INTRODUCTION

• THIS SECTION WILL DISCUSS THE USE OF REGULATORS, VALVES, AND ACTUATORS TO
CONTROL GAS FLOW, LIQUID FLOW, AND PRESSURE CONTROL. IN MANY PROCESSES,
THIS INVOLVES THE CONTROL OF MANY THOUSANDS OF CUBIC METERS OF A LIQUID OR
THE CONTROL OF LARGE FORCES AS WOULD BE THE CASE IN A STEEL ROLLING MILL
FROM LOW-LEVEL ANALOG, DIGITAL, OR PNEUMATIC SIGNALS.
• TEMPERATURE IS ALSO NORMALLY CONTROLLED BY REGULATING GAS AND/OR LIQUID
FLOW. CONTROL LOOPS CAN BE LOCAL SELF-REGULATING LOOPS UNDER PNEUMATIC,
HYDRAULIC, OR ELECTRICAL CONTROL, OR THE LOOPS CAN BE PROCESSOR
CONTROLLED WITH POSITION FEEDBACK LOOPS.

• ELECTRICAL SIGNALS FROM A CONTROLLER ARE LOW-LEVEL SIGNALS, WHICH REQUIRE

THE USE OF POWER SWITCHING DEVICES OR RELAYS FOR POWER CONTROL, AND
POSSIBLY OPTOISOLATORS FOR ISOLATION.
PRESSURE CONTROLLERS / REGULATORS
GASES USED IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING SUCH AS OXYGEN, NITROGEN, HYDROGEN ,AND
PROPANE, ARE STORED IN HIGH-PRESSURE CONTAINERS IN LIQUID FORM OUTSIDE OF THE
PROCESSING FACILITY FOR SAFETY. THE HIGH-PRESSURE GAS FROM ABOVE THE LIQUID IS
REDUCED IN PRESSURE AND REGULATED WITH GAS REGULATORS BEFORE IT CAN BE
SAFELY DISTRIBUTED THROUGH THE FACILITY IN LOW-PRESSURE LINES.
THE GAS LINES MAY HAVE ADDITIONAL REGULATORS AT THE POINT OF USE.
 A SPRING-CONTROLLED REGULATOR IS AN INTERNALLY CONTROLLED PRESSURE
REGULATOR.
THE SPRING HOLDS THE INLET VALVE OPEN AND GAS UNDER PRESSURE FLOWS INTO THE
MAIN CYLINDER AT A RATE HIGHER THAN THE GAS CAN EXIT THE CYLINDER. AS THE
PRESSURE IN THE CYLINDER INCREASES, A PREDETERMINED PRESSURE IS REACHED
WHERE THE SPRING-LOADED DIAPHRAGM STARTS TO MOVE UP, CAUSING THE VALVE TO
PARTIALLY CLOSE; I.E., THE PRESSURE ON THE DIAPHRAGM CONTROLS THE FLOW OF GAS
INTO THE CYLINDER TO MAINTAIN A CONSTANT PRESSURE IN THE MAIN CYLINDER AND AT
THE OUTPUT REGARDLESS OF FLOW RATE (IDEALLY). THE OUTPUT PRESSURE CAN BE
ADJUSTED BY THE SPRING SCREW ADJUSTMENT.
SAFETY VALVES

SAFETY VALVES ARE FITTED TO ALL HIGH-PRESSURE CONTAINERS FROM

STEAM GENERATORS TO DOMESTIC WATER HEATERS (SEE FIG. 10.3B).
 The valve is closed until the
pressure on the lower face of the
valve reaches a predetermined
level set by the spring. When this
level is reached, the valve moves
up allowing the excess pressure to
escape through the vent.
LEVEL REGULATORS

LEVEL REGULATORS ARE IN COMMON USE IN INDUSTRY TO MAINTAIN A

CONSTANT FLUID PRESSURE, OR A CONSTANT FLUID SUPPLY TO A PROCESS,
OR IN WASTE STORAGE.
 Figure 10.4 (a) Automatic fluid level controller (b)
automatic emptying of a storage tank when full, and (c)
means of detecting full level or empty level in a fluid
reservoir.
(a) Automatic fluid level controller

