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PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GHANA

FACULTY OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND NATURAL RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT

AN ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTS OF ILLEGAL ACTIVITIES

ON TIMBER PRODUCTION IN SOUTHERN SCARP FOREST

RESERVE

BY

ROSELENE BOAMAH

2020

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PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GHANA

FACULTY OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND NATURAL RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT

AN ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTS OF ILLEGAL ACTIVITIES

ON TIMBER PRODUCTION IN SOUTHERN SCARP FOREST

RESERVE

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources of the Faculty of Development Studies, Presbyterian University

College, Ghana in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of

Master of Science degree in Environmental and Natural Resources

Management

BY

ROSELENE BOAMAH

SEPTEMBER 2020

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DECLARATION

Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that this Dissertation is the result of my own original research

and that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this University or

elsewhere.

Name: …………………………………………………………………….…....

Candidate’s Signature……………………… Date………………..…

Supervisor’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the Dissertation were

supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of dissertation laid

down by the Presbyterian University College, Ghana.

Name:……………………………………………………………………………
Supervisor’s Signature……………………… Date………………………

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ABSTRACT

Timber plays an essential role in the economy of the country. Forest reserves

houses a lot of flora and fauna that are of great importance. However, poverty,

increasing human population and expansion of farms towards forest reserves

has led to the over-exploitation and increased number of illegalities in forest

reserves. The study was conducted to identify the effects of illegal activities on

timber production in Southern Scarp Forest Reserve (SSCP). Ten communities

were selected using random sampling technique. A total of hundred

respondents were selected with ten from each of the ten communities. Both

questionnaires and interviews were used in the data collection exercise.

Purposive sampling was used in selecting a total sample of 100 participants

from the study population. Illegal farming was noted as the main contributing

factor to the destruction of forest reserves. There is the believe that, illegalities

on timber production in the reserve have led to the destruction of water bodies

and degradation of lands. The results also indicated that there was a decline in

fauna and NTFPs e.g. (snail) in the reserve due to illegalities in the reserve. As

a means of ensuring effective ways of managing the forest reserve, forest

guards should be well equipped and motivated to work to their full ability.

Also, frequent monitoring and patrols by responsible stakeholders should be

done. Moreover, communities in forest fringe areas should be educated on the

importance of forest and effect of illegalities. Areas affected by such illegalities

should be planted up by offenders when apprehended. There is also the need to

advice timber contractors who work in timber concessions to employ

sustainable logging to reduce the impact of logging on the forest.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My foremost acknowledgement goes to the Almighty God for granting me life,

sound mind and inspiration to go through this programme successfully.

I would like to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Professor

Edward Wiafe Debrah, the Dean of the Faculty of Development Studied of the

Presbyterian University College, Ghana for his immense support, advise, useful

suggestion and corrections that led to the success of this work.

Your constructive criticisms and directives were more than enough to ensure

the success of my work.

Special recognition goes to I also appreciate the effort of my Head of

Department Dr.

Stephen Omari, who encouraged and advised me to reach higher heights.

My heartfelt gratitude goes to my dear husband Apostle Nicholas Arthur of

Apostles Event Ministry International who gave me all the necessary support

and encouragement in making my dream a reality. Special thanks go to all the

lecturers and staff of the Department of Environmental and Natural Resources

Management and the University as a whole, not forgetting all those who helped

me in diverse ways throughout my stay in the University.

Finally, special appreciation goes to Mr Asim-Nyarko Manasseh who assisted

me in my data collection. I am thankful to you all. God bless you.

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this research to Almighty God who gave me the wisdom and in-

depth knowledge

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................ ii

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................... iv

DEDICATION .................................................................................................... v

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. x

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION................................................................. 1

1.1 Background of the Study .............................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem.............................................................................. 2

1.3 Research Objective ....................................................................................... 3

Specific Objectives ............................................................................................. 4

1.4 Research Questions ....................................................................................... 4

1.5 Scope of the Study ........................................................................................ 4

1.6 Significance of the Study .............................................................................. 4

1.8 Organization of the Study ........................................................................ 6

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................... 7

2.1 World Forest Resources ................................................................................ 7

2.2 Forest Resources in Ghana ........................................................................... 7

2.3 Forests and Wildlife Contributions to Ghana’s Economy .......................... 10

2.4 Importance of Ghana’s Forest .................................................................... 11

2.5 State of Ghana’s Forest Cover .................................................................... 12

2.6 Concept of Illegal Forest Activities (IFA) .................................................. 13

2.8 Effects of Forest Degradation and Deforestation on Species Dominance .. 17

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2.9 Impact of Forest Degradation and Deforestation on VPA and REDD+ ..... 18

2.10 Invasive species and its effect on Forest structure and composition ........ 19

2.11 Forms of IFA ............................................................................................ 20

Illegal logging................................................................................................... 20

Illegal farming .................................................................................................. 22

Conversion to Agriculture ................................................................................ 22

Illegal Hunting: ................................................................................................ 23

Illegal Mining ................................................................................................... 24

