AIM: To study the characteristics of class A amplifier.

APPARATUS: 1)ADTRON Trainer kit

2) A.C Current Meter
3) D.C Current Meter
4) Signal Generator
5) C.R.O, Digital Multimeter.

THEORY:
Amplifier are classified in a number of ways depending upon its
1) Operating or Quescent point
2) Operating Frequency
3) Type of active component used i.e. Transistors, Values or both
4) Band of operating frequency

Classification of amplifier depending upon Q point is as follows:

1) Class A amplifier
2) Class B amplifier
3) Class C amplifier
4) Class AB amplifier

Quiescent point is defined as the DC bias point on the Vce-Ic curve when there is no
signal fed to the amplifier. In case of class A amplifier the Q-point lies at the center of
load line as shown in the Figure.
In a class A power amplifier, maximum dissipation occurs in the transistor under
quiescent condition (no applied signal). Referring to this PD max , it can be shown that:

PD max = 2PL

Where PL is the AC power delivery to the load by an input signal that drives the
transistor over a full excursion on the load line between saturation and cutoff.
If the maximum average dissipation capability of a transistor is designated as
PT then maximum AC power this transistor can delivery to a load is PT / 2

Thus, if a transistor has a PT of 150 mW for example, then maximum

PL = PL = 150mW
n 2

= 75mW and PB = PL = 75mW =300W

n 0.25

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 1

 Thus a class A amplifier with a direct coupled load supply only one half the
amount of AC power to the load that its transistor can be dissipate, and the DC
power in put is more than the ten times the amount of AC signal power in the
load.
This can be represented by the diagram in fig. 1, in which the large “ square”
represents the total DC power supplied by the battery, PB
This diagram clearly show that a device operated in the class A mode is cooler
when delivering power to a load than when no Input signal is applied. That is, the
heading of the active derive is at a maximum when the input signal is zero, and
the heating is reduced by the amount of DC input power converted in to a useful
AC power in the load.

IC Selection of Q point

VCE

Advantage of class A amplifier is distortionless faithful reproductions of the

input. However it is disadvantageous because it has a very low power efficiency
(around 10%).

CLASS A DIRECT COUPLED RESISTIVE LOAD

This is the only type of amplifier considered so far, and was shown to have a
collector circuit efficiency beta, called the conversion efficiency h, of around
25% . This has been defined as follows:

h= (AC power delivery to load / DC power supplied by battery) X100

= (PI / PB) X 100%

This figure is the optimum possible value but is nearly attained in transistor
amplifiers. However, where a large amount of AC power is required this means a
great deal of wasted power. This power partially goes into the heating up the
transistor. So that the second item is to examine is the relation of the useful AC
power to the power dissipated in the transistor PD

PROCEDURE:
1) Connected the required supply to the unit and switch ’ON’ See that the supply
LED glows.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 2

 2) Connected the current meter with proper polarities.
3) Connected a sine-wave signal of 1KHz at 50mV pp from the signal generator
at the input on the input terminals.
4) Observe the Unloaded at the input on the C.R.O
5) Increase the input till the output is undistorted. This is maximum signal
handling capacity.
6) Connected AC voltmeter across I/P terminals and record the same as VI.
7) Connected the AC voltmeter across collector of T1 and ground and record the
same as Vo.
8) Calculated the voltage gain: Av = Vo.
9) Connected the AC current meter between signal generator and I/P terminal of
amplifier of amplifiers. Record this current as Ii.
10) Connected the AC current meter between output transformer and terminal and
speaker terminal. Record this current as Io.
11) Calculated the current gain by the AI as AI = Io / Ii.
12) Calculate the current gain by the Ap as Ap = Ai X Av
13) Calculated the DC power drawn by the circuit as:

Pdc = Vcc X Idcv

Where, Vcc = Supply Voltage = 9V

Idc = Dc Input Current

14) Calculated the % efficiency as:

η% = (AC output power / DC input power) X 100

= Io Vo / Idc Vcc X 100

OBSERVATION TABLE:

I/P VOLTAGE CURRENT DC

S. No EFFICIENCY
FREQUENCY GAIN GAIN POWER

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 3

 RESULT: Design of class A amplifier has been done with
Current gain =
Voltage gain =
Power gain =
Efficiency =

PRECAUTIONS: 1) All the connections should be done properly.

2) There should not be over voltage given to the circuit.
3) All the readings should be noted carefully.
4) Switch OFF the supply if trainer is not in use.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION’S:

1) What is the maximum value of efficiency in case of transformer

coupled class A amplifier?
2)What are the advantages of class B over class A?
3)How many types of class A amplifiers are there?

AIM : To study and plot the frequency responses curve of double stage RC coupled amplifier
and check the feed back action .

APPARATUS: Training module type :EE-22 with CRO , single generator and patch
chords .

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 4

THEORY :
One of the most used circuits in the transistor application s is the common
emitter audio amplifier .this circuit performs a variety of functions ,is fairly
easy to design and gives good performance .
The function of a low level amplifier is to raise a single level from the milli volt
range to a workable level of several volts. For example ,the input signal may
be drived from the output of hall element and the output may be required to
drive a power amplifier .
Stages are capacitance coupled for A.C. operation and D.C. stability . Class a
biasing is most often used because it allows the output to follow the input …
Negative feed back affords a powerful way of modifying amplifier
performance .
It can be used to make the gain of the amplifier relatively independent of
variations in the passive component values power supply voltage and active
device (transistor or vaccum tubes ) . parameter caused by either gaining or
substitution. It also helps in modifying the input and output impedance in
desired direction . Fig shows the transistorized RC coupled amplifier . the
emitter resistance is shunted by a bypass capacitor to cause a short circuit for
A.C. . the alternating emitter current does not causes any drop across the
resistance . hence there is no feed back in the circuit . If we remove the shunt
capacitor then the A.C. voltage developed across the emitter resistance will be
added negatively causing a negative feed back .Since the feed back voltage is
proportional to the output current the same is called a current feed back .