Illustrates a control system for

maintaining water levels. When
the fluid level decreases, a float
descends, opening the inlet valve
to allow fluid into the tank. As the
tank fills and the float rises, the
inlet valve closes, ensuring a
constant water level and
preventing overflow.
 (b) automatic emptying of a storage
tank when full

Depicts a self-emptying reservoir, such

as a waste holding tank. As the tank fills,
the rising float pulls a connecting link
that lifts the outlet valve by overcoming
hydrostatic pressure. This allows fluid
to flow out until the tank is empty, at
which point the valve closes. Once
closed, the reservoir begins to fill again,
with fluid pressure keeping the valve
shut.
 (c) means of detecting full level or
empty level in a fluid reservoir.

The float controls the position of a

weight, monitored by position sensors A
and B. When the weight reaches sensor A
(indicating an empty container), the
sensor activates a pump to fill the tank.
Conversely, when sensor B detects the
weight (indicating a full container), it
turns the pump off. The weight can be
made of magnetic material, with level
sensors using Hall effect or magneto
restrictive element (MRE) technology.
FLOW CONTROL ACTUATORS
FLOW CONTROL ACTUATORS ARE USED TO CORRECT CHANGES IN MEASURED VARIABLES
LIKE TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, MIXING INGREDIENTS, AND LEVEL BY CONTROLLING FLOW
RATES. THEY CAN BE ELECTRICALLY, PNEUMATICALLY, OR HYDRAULICALLY CONTROLLED
AND CAN BE SELF-OPERATING IN LOCAL FEEDBACK LOOPS. COMMON TYPES OF VARIABLE
APERTURE VALVES USED FOR FLOW CONTROL INCLUDE GLOBE, BUTTERFLY, WEIR, AND
BALL VALVES.
GLOBE VALVE
FIG. 10.5 ILLUSTRATES THE GLOBE
VALVE'S CROSS SECTION, WITH
VALVE ACTUATOR CONTROLLING
POSITION, SPEED, AND DISTANCE
FOR FLOW CONTROL
APPLICATIONS.
A GLOBE VALVE IS A TYPE OF VALVE USED TO CONTROL INCOMING LIQUID FLOW. IT CAN
BE SINGLE-SEATED OR CONFIGURED AT RIGHT ANGLES. DOUBLE SEATING IS AVAILABLE
FOR REDUCED FORCE BUT IS EXPENSIVE AND DIFFICULT TO MAINTAIN. THERE ARE
VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS, INCLUDING TWO-WAY, CONVERGING, AND THREE-WAY
VALVES. DIVERGING VALVES SWITCH INCOMING FLOWS, WHILE CONVERGING VALVES
SWITCH TWO FLOWS TO A SINGLE OUTPUT. THE VALVE STEM CAN BE ADJUSTED TO SUIT
SPECIFIC NEEDS
FLOW CONTROL
• THE GLOBE TYPE VALVE CAN BE FITTED WITH VARIOUS SHAPE PLUGS FOR FLOW RATE
CONTROL. COMMON PLUGS ARE DESIGNED FOR QUICK OPENING, LINEAR, OR EQUAL
PERCENTAGE FLOW OPERATION WITH VALVE STEM TRAVEL. THE SHAPE OF THE PLUG
DETERMINES THE VALVE’S FLOW CHARACTERISTICS, WHICH ARE TYPICALLY
DESCRIBED IN TERMS OF PERCENTAGE OF FLOW VERSUS PERCENTAGE OF LIFT OR
TRAVEL.
• THE SELECTION OF CONTROL PLUGS SHOULD BE CAREFULLY CHOSEN FOR
ANY PARTICULAR APPLICATION, CONSIDERING PROCESS
CHARACTERISTICS. FOR LINEAR LOAD CHANGES, A LINEAR PLUG SHOULD
BE USED, WHILE FOR NONLINEAR LOAD CHANGES, A PLUG WITH THE
APPROPRIATE NONLINEAR CHARACTERISTIC SHOULD BE USED.
BUTTERFLY VALVE