2.12 Effects of IFA ........................................................................................... 27

Economic Effects .............................................................................................. 28

Environmental Effects ....................................................................................... 29

Social Effects .................................................................................................... 30

2.13 Strategies to Promote Forest Industry and Economic Gains .................... 30

2.14 Enforcement of Forest Laws .................................................................. 31

2.15 Changing the Status of the Reserve .......................................................... 32

Compliance to International Agreements ......................................................... 33

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................... 35

3.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 35

3.2 Study Area .................................................................................................. 36

3.3 Topography, Drainage and Geology/Soils ................................................. 37

3.4 Climate and Vegetation .............................................................................. 38

3.5 Methods of Data Collection ........................................................................ 39

3.6 Sampling Technique ................................................................................... 40

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3.7 Data Analysis .............................................................................................. 40

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................... 41

4.1 Age Distribution of Respondents................................................................ 41

4.2 Sex, Educational Background and Other Occupations of The Respondents42

4.3 Education of the Respondents .................................................................... 43

4.4 Years of Residency ..................................................................................... 44

4.5 Other Occupations of the Respondent ........................................................ 44

4.6 Benefits Derived from the Forest Reserve.................................................. 45

4.7 Illegal Activities posing threat to the Reserve ............................................ 46

4.8 Illegal Activities Communities Involve Themselves In ............................. 48

4.9 Factors That Causes Illegal Activities in The Reserve ............................... 49

4.11 Factors That Drive People into Illegal Activities in the Reserve ............. 51

4.12 Actions Taken to Combat these Illegal Activities .................................... 52

4.13 Illegalities in the Reserve.......................................................................... 53

4.14 Farming Activities .................................................................................... 53

4.15 Illegal Logging.......................................................................................... 54

4.16 Wildfires and Hunting Activities .............................................................. 55

4.17 Mining ...................................................................................................... 56

4.18 NTFPs ....................................................................................................... 57

4.20 Rare Species.............................................................................................. 58

4.21 The Way Forward .................................................................................. 60

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4.22 Some Strategic Decisions for the Effective Management Of The Forest

Reserve ............................................................................................................. 61

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................... 63

5.1 Summary ..................................................................................................... 63

5.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 63

5.3 Recommendations....................................................................................... 64

REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 66

APPENDIX ...................................................................................................... 75

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:Age Distribution 42

Table 2: Illegal Activities Posing Threat to The Reserve 46

Table 3:Current State of SSCP Forest Reserve 48

Table 4:Illegal Activities Communities Involve In 49

Table 5:Causes of Illegal Activities in The Reserve 50

Table 6:Factors that Drive People into Illegal Activities in the Reserve 51

Table 7: Rare Species in the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve 58

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Map of Southern Scarp Forest Reserve, Akim Portion 37

Figure 2: Sex Characteristics of Respondents 43

Figure 3: Bar Chart Showing the Educational Status of Respondents 44

Figure 4: Figure 4: Some Benefits Derived from the Southern Scarp Forest

Reserve 46

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GNP - Gross National Product

IFA - Illegal Forest Activities

ITTO - International Tropical Timber Organization

LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas

NTFPs - Non-Timber Forest Products

SFM - Sustainable Forest Management

SSCP - Southern Scarp Forest Reserve

UNCCD - United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

VFF - Volunteer Task Team

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Ghana’s Timber Production Industry for some decades was one of the

largest boosters of the country’s economy while also offering several

employment opportunities to the citizenry. But the performance of the industry

has seen a dramatic decline in relation to both volume and value of product

over the years (Bank of Ghana, 2004). According to same report, the timber

industry which used to contribute about 6 per cent to the country’s Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) is now dwindling significantly due to various forms

of illegal activities. However, because of the country’s high level indebted due

to frequent borrowing from its developed counterparts, it compels Ghana to

promote unsustainable exploitation and exportation of timber product in order

to settle those debts (Stuart et al. 1990, cited in Chapman, 2006a). As a result,

Ghana has lost roughly 80% of its forest lands since the 1920s to date arising

from all forms of illegalities across the country’s forested areas with about one-

third of its forests disappearing during the last two decades (Hall et al. 2013).

Land degradation across the tropical forests globally, are as result of illegal

activities and timber trade without serious reforestation practices resulting in

the dwindling of the world’s economic species, despite covering only 7 % of

the world’s surface (WRI, 1992). The situation is not alien to Ghana, as land

degradation was first witnessed in the country as early as 1908 (Thompson et

al., 1910).