PROCEDURE :
1. Draw the circuit diagram on the note book . compare the circuit diagram
drawn with that on the actual set up board and write down the values and
number of the components neatly on the diagram.
2. With no input signal connected measure the biasing condition at emitters
collector and base of both the transistor ,tabulate them and write down on the
circuit diagram .
3. The gain of the amplifier is about 1000, therefore a potential divider
attenuator is shown in fig.—

V2=V1 R2/R1+R2

=V1 * R2/R1

or V1=V2 4700/100

R1 =4.7 Ohms, R2=100 Ohms

= 47 V2
Thus the attenuation of the potential divider is by a factor of 47 . The output
of the divider circuit is used as input to the amplifier.
4. Connect 1 kHz Oscillator to the input . See the output waveform on the
Oscilloscope .Go on increasing the input voltage and notice the distortion

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 5

 occurring in the output waveform .Draw three shapes (including undistorted
waveform ) On a separate sheet of paper .
5. For taking observation without any feed back to the amplifier circuit connect
point A to B by a jumper .Connect an oscillator . After connecting adjust the
input of 0.5 volts to the amplifier .Connect CRO at the output . Observe the
waveform at the output .
6. Keeping the input voltage constant vary the frequency of the oscillator and
go on noting down the output voltage using a V.T.V.M . go upto a frequency
of 150KHz.

OBSERVATION -TABLE :

Sno. V0 O/P Volt Gain in db=20 Frequency

Log 10V0/Vi

RESULT :
The gain Vs Frequency graph is plotted as in fig.

PRECAUTIONS: 1) All the connections should be done properly.

2) There should not be over voltage given to the circuit.
3) All the readings should be noted carefully.
4) Switch OFF the supply if trainer is not in use.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION’S:

1)What is the function of a blocking capacitor in the RC-coupled
amplifier?
2)State the function of bypass capacitors in the same.

AIM : To study the operation and performance of phase oscillator

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 6
 APPARATUS :
1. ADTRON R.C. phase Oscillator trainer kit .
2. 12 V D.C. Regulated Power supply .
3. Dual channel C.R.O.

THEORY:
This is a sine wave oscillator in which feed back network it or R and C.
At low frequencies L.C. Oscillators disadvantageous because their tank
circuit would have to be built from large inductor and capacitors , Which
is unpractical .But R.C. phase shift oscillator uses resistor and capacitor not
only to provide the feed back but also to set the frequency of oscillation .

The circuit diagram of basic R.C. oscillator is as shown in figure .In this
circuit ,the basic amplifier provides 180 degree of phase shift , other phase
shift that is needed for positive feedback is provided by the phase- shifter
network consisting of three identical R.C. sections. Thus each section
provides a phase –shift of 60 degrees .

This oscillator is used only as a fixed frequency oscillator .This is because of

all three resistor or all three capacitors should be changed to vary the
frequency , which is difficult.

PROCEDURE :

1. Connect the 12–V D.C. Regulated power supply to the terminals provided
for the same at the lower left hand corner near the Mains ON/OFF switch
2. Connect one channel of C.R.O. at the output terminals .
3. Switch on the unit and see that the supply L.E.D. glows.
4. Observe the output waveform on the C.R.O. Record the output
frequency .
5. Observe the wave forms at the terminals B.C.D. on the other channels of
the C.R.O. and measure phase- shift the waveforms at the terminals
B.C.D with respect to waveform at terminal A.
6. You will observe that a phase shift of 60 ,120,180 degree
respectively at terminals B.C.D with respect to A.

OBSERVATION :
Out put frequency of the oscillation has been determined as ___.

PRECAUTIONS:
1) All the connections should be done properly.
2) There should not be over voltage given to the circuit.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 7

 3)All the readings should be noted carefully.
4)Switch OFF the supply if trainer is not in use.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION’S:

1)State the nyquist criterion.
2)What is an oscillator?
3)What is the expression for frequency of oscillation in a phase shift
oscillator?
4)What is the value of feedback factor in this oscillator?

AIM: To study the effect of the series voltage and current feedback on an
amplifier.

APPARATUS : 1) ADTRON Trainer kit.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 8

 2) –9V DC Regulated Power Supply
3) C.R.O
4) 1 MHz Function /Sine –Square Generator.
THEORY:

Feedback is the process of taking a part of output signal and feeding it back to the
input. If this feedback voltage is in phase opposition to the input voltage then it is
called a negative feedback.
Obviously, negative feedback reduces the gain of the amplifier.
However, they are widely used in most of the amplifiers, as
negative feedback provides.
1) improvement in the stability of amplifier gain.\
2) reduction in distortion and noise
3) improvement in input impedance.
4) Reduction in output impedance.
5) Increase in bandwidth.

Negative feedback is basically of two types, voltage and current. Each type can be
further classified into either series or shunt type. Here , we will be studying the
series type voltage and current feedback system.
The circuit diagram of such a system is as shown in the diagram. Jumper
A provides current feedback, while jumper B provides voltage feedback.

CURRENT FEEDBACK
In an ordinary amplifier circuit, the emitter resistor is bypassed with a
capacitor of large value. As long as this bypassed capacitor is present, the
effective input to the amplifier is the same as the signal supplied by the
source. But when the bypassed capacitor is removed from the source (by
keeping jumper A open ), negative current feedback takes place in the circuit.
After the capacitor is removed the a.c. current flowing through the emitter
develops a voltage with the opposite polarity to that of the input signal.
Hence it is called as the
negative feedback. Due to the negative feedback the gain of the circuit is
reduced where as bandwidth increases.