THE BUTTERFLY VALVE (FIG. 10.8A) HAS FLOW VERSUS TRAVEL CHARACTERISTICS
SHOWN IN FIG. 10.8B. THE FLOW RELATIONSHIP IS APPROXIMATELY EQUAL PERCENTAGE
UP TO 50% OPEN AND BECOMES LINEAR BEYOND THAT POINT. THESE VALVES ARE COST-
EFFECTIVE, SIMPLE IN DESIGN, EASY TO INSTALL, AND PROVIDE TIGHT CLOSURE. THE
TORSION FORCE ON THE SHAFT INCREASES UP TO A 70° OPENING AND THEN DECREASES.
 THE MOST COMMON VALVE PLUGS ARE DESIGNED FOR QUICK
OPENING, LINEAR, OR EQUAL PERCENTAGE FLOW OPERATION WITH
RESPECT TO VALVE STEM TRAVEL:

• QUICK OPENING: RAPID INCREASE IN FLOW AT THE START OF OPENING.

• LINEAR: FLOW INCREASES PROPORTIONALLY WITH VALVE TRAVEL.

• EQUAL PERCENTAGE: FLOW INCREASES LOGARITHMICALLY WITH VALVE TRAVEL.

 THE PLUG'S SHAPE DETERMINES THE VALVE’S FLOW
CHARACTERISTICS, TYPICALLY DESCRIBED AS PERCENTAGE FLOW
VERSUS PERCENTAGE TRAVEL OR LIFT. FIG. 10.7A SHOWS VARIOUS
PLUG DESIGNS, WHILE FIG. 10.7B ILLUSTRATES THEIR FLOW
CHARACTERISTICS.

• PLUG SELECTION:THE CHOICE OF A CONTROL PLUG DEPENDS ON PROCESS REQUIREMENTS:

• LINEAR PLUGS: SUITABLE FOR LINEAR LOAD CHANGES
• EQUAL PERCENTAGE PLUGS: IDEAL FOR NONLINEAR LOAD CHANGES.
CAREFUL ANALYSIS OF PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS IS ESSENTIAL FOR PROPER SELECTION.
OTHER VALVE TYPES