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By its recognized characteristics, estimation of illegal forest activities is

often difficult to ascertain due to its complexity. Globally, illegal forest

activities are said to result in the decline of both GDP and GNP ranging

between $10-15 billion a year (World Bank 2002). In a significant number of

countries, illegal logging is a major problem that poses serious threats to forest

reserves, communities and wildlife. Illegal logging trade is said to be around

15% of the total trade in the mid 1990’s (Brack & Hayman, 2001). Data on

revenue losses from illegal logging and marketing is available particularly in

relation to losses arising from export tax evasion and timber smuggling (SGS

Trade Assurance Services 2002). In a significant number of countries, illegal

logging is a major problem that poses a serious threat to forests, communities

and wildlife. Moreover, the problem has become so critical that without serious

policy and institutional changes, the World Bank and other foreign donors will

consider withdrawing entirely from forestry sector projects due to the mass

reduction in the quality of timber product exported lately (McCarthy, 2000).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Forest is one of the important resources to every country, hence one of the

catalyst of most countries economy except those in the arid regions though help

in the local economy, yet despite their importance for local economies and for

the people, are still largely neglected in natural resource management policy

and decision-making processes (Malagnoux & Atzmon, 2008). This is clearly

witnessed in the amount of per capita income contribution to a country’s

economy upon every export, employment creation, and immeasurable

environmental benefits. For instance, the various ecosystem services derived

from the forest such as; provisional, social/recreational or aesthetic, regulatory,

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cultural services. Healthy and an intact forest reserve also protect water bodies

and aquatic life, wildlife habitats, and economic benefits for fringe

communities through the harvesting of NTFP. Unfortunately, over the years

several forms and level of land degradation have resulted in the reduction of

the overall quality of our forest reserves. These are seen in various

indiscriminate activities including illegal logging, charcoal production,

encroachment, mismanagement, etc. across the entire country.

The levels of degradation have warranted and diverted the importance

of the reserve into grazing field with regular bush fire orchestrated by Fulani

herdsmen along the Pimpimso-Akrumso range in the southern scarp forest

reserve. Notwithstanding, some citizens from the surrounding communities

also intrude and cultivate all forms of crops and vegetables with particular

emphasizes on; plantain, cocoyam, yam, banana, pepper, tomatoes, garden

eggs, cassava, etc. a situation which is further and faster degrading the forest,

rendering the reserve void of economic tree species. It is with this background

that the study would be crucial in determining the extent of degradation by the

various illegal activities in the Southern Scarp Reserve and to compare with

documents on the previous status if there are any while providing strategic

options that can help curb the illegalities to benefit tomorrow’s generation.

1.3 Research Objective

The objective of this study is to investigate into the various illegal

activities within the reserve that are compromising the integrity and the

economic gains that could be derived from the reserve.

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Specific Objectives

▪ To identify the various illegal activities in the reserve that is contributing

to the continuous decline of timber production that supports the

country’s economy.

▪ To examine the level of impacts of the various illegalities on timber

production within the reserve.

▪ To identify some strategic decisions for the effective management of the

forest reserve.

1.4 Research Questions

▪ What are the major contributing factors as far as illegal activities within

the reserve is concern?

▪ In what ways are these illegalities influencing the various economic

species and wildlife therein the reserve?

▪ What strategic options that could be used in the effective management of

the forest reserve for the benefit of the unborn generation?

1.5 Scope of the Study

The focus of the study will be driven on the assessment of the true state

of the reserve in relation to the level of illegal activities and the associated

destruction issues in the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve and the impact to the

immediate surrounding communities and the country at large. Therefore, only

degraded areas of the reserve will be monitored, investigated, and analysed.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will provide updated information to complement the existing

literature on the true state of the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve in relation to

illegal activities therein and findings of the study would be a great source of

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information to environmental experts, the Forestry Commission and other

stakeholders, policy makers as well as educational institutions.

1.7 Justification of the Study

Maintaining and ensuring a productive forest reserve at all times must

be a concern to all because a degraded forest for instance, is a challenge to any

country which economy is supported by timber export. Forest is indispensable

resources which is embedded with several life forms; thus, not only for wood

or timber product but also for harbouring wild animals, producing NTFP,

protecting water bodies, regulation of weather pattern, among many others.

The value of every forest reserve comes in varying importance to the “owner”

and therefore has its own requirement and composition with a prime objective,

hence the need for regular study in ensuring its sustainability. A forest reserve

is never a permanent recreational resource and therefore bound to be exploited

of its premium product (i.e.; timber), but need to be done legally to ensure

sustainable production, hence the need for periodic research to uncover all

illegalities therein to benefit the unborn generation.

The environmental consequences of illegal activities within any forest

reserve is enormous with varying degree; ranging from species extinction of

both flora and fauna, climate change and its impacts, drying up of streams and

rivers, wild fire, etc. therefore the need to identify such issues and analyse the

situation for appropriate interventions. There is therefore the need for this

independent and comparative scientific study to ascertain the levels of

illegalities within the reserve. It is against this background that the present

study seeks to unveil.