VOLTAGE FEEDBACK
The output of the amplifier is available across the load resistor RL, this
output is fed back to the amplifier, through the network consisting of R6, R7
the combination of this network is as the voltage divider. The voltage Vf
develops across R7 is the feedback to the input side. This feedback is in series
opposition to the input voltage. Hence it is called series negative feedback.

PROCEDURE:

(I) WITHOUT VOLTAGE AND CURRENT FEEDBACK:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 9

 1. Connect +9 dc regulated power supply at the terminals provided for
to same at the lower left hand corner near the mains ON/OFF switch.
2. Connect a sine wave of 1 KHz frequency and amplitude 50 mV at
the input terminal. Higher input may result in distortion at the output.
3. Connect jumper A and B in place, so that no voltage or current
feedback is applied.
4. Switch on the unit and see that the supply L.E.D glows.
5. Vary the input signal in steps keeping the amplitude constant, and
for each step note the output signal amplitude.
6. Note the readings in the observation table and calculate the gain.
7. Plot a graph of frequency Vs gain on a semi log paper and find the
bandwidth from the graph.

(II) WITH CURRENT FEEDBACK ONLY:

1. Connect +9 v dc power supply at the terminal provided for the same
at the lower left hand corner near the mains on/off switch.
2. Connect a sine wave signal of 1 KHz frequency and amplitude 500
mv at input terminals of the trainer. Higher input may result in
distortion at the output.
3. Connect jumper B in place and open jumper A so that no voltage
feedback is applied .
4. Switch on the unit and see that the supply LED glows.
5. Vary the input signal in steps keeping the amplitude constant and
for each step note the output signal amplitude
6. Note the readings in the observation table and calculate the gain
7. Plot the graph of frequency Vs gain on a semi log paper and find the
bandwidth from the graph

(III) WITH VOLTAGE FEEDBACK ONLY:

1. Connect the +9v DC RPS at the terminal provided at the lower left
hand corner near main ON/Off
2. Connect a sine wave signal of 1KHz frequency and amplitude 500
mV at the input terminal of the trainer. Higher in put may result in
distortion at the output
3. Connect jumper A in place and open jumper B so that no current
feedback is applied but voltage feedback is applied
4. Switch on the unit
5. Vary the input signal in steps keeping the amplitude constant and for
each step note the output signal amplitude
6. Note the readings in the observation table and calculate the gain.
There will be no considerable amplification in this mode
7. Plot the graph of frequency Vs gain on a semi log paper and find the
bandwidth from the graph

(IV) WITH BOTH CURRENT AND VOLTAGE :

1. Connect +9v DC supply

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 10

 2. Connect a sine wave signal of 1KHz frequency and 500 mV
amplitude
3. Open jumper a and b so that no feedback is applied
4. Switch on the unit
5. Vary the in put signal and note the output amplitude
6. Note the readings and calculate the gain
7. Plot the graph of frequency Vs gain on a semi log paper and
calculate bandwidth

OBSERVATION TABLE :

1) With current Feedback :

Vin= --------------

FREQUENCY OUTPUT GAIN NORMALISED

VOLTAGE Av = V0/Vin GAIN
V0 Av/AV MAX

2) With voltage Feedback only :

Vin= --------------

FREQUENCY OUTPUT GAIN NORMALISED

VOLTAGE Av = V0/Vin GAIN
V0 Av/AV MAX

3) With Both voltage current and Feedback only :

Vin= --------------

FREQUENCY OUTPUT GAIN NORMALISED

VOLTAGE Av = V0/Vin GAIN
V0 Av/AV MAX

4) With out voltage and current Feedback :

Vin= --------------

FREQUENCY OUTPUT GAIN NORMALISED

VOLTAGE Av = GAIN
V0 V0/Vin Av/AV MAX
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 11
 RESULT :
A) To calculate the Gain for
1) With voltage Feedback only
2) With current Feedback
3) With Both voltage current and Feedback only
4)With out voltage and current Feedback :
B) To plot the Graph of Frequency Vs Voltage

PRECAUTIONS:
1) All the connections should be done properly.
2) There should not be over voltage given to the circuit.
3)All the readings should be noted carefully.
4)Switch OFF the supply if trainer is not in use.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION’S:

1)What are the advantages of negative feedback?
2)What are the disadvantages of feedback?
3)How many types of feedback configurations are there?
4)What are the characteristics of voltage series type feedback?

AIM :
To plot the characteristics of MOSFET.

APPARATUS :
1. Trainer Kit.
2. 0-25mA DC Current meter
3. 0-25V and 0-5V DC Voltmeter.
4. 0-20VDC and 0-25V DC Regulated Power Supply
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 12
THEORY :
Field Effect Transistor can be classified into two categories, junction gate (JFET) and
insulated gate FET (IGFET) device IGFET is also popularly known as metal oxide
semiconductor (MOS) FET.

If a highly conductive electrode is brought in very close proximity to a surface of

lightly doped semiconductor substrate, a voltage supplied to the electrodes with
respect to substrate can have a pronounced effect on the electronic properties of the
semiconductor surface .In particular, If n type silicon is used as the substrate material,
the application of a large positive voltage to the conducting electrode will attract an
increased concentration of negative mobile charges to the silicon surface and the
surface will become accumulated. On the other hand if a negative voltage is applied
to electrodes the negative charges, i.e, electrons, will be repelled from the silicon
surface and the region near the surface will becomes totally depleted of mobile
charges, although non mobile positive charge will remain there in the from of the
lionized donor type impurities . If the magnitude of the applied negative voltage is
increased , mobile positive charge i.e, holes , which are minority carries with in the n-
type silicon, will be attacked to be surface, forming a conducting cover in which the
holes will be minority carries. In this case, the silicon surface accumulation layer will
form with the application of a large negative voltage to the electrode , while a surface
inversion layer will form when the applied voltage is positive . The simple
phenomena described above is commonly referred to as the surface field effect and is
the underlying principle, behind the operation of metal oxide semiconductor (MOS)
field effect transistor.

