange and leveraging a
distributed programming model for parallel processing.

B. Transmission medium:

The means through which we send our data from one place to another is known as the Transmission
medium.
Signals are used to represent data by computers and other telecommunication devices. The signals (i.e.,
data or information) are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another.
These signals travel through a vacuum, air, or other transmission mediums to move from one point to
another (from sender to receiver).

The transmission medium is of two types:

 Wired or Guided: For example, Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Optical Fiber Cable.
 Wireless or Unguided: For example, Radio waves, Microwaves, and Infrared.

C. Protocols:

There are some defined rules and conventions for communication between network devices.
These are called Protocols. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make
connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into sent and
received messages.

Protocols may be of 3 types:

 Internet Protocols
 Wireless Network Protocols
 Network Routing Protocols

D. Network Software:

Network software is a foundational element for any network. This type of software helps administrators
deploy, manage and monitor a network. The traditional networks are made up of specialized hardware,
such as routers and switches that bundle the networking software into the solution.
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Such types of software encompasses a broad range of software used for the design, implementation, and
operation, and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware-based with
software embedded. When software like Defined Networking (SDN) emerged, the software is separated
from the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the computer network.

1.5 Computer Networks versus Human Network

What is Human Networking?

Human networking refers to the process of building and maintaining relationships with people in a face-to-
face setting. This can be done through social events, clubs, professional organizations, and personal
connections. In human networking, interactions between people are based on personal, face-to-face
conversations, body language, and other nonverbal cues.

What is Internet Networking?

Internet networking refers to the process of building and maintaining relationships with others through
digital means, such as social media platforms, online forums, instant messaging apps, and email. In internet
networking, interactions between people are based on written messages, digital media, and other online
communication tools.

Differences between Human Networking and Internet Networking

Human networking and internet networking are two different methods of networking and have their own
advantages and disadvantages. Human networking provides an opportunity for face-to-face interaction and
allows for the development of personal relationships. However, it can be time-consuming and may require
significant effort to attend events or meetings. On the other hand, internet networking is more convenient
and allows for a wider reach. It also provides more opportunities for virtual interaction, which can be
especially useful for people who are shy or introverted.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Human Networking and Internet Networking

Both human and internet networking have their own advantages and disadvantages. Human networking is
more personal and allows for face-to-face interaction, which can help to build deeper relationships.
However, it can also be time-consuming and require a significant amount of effort to attend events or
meetings.
Internet networking, on the other hand, is more convenient and allows for a wider reach. It is also easier to
maintain relationships through digital means, as it requires less time and effort. However, it can also be
impersonal and lack the personal touch of human networking.

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