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1.8 Organization of the Study

The entire work after completion shall be made of six chapters arranged

in order of arithmetical or numerical order. The first chapter shall give an

introduction to the study with emphasizes on the background of the study,

statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions, scope of the

study, significance of the study, and the justification of the study. Chapter Two

will offer a review to the work from related studies to the topic. Chapter Three

focused on the methodology which will outline the study area, method of data

collection procedure, sources of data, sample size, data collection instruments,

and data analysis. The fourth chapter will present the results or findings and

discussion of the study. Chapter Five shall preview the summary, conclusions

and a recommendation for further study.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 World Forest Resources

Forests are essential for human survival and well-being that harbour

two thirds of all terrestrial animal and plant species. They provide us with

shelter, food, recreation, oxygen, spiritual sustenance and are also the source

for over 5,000 commercially traded products, ranging from pharmaceuticals to

timber and clothing. The biodiversity of forests, species, forest ecosystems and

the variety of genes supports these goods and services which is the basis for

long-term forest health and stability (SCBD, 2009). According to Ahmed

(2008), about one half of the forests that covered the Earth are gone. Each year,

another 16 million hectares disappear. The World Resources Institute estimates

that only about 22% of the world's (old growth) original forest cover remains

"intact" and this can be found in three large areas: The Canadian and Alaskan

boreal forest, the boreal forest of Russia, and the tropical forest of the north-

western Amazon Basin and the Guyana Shield (Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela,

Columbia, etc.)

2.2 Forest Resources in Ghana

The forests in Ghana, which are part of the Guinea-Congolean

phytogeographical region, cover about 24.2 % of the total land area of the

country (FAO, 2010). Ecologically, the country is divided into a high forest

zone to the southwest, accounting for about a third of the land area (about 7.5

million hectares), a savannah zone (14.7 million hectares) mostly in the north

and a transition zone (1.1 million hectares) (ITTO, 2006). Ghana’s natural

landscape comprises two major ecological zones. The south-western part of the

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country is the high forest zone, which represents about a third of its land area

(approx. 7.5 million ha.), while the savannah dominates the north and the east.

Forests are categorized into reserved and unreserved forest. The reserved areas

account for 1.77 million ha of forest lands, of which 1.634 million ha is under

the management and control of the Forest Services Division (FSD), whiles the

Wildlife Division (WD) manages 0.136 million ha. (Kotey et al.,1998). The

FSD of the Forestry Commission (FC) categorized the forest reserves under

their jurisdiction into different management areas. These systems are based on

the forest protection strategy designed in 1993 to replace the old system based

on production, protection and conversion working circles ‘, which had been

ignored in practice for years (Kotey et al., 1998). These are the timber

production areas 742,600ha (47%), where the forest area is designated

primarily for the production of wood, fibre, bio-energy and non-timber forest

products (NTFP’s). The permanent protection areas [(352,000 ha (21%)]

comprise mostly of hill sanctuaries, including shelterbelts, fire protection and

special biological area as well as swamp sanctuaries. Logging is not possible

in 69% of this area and 16% is degraded. 15% of this area is protected due to

genetic diversity and remains well stocked and accessible. The poorly stocked

areas resulting from fire, overexploitation and poor management are the

convalescence areas which cover 122,000 ha (70%). These areas are

considered for rehabilitation within one felling cycle (40 years). This category

includes the conversion areas [27,200 ha (8%)] that require planting and the

areas that were not inventoried [2700, 000 ha (17%)] (Kotey et al., 1998). The

high forest zone comprises seven forest types based on their ecological zones

(Hall and Swaine, 2013). The wet evergreen (WE) rainforest experiences the

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highest amount of rainfall throughout the year while the dry semi – deciduous

(DSD) type experiences amount of rainfall distributed only at certain times of

the year in a well-defined dry season. The wet evergreen forest type is found in

the south-western part of the country. Annual rainfall ranges between 1700 to

2030mm. Some usual tree species include Cynometra anants, Heretiera utilis

and Tieghemelia heckellii. In terms of precipitation, the upland evergreen (UE)

forest is similar to the (WE) but the two differ in their floristic composition and

structure. The (UE) forests are on hills and mountainous areas and therefore

referred to as mount forests. They receive up to 1700mm of rainfall and are wet

throughout the year. One example is the Tano – Offin Globally Significant

Biodiversity Area (GSBA) (Fig. 1).

The moist evergreen (ME) forests experiences a lower amount of

rainfall of between 1500mm to 1700mm per annum. They do 9 not differ in

structure from the WE forest except in floristic composition. The moist semi –

deciduous (MSD) forest receives lower amounts of rainfall between 1200mm

to 1500mm annually compared to the evergreen sub – types. The MSD forest

type has upper and middle strata in terms of species composition and exhibits

the deciduous habit during the dry season. This forest type can be conveniently

divided into the north-western (NW) and south eastern (SE) sub – types (ie.