The constructional features of the device are as shown in the fig.1(a) , in which
the gate electrodes is insulted from the channel by a very thin layer of silicon diode.

a) N- Channel MOSFET
b) P- Channel MOSFET

In this device, a positive potential at the gate attracts the electrons in the channel
forming a conducting layer and the thickness of this conducting layer will vary
according to gate potential . Fig(a) shows the condition at pinch off, the
characteristics curves are as shown in fig 2.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 13

 Fig. 1(a) shows the MOSFET constructed with a p- channel and a negative voltage on
the gate attracts holes from hole the channel, forming a conducting region.
The field effect device are high input impedance and high internal output impedance
devices, similar to a vacuum tube pent ode. Amplifier gain calculation are greatly
simplified that the input and output impedance are so high that they can be neglected .
The gain calculated by this assumption is sufficiently accurate for most practical
purposes.
The field effect device have high voltage gain width product of 200MHz or more. This
means an amplifier with a voltage gain of 20 can be made to have bandwidth upto
10MHz . If the voltage gain of 20 is reduced to 2 by reducing the circuit impedance , the
frequency response should be flat unto 100MHz . This linearity of the bandwidth is
caused by the very small inter electrode in the FET’s and in externally connected circuits.
However , it should be noted that such a high gain bandwidth in a device cannot be
achieved unless it is properly designed and fabricated with proper layout . Similarly high
bandwidth product cannot be achieved simultaneously.

PROCEDURE :
1. Connect +20V and +5 VD.C Regulated Power supply at terminals provided for it
besides its respective Potentiometers. Ensure Proper polarity of the power supplies.
2. Keep the pots P1 and P2 in fully anti-clock wise positions.
3. Connect the 0-5VDC voltmeter with proper polarity across the gate and source (VGS)
and 0-25V DC voltmeter across Drain and Source (VDS) with proper polarity
4. Connect the 0-25mA current meter at the terminals provided for the same with
proper polarity .The current read by the current meter is denoted as Id.
5. Switch ON the unit and see that the supply LED. Glows
6. Let VGS be 0Vv and vary VIN in steps of 0.5V with the help of Pot. P2 and for each
step note the VDS and IDS and note the same in the Observation table.
7. Now, increase VGS to 0.5v and again repeat the step 5. Note the reading in the
observation table.
8. Similarly , Repeat the step 5 with VGS =1V,1.5V and so on.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 14

 VGS=0V VGS=0.5V VGS=1.0V VGS=1.5V
VDS ID VDS ID VDS ID VDS ID

RESULT :
Plot the characteristic of MOSFET between VDS and ID

PRECAUTIONS:
1)All the connections should be done properly.
2) There should not be over voltage given to the circuit.
3) All the readings should be noted carefully.
4)Switch OFF the supply if trainer is not in use.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION’S:

1) What is the difference between J-FET& MOSFET.
2) Differentiate between enhancement type & depletion type
MOSFET?

AIM : To study the characteristics of a Darlington Transistor Amplifier.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 15

APPARATUS REQUIRED : 1. ADTRON’s Trainer kit.
2. Digital current meter
3. Sine wave Generator
4. C.R.O
5. 230 V ,50hz AC mains supply / +12V DC regulated power
supply

THEORY : A transistor consists of two p-n junctions formed by an switching either p-type or
n-type semiconductor material between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly, they
are n-p-n or p-n-p type of transistors. The section on one side is the emitter and the
section on the either side is the collector. The emitter base junction of a transistor is
forward biased here as collector base junction is reversed.

When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit it requires four terminals, two for

output, but the transistor has only three terminals. This difficulty is over come by
making one terminal common to both input and output. The input is fed between the
common terminal and one of the terminal and the output is taken between the
common terminal and the remaining terminal . Accordingly a transistor can be
connected in a circuit in the following three ways.
1. Common Base Emitter
1. Common Emitter Amplifier
2. Common Collector Amplifier
3.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
An amplifier is a device that amplifiers the input to the desired value. The
biasing is done in such way that the desired value can be attained. Various types of
amplifier are possible such as voltage , currnet amplifier etc. Darlington Amplifier is
a current amplifier . Darligton Amplifier is made in such a way that a collector of two
transistor are shorted and the emitter of the driver transistor is shorted to the base of
the power transistor.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

SNO. Base current( Ib) Single emitter Double emitter Gain

current T1 current T1&T2

PROCERDURE :
1. Connected the required supply and switch and on the unit. See that the supply
LED glows.
2. Connected R3 to emitter of T1
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 16
 3. Connected the current meter at the base of T1 and note the reading.
4. Also connected the current meter at the emitter of T1 and R3 and note the
reading.
5. Calculate the current gain.
6. Now connect R3 to the emitter of T2 and now measure the base current and
emitter current.
7. Calculate the current gain.
8. Analyse the result.
9. Connect a sine wave of 1KHz and 1V peak-to-peak signal at the input measure
the output.
10. Vary the input signal at step and for each step measure the output signal.
11. Draw a graph of frequency v/s output.

RESULT:
Frequency response curve of Darlington transistor amplifier has been plotted.
The over all current Gain of the amplifier is determine as -----.