A NUMBER OF OTHER TYPES OF VALVES ARE IN COMMON

USE. THEY ARE THE WEIR DIAPHRAGM, BALL, AND ROTARY
PLUG VALVES. THE CROSS SECTIONS OF THESE VALVES
ARE SHOWN IN FIG. 10.9.
THE TEXT DESCRIBES VARIOUS VALVE TYPES, INCLUDING WEIR-TYPE DIAPHRAGM, ONE-
PIECE BALL VALVE, ECCENTRIC ROTARY PLUG VALVE, AND SMART POSITIONER.
DIAPHRAGM VALVES ARE LOW-COST, LOW-MAINTENANCE, AND SUITABLE FOR SLURRIES
AND LIQUIDS WITH SUSPENDED SOLIDS. BALL VALVES ARE SELF-CLEANING, SIMPLE, AND
HAVE TIGHT TURNOFF CHARACTERISTICS. ECCENTRIC ROTARY PLUG VALVES ARE
MEDIUM-COST, REQUIRE LESS CLOSING FORCE, AND CAN BE USED WITH CORROSIVE
LIQUIDS. THE SMART POSITIONER ADJUSTS AIR PRESSURE TO THE ACTUATOR UNTIL THE
SHAFT POSITION MATCHES THE CONTROLLER'S REQUEST.
THE SMART CONTROLLER USES A POSITIONER
TO COMMUNICATE WITH A PLC, ENSURING
ACCURATE FLOW RATE MONITORING AND
SIGNALING TO THE FLOW CONTROLLER,
AVOIDING WEAR AND HYSTERESIS
ADJUSTMENTS
VALVE CHARACTERISTICS
VALVE CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE CORROSION RESISTANCE, OPERATING TEMPERATURE
RANGES, HIGH AND LOW PRESSURES, FLUID VELOCITIES, AND FLUIDS CONTAINING
SOLIDS. PROPER INSTALLATION AND VENDOR RECOMMENDATIONS ARE CRUCIAL. CLEAR
PIPE RUNS UP AND DOWN STREAM OF VALVES MINIMIZE DISTURBANCES. VALVE SIZING
IS BASED ON PRESSURE LOSS, WITH A CY NUMBER REPRESENTING THE NUMBER OF
GALLONS OF WATER FLOWING PER MINUTE. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE
DROP, FLOW RATE, AND CY IS GIVEN BY THE FORMULA.
 C = QX√(SG/P)
WHERE SG IS THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE LIQUID.
EXAMPLE 10.1 WHAT IS THE CV OF A VALVE, IF THERE IS A PRESSURE DROP OF 3.5 PSI
WHEN 2.3 GAL PER SECOND OF A LIQUID WITH A SW OF 60 LB/FT³ ARE FLOWING?
SOLUTION
2.3×60 60 V62.4X3.5 138X0.52-72.3
TABLE 10.1 GIVES A COMPARISON OF SOME OF THE VALVE CHARACTERISTICS; THE
VALUES SHOWN ARE TYPICAL OF THE DEVICES AVAILABLE AND MAY BE EXCEEDED BY
SOME MANUFACTURERS WITH NEW DESIGNS AND MATERIALS.
VALVE FAIL SAFE
VALVE FAIL SAFE IS CRUCIAL IN MANY SYSTEMS BECAUSE IT DETERMINES
THE VALVE'S POSITION DURING A POWER LOSS. THIS ENSURES SAFETY BY
EITHER ALLOWING OR STOPPING THE FLOW OF CHEMICALS OR FUEL TO
PREVENT ACCIDENTS. THE VALVE'S BEHAVIOR DURING FAILURE IS
CONTROLLED BY THE SPRING POSITION AND PRESSURE PORT.
ACTUATORS
ACTUATORS ARE USED TO CONTROL VALVES, WITH AIR AND ELECTRICAL BEING THE MOST
COMMON. THEY CAN BE HYDRAULICALLY CONTROLLED OR AIR-OPERATED. THE
ACTUATOR'S POSITION IS SET BY A CENTRAL PROCESS CONTROLLER, AND IT CAN INFORM
THE CONTROLLER ABOUT THE VALVE'S POSITION AND CORRECT OPERATION. THE
RESPONSE TIME OF AN ACTUATOR CAN VARY BETWEEN SEVERAL SECONDS AND 60+
SECONDS, REQUIRING CONSIDERATION BY THE PROPORTIONAL, INTEGRAL, AND
DERIVATIVE (PID) ACTION CONTROLLER.
OPERATION