MSD – NW and MSD – SE) (MES, 2002). The dry semi – deciduous (DSD)

forest type bordering the Guinea Savannah has a low level of rainfall (1100mm

to 1200mm annually) and pronounced dry season often associated with high

temperature. This forest type is also known as transitional zone. According to

the MES (2002), the DSD forest sub – type is also recognized as forest

containing savannah with clumps of forest trees. Just like the MSD, this forest

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type has an inner zone (IZ) sub – type and fire zone (FZ) sub – type. For

instance, Odum (Milicia excelsa) which is highly important timber species

reaches its maximum abundance in the DSD / IZ sub – type but is currently

endangered. The DSD / FZ sub – type is associated with the occurrence of

periodic fires, especially during the dry season. The southeast outliners on the

other hand represent the driest of forest types with an annual rainfall of about

750 – 1275mm. it is the least extensive forest area, occupying an area of

approximately 20km2 in small scattered patches. An example is the Shai Hills

Game Production Reserve in the Accra Plains. This forest type also has a low

floral diversity coupled with sparse tree canopies. Within this forest types,

there are several rare tree species such as Talbotiella gentii and few

commercial timber species (MES, 2002). The characteristics of these zones

greatly influence the type of tree species and agricultural crops growing across

the forest area. The biological diversity of the high forest zone is high and of

global significance and rich in endemic species (Hall & Swaine, 2013, 1981:

Hawthorne & AbuJuam, 1995; MES, 2002).

2.3 Forests and Wildlife Contributions to Ghana’s Economy

In terms of economic contribution, forestry and logging accounted for 3

per cent GDP in 2009 and contributed US$240.9 million (representing 7.6 per

cent) to total export value. It is estimated that about 120,000 people are

formally employed by the forest and wildlife sector, and it serves as a source of

livelihood for about 2 million people. There are 84 sawmills and 12 companies

with plywood capacity in the formal sector, directly employing about 120,000

people. (Country Environmental Analysis, 2007 as cited in MLNR, 2011). In

the informal sector, however, a wide mix of actors and rural households depend

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on forest resources for their livelihoods, ranging from small scale carpentry,

hunting, illegal chain-saw operations, and wood fuel collection to the gathering

and commercialization of diverse non-timber forest products (NTFPs). About

11 million people live in forest areas of which about 67 per cent of their

livelihoods are supported by 11 forest activities. It is estimated that there are

about 6,000 people engaged in regular hunting, with an average income from

hunting of around $1,000 per year. Even though they are of very high

importance to the national economy, the extent of the contribution of non-

timber forest products (NTFPs) are not formally recorded, and remains

inadequately represented in policy analysis. Wild animal and wild plant exports

were valued at US$18.0 million in 2003 (World Bank, 2006 as cited in MLNR,

2011). Bush-meat is of high dietary importance as a protein source in Ghana,

but there is no consistency in national statistics on the annual trade in bush

meat. The primary indigenous energy sources in Ghana are from the forestry

sector comprising of 94.5 per cent wood fuel (Strategic National Energy Plan,

2006). Biomass in the form of firewood and charcoal dominates the total

energy consumed in the country (averaging 67 per cent in 2008; MLNR, 2011).

2.4 Importance of Ghana’s Forest

Forests play a major role in the socioeconomic development of

humankind and are essential source of harvestable products and variety of

other services (Roy et al., 2002). Forests are important source of timber, raw

material for pulp and paper, fuel wood, and energy, and other essential

harvestable products like food, medicines, oil and resins. The forests also play

vital role in maintaining the ecological balance and environmental make-up of

our world (Roy et al., 2002). They do not only help maintain biological

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diversity, but also mitigate climate change, control hydrology, mineral cycling

and soil erosion, improve air quality, create wildlife habitats and alleviate

poverty (FAO, 2006; Roy et al., 2002).

Some developing countries virtually depend on forests and their

resources to support socioeconomic and national developments (Dadebo &

Shinohara, 1999). Ghana’s forests make significant contribution to the

national economy. Timber, which is the major market-based forest product is

currently the fourth largest contributor to Ghana’s foreign exchange earnings

aside minerals, cocoa and tourism (Marfo, 2010). The formal timber industry

accounts for 11 % of foreign exchange earnings and contributes about 6 % to

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and directly employs about 100, 000 people

(Marfo, 2010). Between 2002 and 2007, Ghana earned an average of €

193.048 million annually from the export of wood products such as sawn

wood, veneer and plywood (Marfo, 2010). In 2009 alone, Ghana earned an

amount of € 128, 226, 984 from the export of 426, 221 m3 wood products.

Aside timber, the role of forests providing non-timber forest products and

other services has been noted and appreciated. Forests contribute to

livelihoods by providing food, fodder, fuel, building materials and supplement

their incomes in addition to other non-quantifiable benefits such as cultural

symbols, and ritual artifacts. Over 2100 plant species have been recorded in

the High forest zone of Ghana, of which 23 are considered to be endemic

(Hall & Swaine, 2013).

2.5 State of Ghana’s Forest Cover

Ghana, like many tropical countries, continues to lose its remaining closed

forests at an alarming rate. At the beginning of the last century, about one-third

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(i.e. 8.2 million hectares) of the total land area was covered by high forest

while the remaining two-third (15.7 million hectares) was savannah woodland

(Owusu et al., 1999). The area of high forest (off reserve) has drastically

reduced and the only remaining portions today are mainly in remnant or sacred

grooves. Records show that at the turn of the last century, Ghana had about 8.2

million ha of primary forest. By 1950, the area had been reduced to 4.2 million

hectares and further to about 1.5 million ha by 1999 (Owusu et al., 1999). This

implies that from 1900 to 1950, the nation lost 50 % of its primary forest cover

and also lost about 60 % of the remaining forest cover between 1950 and 1999.