PRECAUTIONS:
1) All the connections should be done properly.
2) There should not be over voltage given to the circuit.
3)All the readings should be noted carefully.
4)Switch OFF the supply if trainer is not in use.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION’S:

1)Darlington transistor is formed of which type of transistors?
2)What are the advantages of this transistor?
3)What is bootstrapping?

AIM : To study the principle and operation of colpit’s oscillator.

APPARATUS:
1. ADTRON Trainer Kit.
2. C.R.O.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 17

 3. Patch Cords
4.Digital MultiMeter

THEORY :
Many electronic devices require a source of energy at a specific frequency which
may range from a few Hz to several MHz. This is achieved by an oscillator.
Oscillators are extensively used in the electronic equipments. For example, in
radio and television receivers ,oscillator are used to generates high frequency
carrier waves in the tuning stages. Audio frequency and the radio frequency signal
are required for the repair of radio, television and other electronic equipments.
Oscillators are also widely used on radars, electronics computers and others
electronic devices.
And electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired
frequency is known as a sinusoidal oscillator . in general, electronic oscillator
may be thought of as the power converters which converts d.c. electrical power
into a.c. power. It should be noted that it does not create energy, and changes into
a.c. energy of desired frequency .The frequency of the oscillation depends upon
the constants of the device.
For generating sustain oscillations by the feedback principles, the positive
feedback must be used because the output must generate itself. Let us consider the
sample feedback arguments as shown in fig1.

The amplifier Av is assumed to be stable and exhibits either 0 degree or

180 degree or phase shift. The feedback network ,beta(W) is the frequency
determining network, Generally ,RLC or LC network in various configurations
are used for beta.
Now suppose that if the feed back loop is opened as in fig.2, and let the
unit signal Vin be injected at the input terminal. The signal will be amplified in
the Av block and then will be passed into the feedback beta(W) network, where
the magnitude is gain altered and the phase is shifted (w.r.t. Vin) because of the
reactive elements.
Hence if the amplifier gain is the large enough, any attenuation in the
beta(W) network can be overcome so that the magnitude of the feedback voltage
is equal to or greater that Vin for mod(Vf)=mod(Vin).it is clear that the loop gain
magnitude mod(Av beta(W)) must also be equal to or greater than unity. If the
frequency of Vin is varied, the phase of Vf will be identical to Vin (or the total
loop phase shift is 0 deg.). that freq. At which Vf is identical to Vin in both
magnitude and phase may be considered as that value of frequency (omega knot)
which has exactly reproduced or regenerates Vin .if the feedback loop is closed
and removed sustained oscillations then result at frequency omega knot .although
oscillations can be produce by mechanical devices (eg. Alternators), but electronic
oscillators have the following advantages:
1) An oscillator is a non-rotating device. Consequently, there is a little wear
and tear and hence longer life.
2) Due to absence of moving parts, the operation of an oscillator is quite
silent.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 18

 3) An oscillator can be produce from very small frequency to extremely high
frequencies.
4) The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.
5) It has good frequency stability i.e. frequency once set remains constant for
a considerable period of time.
6) It has very high efficiency.

Sinusoidal electrical can be of two types, viz. damped oscillations and

undamped oscillations. fig 3(1) shows the wave forms of damped
electrical oscillations.
Obviously, the electrical system in which these oscillations are
generated has losses and some energy is lost during each oscillation,
further, no means are provide to compensate for the losses and
consequently the amplitude of the generated wave decreases gradually. It
may be noted that the frequency of oscillations remains unchanged since it
depends upon the constant of the electrical system.
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with
time are called undamped oscillations.fig3(ii) shows waveforms of
undamped electrical oscillations. Although the electrical system in which
these oscillations are generated has also losses, but now right amount of
energy is being supplied to overcome the losses. Consequently, the
amplitude of the generated wave remains constant.

Oscillatory circuit : A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any

desired frequency is known as an oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.’
A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (C) and
inductance coil (L) in parallel as shown in the fig.4. This electrical system
can be produce electrical oscillations of frequency determined by the value
of L & C.
To understand, how this circuit oscillates, suppose the capacitor is
charged from a d.c. source with polarity as shown in fig.4(a).

(a) In the position shown in the fig.4(a) , the upper plate of the capacitor has
deficit of electrons and the lower plate has excess of electrons. There fore,
there is voltage across the capacitor and the capacitor has electro-static
energy.
(b) When switch S is closed as shown in the fig.4(b). the capacitor will be
discharged through inductance and the electrons flow will be in the
directions indicated by the arrow. This current flow will set up magnitude
field around the coil, due to the inductive effect, the current builds up
slowly toward s a maximum value.
(c) Once the capacitor is discharged , the magnetic field will begin to collapse
and produce a counter e.m.f. . According to lenz’s low, the counter e.m.f.
will keep the current flowing in the same direction.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 19

 (d) After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor now
begins to discharge with current flowing in the opposite direction. Fig.4(d)
shows capacitor fully charged and maximum current flowing.
The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternation
motion of electrons of and oscillation current. The energy is alternately
stored in the electric field of the d inductance coil(L). this interchange of
energy between L and C is repeated over and again resulting in the
production of oscillations.

FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATIONS :
The frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is determined by the
constants of the circuit viz. L and C. the actual frequency of oscillations is
the resonant frequency (or natural frequency )of the tank circuit given by”

1
F= 1/2π√LC

It is clear that frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is inversely

proportional to L and C. This can be easily explained .if a large value of
capacitor is used, it will take longer for the capacitor to charge fully, and
also longer to discharge. This will lengthen the period of oscillations Iin
the tank, or equivalently lower its frequency. with a large value of
inductance, the opposition to change in current flow is greater and hence
the time required to complete each cycle will be longer. Therefore , the
greater the value of inductances, the longer is the period, or the lower is
the frequency of oscillations on the tank circuit.

TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR:
In order to obtain continuous undamped a.c. output from the tank
circuit, it is necessary to supply correct amount of power to the circuit. The
most practical way to do this is to supply d.c. power to some device which
would convert it to necessary ac power for supply to tank circuit. This can
be achived by employing a transistor circuit . Because of its ability to
amplify a transistor is very efficient energy converter i.e. It converts d.c.
Power to a.c power . If the damped oscillations In the tank circuit are
applied to base of transistor, It will result in an amplified reproduction of
oscillations in the collector circuit. Because of this amplification, more
energy is available in the collector circuit. Than in the base back by some
means to the base circuit in proper phase to aid the oscillations in the tank
circuit, then its losses will be overcome and continuous undamped
oscillations will occur.

ESSENTIAL OF TANSISTOR OSCILLATOR:

Fig.5 show the block diagram of an oscillator. Its essential components
are:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 20

 1. TANK Circuit: It consists of Inductance coil(L) connected in parallel with
capacitor (C). The frequency of oscillations in the circuit depends upon the
value of inductance of the coil and capacitance of the capacitor.

2. Transistor amplifier receives D.C. power from the battery and change it
into A.C. power for supplying to the tank circuit .The oscillation occurring in
the tank circuit are applied to the input of the input of the transistor amplifier.
Because of the amplifying properties of the transistor, we get increased output
of these oscillations. This amplified output of oscillation is due to the D.C.
power amplified by the battery. The output of the transistor can be supplied to
the tank circuit to meet the losses.

3. Feedback circuit: The feedback circuit supplies a part of collector energy to

the tank circuit in correct phase to aid the oscillation i.e. to provide positive
feedback.

CIRCUIT THEORY:
The basic complot’s oscillation circuit is as shown in the Fig.6. Here, the
capacitor C1 and C2 are placed across a common inductance L and the center
of the two capacitor is grounded. The tank circuit is made up of C1, C2 and L.
The frequency of oscillation is determined by the value of C1, C2, & L and is
given by:

1
F= 1/2π√LC e.g C= C1 C2
C1+C2

When supply is applied ,the capacitor C1 and C2 are charged .The

capacitor of discharge through coil L (L1 orL2), setting up oscillation of
frequency determined by eq.1. The oscillation across C1 are applied to the
base _ emitter junction and appears in the amplified form in the collector
circuit . The amount of feedback depends upon the relative capacitance value
of C1 and C2 . The smaller the capacitance C2, the greater the
Feedback. The capacitor C1 and C2 , act as simple alternating voltage
dividers. Similarly, the circuit oscillation with C2,C3 and the various
combinations.

PROCEDURE:
1. Select with the jumper links one pair of capacitor C1, C2 with the center
tap grounded
2. With another jumper links select.
3.Connect the C.R.O. at the output terminals.
4. Connect the required supply and switch on the unit . Observe that the
supply LED glows.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 21

 5. Observe the output wave form on the oscilloscope.
6. Measure the frequency as observe on the oscilloscope.
7. Note the frequency in the observation table.
8. Also calculation the frequency by using the formula.

1 Where C= C1C2
F= 1/2π√LC C1+C2

C=C3C4
C3+C4
9. Similarly, repeat with capacitors C2, C3 and inductor L2 and various
other combinations as given in observation table .

OBSERVATION TABLE:
L1 = 125 C1 & C2 = 0.0033
L2 = 200 C3 & C4 =0.0047

Calculate value Observation Amplitude

L1
C1C2
L1
C3C4
L2
C1C2
L2
C3C4

RESULT:
In Colpitt’s oscillator Frequency is-----------.

PRECAUTION :
1) All the connections should be done properly.
2) There should not be over voltage given to the circuit.
3) All the readings should be noted carefully.
4) Switch OFF the supply if trainer is not in use.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION’S:

1)State the barkhausen criterion.

2)Differentiate between colpitt & Hartley oscillator.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 22

 AIM:
To study and the transistor input and output characteristics in
a) Common base mode.
a) Common emitter mode.

APPARATUS:
E&E Make training module Type:EE-3 with 10 patch chords.
THEORY:
Whenever a transistor is to be used in electrical circuit its electrical performance
should be viewed with more concern than its internal structure.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 23

 The result is desired to be known when certain voltage or current is
appointed to the terminals of the transistor .In order to the predict the circuit
performance, the electrical characteristics of the transistor should be known. The
electrical characteristics may be found from the volt-ampere characteristics of the
transistor.
Transistor can be used as an amplifier in any one of the following 3
configurations. Viz. 1) Common base 2) Common emitter and 3) Common
collector
In all above configurations, emitter base junction is always forward biased
and the collector base junction is always reverse biased.
To describe static operation of the transistor, following two characteristics are
essential to be known 1) input characteristics and 2) Out put characteristics. Each
curve of the input characteristics relates the input current with the input voltage
for a given output voltage .The output voltage, for a given input current.
Usually CC characteristics of a transistor are not needed, though it can the known
from the CE characteristics , as it is special case of CE Configuration. Thus let us
discuss only CB &CE characteristics.

COMMON BASE (CB) CONFIGURATION :

1) Input Characteristics:
Following Fig. Shows the static input characteristics of the common base
transistor. These are obtained by plotting emitter current is against emitter to base
voltage VEB with collector to base voltage VCB as parameter.
The curve have larger slopes for increased collector voltage. When the
collector voltage is increased, width of collector depletion layer increased.
Which in turn reduce the width of base region. Since emitter current is
proportional to the gradient of the majority carrier concentration in the base
region, the reduced base width increased the emitter current accounting for the
increased slope. A study of the characteristics shows that in order to reduced the
emitter current, in a junction transistor as zero, the emitter base junction must be
reverse biased. Further it may be seen that in the forward base portion, a small
increases in the emitter voltage increases the emitter current by a large amount.
Thus the dynamic input resistance in this mode is quite low. For higher emitter
voltage the emitter current is limited only by the ohmic series resistance in the
emitter current, base regions. Because of this high sensitivity of the emitter
current to small changes in emitter voltage, make it difficult to obtain in a
constant bias from a voltage supply. Emitter bias is, therefore, generally
maintained by a constant current source.