FLOW RATES ARE CONTROLLED BY A VARIABLE POSITION VALVE THAT CAN BE

SET IN ANY POSITION BETWEEN FULLY OPEN AND FULLY CLOSED. THE
POSITION OF THE VALVE CAN BE CONTROLLED AUTOMATICALLY,
ELECTRICALLY, HYDRAULICALLY, OR PNEUMATICALLY.
 THE INDUSTRY STANDARD FOR PNEUMATIC PRESSURE CONTROL SIGNALS ARE IN THE
RANGE OF 3 TO 15 PSI AND FOR ELECTRICAL SIGNALS THE RANGE IS 4 TO 20 MA (IN THE
CASE OF HVAC 0 TO 10 V). PROCESS-CONTROL SYSTEMS ARE NOW COMPUTER BASED
AND THE CONTROL SIGNALS ARE NORMALLY ELECTRICAL, SO THAT FOR THE CONTROL OF
PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS CONVERTERS ARE USED AT THE ACTUATOR TO CONVERT THE 4
TO 20 MA CONTROL SIGNAL TO 3 TO 15 PSI THAT IS REQUIRED BY THE ACTUATOR. FIGURE
10.11 SHOWS TWO CONTROL LOOPS: THE LOOP IN FIG. 10.11A IS THE ORIGINAL
PNEUMATIC LOOP AND FIG. 10.11B IS AN ELECTRICAL LOOP WITH AN I TO P CONVERTER TO
OPERATE THE PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR.
 FIGURE 10.11
It shows (a) pneumatic control loop
and (b) electrical control loop with I to
P converter.
Control signals can be used to
directly control the actuator, but with
wear over time, friction, and
hysteresis errors can occur in the
position of the valve for given
amplitude control signal. To eliminate
these errors and to confirm the valve
is operating correctly direct feedback
from the actuator to the controller is
used.
 THIS FEEDBACK LOOP IS KNOWN AS THE "POSITIONER." IN THE CASE OF A PNEUMATIC
ACTUATOR, THE FEEDBACK IS PROVIDED BY MECHANICAL LINKAGE FROM THE ACTUATOR
DRIVE SHAFT TO THE BLEED ON THE AIR SUPPLY CONTROLLING THE ACTUATOR, THIS IS
SHOWN IN FIG. 10.12. THE SMART POSITIONER COMPARES THE POSITION OF THE
ACTUATOR DRIVE SHAFT TO THE POSITION INDICATED BY THE CONTROLLER, AND
ADJUSTS THE AIR PRESSURE TO THE ACTUATOR UNTIL THE SHAFT POSITION IS THE SAME
POSITION AS REQUESTED BY THE CONTROLLER.
CONTROL VALVES
• A VERY LARGE NUMBER OF TYPES AND SIZES OF CONTROL VALVES ARE IN USE RANGING
IN SIZE FROM 1/10 OF AN INCH TO SEVERAL FEET. THE VALVE DESIGN DEPENDS ON MANY
FACTORS SUCH AS THE VOLUME AND FLOW RATE OF THE LIQUID TO BE CONTROLLED,
THE PRESSURE OF THE LIQUID, AND THE REQUIRED TEMPERATURE OPERATING RANGE.
• VALVES CAN BE CONFIGURED WITH SINGLE OR DOUBLE SEATING TO REDUCE ACTUATOR
DRIVE REQUIREMENTS. HOWEVER, THE MAIN CONTROLLING ACTIONS ARE SLIDING
STEM OR ROTARY
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES
A NUMBER OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES ARE AVAILABLE FOR SWITCHING HIGH CURRENTS FOR MOTOR
CONTROL.
THEY ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

2. BIDIRECTIONAL AC SWITCH (TRIAC)

3. DARLINGTON BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT)

4. POWER METAL-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR (MOSFET)

5. INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)

6. MOS-CONTROLLED THYRISTOR (MCT)

APPLICATION CONSIDERATION / VALVES
CONTROL VALVE SELECTION DEPENDS ON FACTORS LIKE GAS OR FLUID CORROSIVITY,
TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, FLOW RATES, VOLUME, VISCOSITY, AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS.
VALVES ARE CRUCIAL FOR PROCESS CONTROL AND ARE EXPENSIVE. THEY OPERATE IN
HARSH CONDITIONS, REQUIRING KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE. CAREFUL SELECTION
REQUIRES CONSIDERING SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND MANUFACTURERS'
SPECIFICATIONS. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CAN BE FOUND IN THE ISA 75 SERIES OF
STANDARDS.
 THE CHOICE OF VALVES IS INFLUENCED BY FACTORS SUCH AS FAIL-SAFE
CONSIDERATIONS, VALVE TYPE, SIZE, MATERIALS USED, SHUTOFF TIGHTNESS,
ACCEPTABLE PRESSURE DROP, VALVE BODY FOR LINEAR OR ROTARY MOTION, AND
ACCESSIBILITY AND EASE OF MAINTENANCE. THESE FACTORS HELP DETERMINE THE
APPROPRIATE VALVE FOR A SPECIFIC APPLICATION AND ENSURE OPTIMAL
PERFORMANCE.
 THE CHOICE OF VALVE OR PLUG DEPENDS ON THE PROCESS'S NATURE, WITH CONTROL
SLIGHTLY AFFECTED BY VALVE CHARACTERISTICS IN FAST REACTIONS AND LARGE LOAD
CHANGES. VALVE CHARACTERISTICS ALSO PLAY A ROLE IN SLOW PROCESSES WITH
NONLINEAR LOAD CHANGES. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS INCLUDE MAINTENANCE,
SERVICEABILITY, FAIL-SAFE FEATURES, AND FEEDBACK REQUIREMENTS.