12 From (1900 to 2000), the nation lost over 80 % of the closed forest (a

reduction from 8.2 million ha to 1.5 million hectares). Farrhead and Leach

(1998) estimated the deforestation rate to be a massive 22,000 hectares per year

around the late 90’s. From some more recent trends, Mongabay.com reported

that, between 1990 and 2000, the average annual deforestation rate was 1.82 %.

Also, between 2000 and 2005, the rate of forest change increased from 1.89 %

to 4.2 % per annum. The recent FAO (2010) Country report on Ghana’s forest

has estimated Ghana’s deforestation at 135,395 ha per year. According to

Tropenbos (2005), the crisis in the forestry sector is rapidly increasing.

Satellite imagery suggests that the forest resource is depleting faster than at any

time in our history and that, state managed forest reserves are now also under

siege. As forest resources dwindle and industry competes fiercely for what

remains, the vicious cycle of state capture, over-logging, rural stakeholder

marginalization and conflict has sped up considerably.

2.6 Concept of Illegal Forest Activities (IFA)

High levels of deforestation due to illegal logging coupled with other

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related illegal forest activities are detected globally and are of concerns to

biologists (Reboredo, 2013); hence the need to define and expatiates the

concept under study. The concept illegal forest activities (IFA) which

grammatically is a phrase, comes from three distinct English words. This study

therefore seeks to vividly explain each word in order to clear doubt about the

origination of the concept for understanding of the study as a whole. A

dictionary definition of the term illegal tells us that it means something “not

allowed by the law”. According to the same dictionary, a law is “the system of

rules of a particular country, group or area of activity”. To further clarify the

meaning of illegal, it is also useful to consider its synonyms, which include

“criminal”, “illegitimate” and “irregular”. However, activities also mean

something that is done as work or for a particular purpose. Land spanning more

than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more

than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not

include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.

Illegal forest activities (IFA) is therefore defined to include “all illegal acts

that relate to forest ecosystems, forest-related industries, and timber and non-

timber forest products. (Tacconi, Boscolo, & Brack, 2003).

Also according to Odoom, 2005; illegal forest activities include: occupation of

forestlands, logging, woodland arson, timber transport, trade and timber

smuggling, transfer pricing and other accounting practices, and illegal forest

processing.

The forest resources in Ghana are being destroyed at an alarming rate.

From the country’s original forest cover of 8.2 million hectares at the

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beginning of the 20th Century only an estimated 1.6 million hectares remain

intact due to various forms and degree of illegal activities within the reserves

in the country (Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, 2012). This,

therefore calls for reconsideration into the status of some forest reserves in the

country of which the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve, Akim portion is not an

exception.

2.7 Deforestation
Change is happening at a very fast rate all over the world, with some

implications for sustainable human development. The bio-physical

environment which contains the basic human life-support systems has always

been characterized by change (Gyasi et al., 1995). Though tropical forests have

always had a long history of human interferences, and also characterized by

change, the rate at which the changes are occurring have raised a lot of

concerns (Gupta et al., 2004; Gyasi et al., 1995; Hawthorne and Abu-Juam,

1993; Myers, 1992). The concerns over the rapid disappearance of tropical

forests (Myers, 1992), are as a result of the degree of disturbance and the

imbalance between disintegration and recovery rates (Hawthorne and Abu-

Juam, 1993). Forests in the tropics are particularly under threat from human-

induced disturbances (Gupta et al., 2004; Kozlowski, 12 2000), and

approximately 13 million ha of tropical forests are felled, burned or converted

to other land uses each year (FAO, 2006). The forests in Ghana, like other

tropical forests is seen to have been very much influenced by human

disturbances. There has been a considerable loss of forests in the country in the

last 100 years and over, with serious local, national, regional and global

implications (Appiah et al., 2009; Foli et al., 2009; Gupta et al., 2004; Palo and

Yirdaw, 1996). Siry et al., (2005), argued that forests loss has a far-reaching
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significance which goes beyond loss of forest land but also affect the decline in

the quality of existing forests. Though there are uncertainties about the actual

rate of deforestation, the rate of change in Ghana has been rapid and increasing

(Appiah et al., 2009; FAO, 2006; Benhin and Barbier, 2004; Sandler, 1993).