2. Output Characteristics:
Static output characteristics of the transistor are obtained by plotting the
collector current ‘Ic’ against collector to be base voltage ‘V CB’ with the emitter
current ‘Ie’ as the parameter. Emitter current in is used as the parameter,
because the collector current is determined by ‘Ie’ rather than emitter to base

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 24

 voltage VAB. Here the collector current, with normal value of collector to base
voltage is only slightly less than the emitter current.

The output characteristics or the collector current collector voltage

characteristics of a p-n-p grown junction transistor are shown below:
IT may be seen that the characteristics are parallel and are almost equally spaced
for equal increment of emitter current Ic. The slight positive slope is because of
following 2 reason.
Increased collector voltage widens the collector depilation layer. The reverse
saturation current, which is formed by the thermally generated majority carriers,
with in the collector depletion layer, is increased.

COMMON EMITER (CE) CONFIGURATION:-

1. Input Characteristics:
Following Fig. Show the input characteristics of a p-n-p junction transistor in C.E.
configuration using collector to emitter voltage as the parameter. With zero
reverse bias between the collector and the emitter, a large base current flows. But
as soon a reverse voltage is applied, the base current drops.

2. Output characteristic :
Following Fig. Show the output characteristic of p-n-p junction transistor in CE
configuration. Here collector current is plotted against the collector –to-emitter
voltage using the base current as the parameter. It may be seen that these output
characteristic, in CB configuration. The output current i.e. the collector current
is however much larger than the input current i.e base current.

PROCEDURE :
a) Common Base Mode:
i) Input characteristics of transistor in CB Mode.
1. Make connections as shown in ckt.1
2. Apply a constant dc voltage between collector and base VCB (say 2V),
for the first set of readings.
3. Keep the voltmeter range switch to 1V and ammeter range switch to 10
mA.
4. Vary input voltage VEB in steps of 0.1V and note down corresponding VEB
and IE readings.
5. Repeat above step, by keeping different constant voltage VCB (say 6v)
6. Plot the graph of IE Vs. VEB for constant VCB.

ii) Output characteristic of transistor in CB mode.

1) Make connection as shown in ckts.3.
2) Both the ammeter range switch 10 mA and voltmeter range switch to
1.0V.
3) Apply a constant input current IE (say 1mA) for the first set of readings.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 25

 4) Vary output voltage VCB in step of 1V and note down corresponding VCB
and IC readings.
5) Repeat above step by keeping emitter current IE constant to different
value (say 1.5mA,2mA etc.)
6) Plot the graphs of IC Vs VCB for constant IE .

b) Common Emitter Mode:

iii) Input characteristics of transistor in CE Mode.
1. Make connections as shown in ckt.5
2. Apply a constant dc voltage between collector and Emitter VCE (say 2V).
3. Keep the voltmeter range switch to 1V and ammeter range switch to
200µA.
4. Vary input voltage VEB in steps of 0.1V and note down corresponding VBE
and IB readings.
5. Repeat above step, by keeping different constant voltage VCE (say 6v)
6. Plot the graph of IB Vs. VBE for constant VCB.

iv) Output characteristic of transistor in CB mode.

1) Make connection as shown in ckts.6
2) Both the ammeter range switch 10 mA and voltmeter range switch to 10V.
3) Apply a constant input current IB (say 20µA) for the first set of readings.
4) Vary output voltage VCE in step of 1V and note down corresponding VCE
and iC readings.
5) Repeat above step by keeping base current IB constant to different value
(say 40µA60µA etc.)
6) Plot the graphs of IC Vs VCE for constant IB .

OBSERVATION TABLE:

1. a) Input Characteristic (CE MODE)

S No. VCE=2V VCE=4V VCE=6V

VBE IB VBE IB VBE IB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 26

 b) Output Characteristic (CE MODE)

S No. IB = 0µA IB=20µA IB = 40µA

IC (mA) VCE (v) IC (mA) VCE (v) IC (mA) VCE (v)

2. a) Input Characteristic (CB MODE)

S No. VCB=2V VCB=4V VCB=6V

VEB (v) IE (mA) VEB (v) IE (mA) VEB (v) IE (mA)

b) Output Characteristic (CB MODE)

S No. IE=1mA IE=1.5mA IE=2mA

IC (mA) VCB (v) IC (mA) VCB (v) IC (mA) VCB (v)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 27

 RESULT:
1. Input /output Characteristic of CB Mode
i) Plot the graph of IE Vs. VEB for constant VCB.
ii) Plot the graphs of ICVs VCB for constant IE .

2. Input /output Characteristic of CE Mode

i) Plot the graph of IB Vs. VBE for constant VCB.
ii) Plot the graphs of IC Vs VCE for constant IB .

PRECAUTIONS:
1) All the connections should be done properly.
2) There should not be over voltage given to the circuit.
3) All the readings should be noted carefully.
4) Switch OFF the supply if trainer is not in use.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION’S:

1)What do you understand by early effect?

2)Differentiate between active, cutoff & saturation region.
3)Which transistor configuration has the highest value of current gain?
4) Which transistor configuration has the highest value of input
impedance?
5) Which transistor configuration has the lowest value of output
impedance?