The present rate of deforestation is among the highest in Africa (FAO,

2010). The average estimated annual rate of deforestation between 1990 and

2000 was 2% (135, 000 ha), which is higher than the average annual rate for

both Central and Western Africa which stands at 0.6 % (FAO, 2010; FAO,

2006). Forest resources in Ghana have reduced from 7 million ha in 1990 to

approximately 6 million in 2000 (FAO, 2006). Almost all the forests are

depleted and 0.39 million ha of forests reserves are considered as degraded

(Marfo, 2010). Over harvesting has led to the downward revision of the

national Annual Allowable Cut (AAC) in forest reserves from 1.2 million m3

in 1990 to 500, 000 m 3 in 2005 (ITTO, 2006). The off-reserve component of

the total national AAC (2 million m3) was set as high as 1.5 million m3 mainly

due to extensive illegal logging and the assumption that with time those areas

are likely to be converted to 13 other land uses (Marfo, 2010). However, some

have argued that some of the causes of deforestation in the past were legal,

purposeful and arguably necessary for development of the country (Grainger,

1993; Hawthorne & Abu-Juam, 1993). The cause of deforestation in Ghana

vary and are by no means easy to change, but they have resulted from a

complex interaction of different social, cultural, economic, management and

political factors (Teye, 2005; Benhin & Barbier, 2004; Gupta et al., 2004;

Capistrano and Kiker, 1995; Grainger, 1993). Though, there are several causes

for forest loss in Ghana, they can be broadly divided into internal (country

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specific issues such as unsustainable agriculture, conversion to agriculture,

unsustainable logging, wildfires, firewood collection and charcoal production,

mining, plantation strategies and taungya, population pressure, poorly defined

land and resource tenure, poverty and unemployment, weak government

policies, corruption and weak institutional governance) and external

(influences from outside Ghana such as foreign investments, international trade

and market failures) factors (Appiah et al., 2009; Codjoe & Dzanku, 2009;

Awung, 1998).

The internal factors can further be categorized into proximate and

underlying causes. The proximate causes include, unsustainable agriculture,

conversion to agriculture, unsustainable logging, wildfires, firewood collection

and charcoal production, mining, and plantation strategies and taungya, whilst

the underlying causes also include but not limited to population pressure,

poorly defined land and resource tenure, poverty and unemployment, weak

government policies, corruption and weak institutional governance (Codjoe &

Dzanku, 2009; Teye, 2005; Benhin and Barbier, 2004; Palo & Yirdaw, 1996;

Grainger, 1993; Hawthorn and Abu-Juam, 1993). However, these distinctions

are merely 14 conceptual since none of the causes is mutually exclusive but all

are interdependent and interactive (Codjoe & Dzanku, 2009; Dadebo &

Shinohara, 1999).

2.8 Effects of Forest Degradation and Deforestation on Species

Dominance

Forest degradation refers to any activity that affects the quality of the

forest (Guuroh, 2010). According to FAO (2006), forest degradation is the

changes within the forest which negatively affect the structure or function of

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the stand or site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply products and/or

services. Very often degradation does not show up so much in decrease of

woody vegetation but rather as a gradual reduction in biomass, changes in

species composition and soil degradation (FAO, 2000). 15 According to Fiset

(2008), consequences of degradation are; loss of biodiversity, non-suitability of

deforested areas for conversion, flooding and soil erosion. Land-use change is

thought to have the greatest impact on biodiversity in tropical forests (Sala et

al., 2000). Forest clearance destroys the habitat and generally causes a decline

in forest species abundance and diversity, particularly for species that are

restricted in range. Diverse taxon shows different and often variable responses

(Lawton et al., 1998; Barlow et al., 2007).

2.9 Impact of Forest Degradation and Deforestation on VPA and REDD+

Forest depletion constitutes a threat to forest sustainability and loss of

potential forestry revenues; the situation possesses a big challenge to

implementation of Ghana’s Voluntary Partnership Agreement (VPA) with the

European Union. Though VPA is primarily concerned with legality of timber

being exported to Europe, a component seeks to 17 promote legality of

domestic lumber supply. This is because if legality of domestic lumber is not

ensured, illegally sourced lumber for the domestic market could find its way as

legal lumber for export. Besides, leaving out legality of domestic lumber

supply would constitute a threat to forest sustainability, the ultimate goal the

VPA seeks to contribute to. Illegal chainsaw lumbering also constitutes a threat

to Ghana’s REDD plus agenda by which Ghana seeks to reduce the loss and

degradation of her forests (Nutakor et al., 2009). The REDD+ concept as

defined in the Bali Action Plan (UNFCCC Dec 1/CP.13) and subsequent COP

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decisions relates to reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation, the

role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of

forest carbon stocks all within developing countries. REDD+ actions are

sustainable development policies and measures to reduce emissions and

enhance removals, knowing that these measures may well extend to the

agriculture and bio-energy sectors, insofar as they impact forests. A REDD+

strategy can involve market or non-market-based instruments, and be based on

performance according to established criteria or based on greenhouse gas

quantification (FC, 2012).

2.10 Invasive Species and Its Effect on Forest Structure and Composition

Invasive species are non-native species that have established outside

their natural range, while introduced species have been established outside

their natural range by human action. Both invasive and introduced species can

cause extinctions, alter abiotic environments, become pests, or introduce

diseases (Bradshaw et al., 2009), particularly targeting species with a lower

reproductive potential or those that are naive to competitors or predators

(Purvis et al., 2000). Much of the evidence for the detrimental effects of

invasive species is based on correlations between invasive species dominance

and native species decline in degraded habitats (Didham et al., 2005). In these

cases, invasive species could be driving the native species loss or could simply

be taking advantage of habitat modification or another ecosystem change that

is itself driving the native species loss (MacDougall & Turkington, 2005).