AIM :
To plot characteristic of Zener diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Zener diode char, kit, cords

THEORY:
Apart from simple semiconductor diode there is another class of diode known as
zener diode whose unique reverse char. Provides completely different application
than those of crystal diode.
In forward region zener diode acts as a simple diode but reverse char. Of zener is
of interest, fig. Shows the zener diode cha. In breakdown region, In this region small

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 28

 voltage changes result in large current changes. Obviously, there is dramatic change
in effective resistance at the P N junction in this region. It is that char. Of zener which
makes it suitable for voltage regulator.
Zener break down need not result in the destruction of diode, as long as current
through the limited by the external ckt. To a level within its power handling
capabilities, the diode functions normally. Moreover, by reducing reverse bias below
the zener voltage below the zener voltage, the diode can be brought out of its
breakdown level and restored to the reverse saturation current level.

PROCEDURE:

(I) FORWARD CHAR. OF ZENER DIODE :

1. make the connection as shown in fig.
2. Put the voltmeter range switch to 1 V and ammeter range switch to
10 mA
3. Vary the built in D.C. supply in steps of 0.1 volts and note down the
corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings.
4. Plot the graph of forward voltage (on X axis) and forward current
(on Y axis)
5. Calculate forward resistance.

(II) REVERSE CHAR OF ZENER DIODE :

1. make the connection as shown in fig.
2. Put the voltmeter range switch to 10V and ammeter range switch to
10 mA.
3. Vary the built in D.C. supply in steps of 1V upto 10V and then in
steps of 0.1 volts and note down the corresponding ammeter and
voltmeter readings.
4. Plot the graph of reverse voltage (on X axis) and reverse current (on
Y axis).
5. Determine breakdown voltage from the graph.

OBSERVATION TABLE :

Forward Characteristic :
S. No Vf (Volts) If (m amp)

Reverse Characteristic :

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 29

 S. No -Vr (Volts) -Ir (u amp)

CONCLUSION:
During reverse bias the breakdown occurs at Vz, indicated on graph.

ASSIGNMENT:
1) How zener diode differ from simple diode ?
2) What are the users is zener diode ?
3) Draw the ckt. Diagram of zener diodes as voltage regulator ?
4) Can you reuse a zener diode after break down ?
5) Explain zener and avalanche breakdown mechanism ?
6) What is the temp. coefficient of voltage for both the mechanism ?

AIM :
To study forward and reverse char. of Si & Ge Diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Zener diode char, kit, cords

THEORY:
A p-type semiconductor in contact with and n-type semiconductor constitutes A
p-n junction. Before the two semiconductor are brought together, each one is in
equilibrium i.e. the hole and electron concentration are constant and same throughout
the semiconductors.
Just after the contact, the holes and electron from p and n types respectively
diffuse into n and p type materials, but this flow of majority carriers eventually stops

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 30

 because of the formation of a thin layer in which holes and electron recombine,
leaving a row of negative ions on the p side and row of positive ions on the n side.
The layer in which electron and holes recombine is known as depletion layer, the
formation of charges on either side of the depletion layer constitutes a potential
barrier. This potential barrier is 0.3 V & 0.7 V for Ge & Si respectively.
The barrier voltage can be neutralized by applying a D.C. voltage of appropriate
polarity this is called forward blasting. An external DC voltage of the same polarity
as the barrier potential keeps the junction in reverse bias condition. The junction
conducts heavily in forward bias condition while it offers heavy resistance to charge
flow in reverse bias condition.
The relation between the diode current I and voltage V is given by
I – Is (Exp.(qV/KT) – 1)
Where q is charge of electron charge, K is boltzmann constant and T is the
absolute temparature. In the forward biased condition, majority charge carriers are
responsible for conduction. The number of these charge carriers injected at the
junction increases with the voltage and thus the current increases (exponential) with
the voltage.

PROCEDURE:

(III) FORWARD CHAR. OF Si DIODE :

1. make the connection as shown in fig.
2. Put the voltmeter range switch to 1 V and ammeter range switch to
10 mA in the circuit
3. Vary the built in D.C. supply in steps of 0.1 volts and note down the
corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings.
4. Plot the graph of forward voltage Vf (on X axis) and Vs forward
current If (on Y axis)
5. Find the slope of the graph and calculate forward resistance Rf.

(IV) FORWARD CHARACTERISTIC OF Ge DIODE :

1. Repeat steps 1 to 5 above except tat now Si diode is replaced by Ge
diode.

(V) REVERSE CHAR. OF Si DIODE :

1. make the connection as shown in fig.
2. Put the voltmeter range switch to 10 V and ammeter range switch to
200 uA in the circuit
3. Vary the built in D.C. supply in steps of 1 V and note down ammeter
and voltmeter readings.
4. Plot the graph of reverse voltage (on X axis) Vs reverse current (on
Y axis)
5. Find the slope of the graph and calculate reverse resistance R.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 31

 (VI) REVERSE CHARACTERISTIC OF Ge DIODE :
1. Repeat steps 1 to 5 above except tat now Si diode is replaced by Ge
diode.

OBSERVATION TABLE :
DIODE CHARACTERISTIC
Forward Characteristic :
S. No Vf (Volts) If (m amp)

Reverse Characteristic :
S. No -Vr (Volts) -Ir (u amp)

CONCLUSION:
1. During forward bias the diode offers negligibly small forward resistance
2. During reverse bias the diode offers very high reverse resistance.

ASSIGNMENT:
1) Name some diodes, how do they differ from others?
2) List the uses of diode?
3) What is potential barrier ?
4) What is clipper and clamper ? Explain
5) Dras the char. of ideal diode, why it is different from practical diode ?
6) Draw the model of ideal diodes and practical diode ?
7) How do you recognize the terminals of diode ?

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 32