Invasive species may cause biotic homogenization, where species assemblages

become dominated by a small number of widespread species that thrive in

human-altered environments (McKinney & Lockwood, 1999). Tropical forest

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communities that have been substantially altered by 16 invasive or introduced

species occur predominantly on heavily disturbed islands (Ghazoul & Sheil,

2010). Intact continental rainforest may be more resistant to invasion because

of the high species and functional group richness, high competitive exclusion

rates and high pest loads (Denslow & DeWalt, 2008). Invasive species can,

however, dominate disturbed or open tropical forest areas, impacting their

recovery (Ghazoul & Sheil, 2010).

2.11 Forms of IFA

There are several forms or types of illegal forest activities that takes

place at least almost every moment within various protected areas, but for the

sake of the of objectives of the study; below are the major among them

reviewed in relation to this work.

Illegal Logging

Illegal logging is a permeating and widespread phenomenon, causing

enormous damage to forests, forest peoples, and the economies of producer

countries (Wijen et al., 2013), however concerns about the extent of illegal

logging around the world has grown significantly in past years.

Illegal logging is said to include but is not limited to the following kinds of

activities:

❖ Unauthorized harvesting in national parks or forest reserves;

❖ Harvesting without concession permits or beyond concession permit

limits;

❖ Overharvesting on granted lands;

❖ Transporting timber without proper documentation;

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❖ Timber smuggled, sold or transported as if produced from foreign, legal

concessions;

❖ Purchasing shipments of logs of questionable origin mixed with legal

timber harvests;

❖ Failure to properly report harvests to avoid royalty payments; and

❖ False customs papers (Hansen, 2017).

❖ Logging protected species

❖ Duplication of felling licenses

❖ Girdling or ring-barking, to kill trees so that they can be legally logged

Contracting with local entrepreneurs to buy logs from protected areas.

❖ Logging in prohibited areas such as steep slopes, riverbanks and water

catchments • Removing under-/over-sized trees from public forests

❖ Reporting high volume extracted in forest concessions to mask the fact

that part of the volume declared is extracted from non-authorized boundaries.

❖ Setting woodlands on fire to convert them to commercial uses.

The illegal harvest and trade of timber involves a vast, corrupt network of

industry, global supply chains, and imperfectly regulated trade practices. Both

supply and demand-side companies contribute to unlawful, inequitable and

destructive illegal logging practices. Consumer appetite for lumber for

infrastructural development amid urbanization rate across nations and the

world at large has fuelled further the exploitation of already depleted forests

and the related consequences. Features of illegal logging studies have shown

to be negative impacts to the forest industry:

❖ Contribute to deforestation and loss of biological diversity;

❖ Result in government revenue losses of billions of dollars;

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❖ Foster a vicious cycle of bad governance, i.e. corrupt individuals gain

power through illegal revenues, then they may support bad governance to

maintain revenues and acquire more power;

❖ Contribute directly to increased poverty when people lose their resources,

and indirectly as a result of a reduction in government revenues, that could in

turn be made available for poverty reduction programs;

❖ Contribute to funding national and regional conflicts thereby exacerbating

them;

❖ Distort forest product markets, thus reducing incentives for sustainable

forest management.(L Tacconi et al., 2003)

Illegal farming

Agriculture is traditionally considered as the “basis” of economic and

social structures. However, unsustainable or illegal agricultural practices are

recorded throughout the World and are included among the main driving

forces for environmental degradation leading to severe impacts on the

sustainability of the forestry sector (Ferragina, 2010). Global deforestation is

estimated to total nearly 9.4 million hectares annually, very substantial portion

takes the form of illegal encroachment into forest areas (Goncalves, Panjer,

Greenberg, & Magrath, 2012). Encroachment and forest degradation in the

tropical regions; especially, in the Sub-Saharan Africa have continued

unabated and are posing serious threats to forests and the revenue countries

derived from the forests and other forest resources (Duguma et al., 2019).

Conversion to Agriculture

The continued expansion of agriculture in many parts of the tropics is a

major threat to forests, contributing immensely to deforestation (Horne, 1996).

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In Ghana, there has been an increase in both legal and illegal farms in most

forest reserves (Hawthorne & Abu-Juam, 1993). Forests continue to be

converted to croplands especially in areas where lands for cultivation are

becoming scarce. Economic reasons have been cited for the persistent

conversion of forests to other land uses in the off- reserve areas (Kotey et al.,

1998). As incomes decline, rural communities are forced to clear more forests

to sustain their livelihoods (FAO, 2001). Forest land clearing has been

intensified by the increased emphasis on agricultural production which relies

heavily on export 17 commodity crops (Yirdaw, 1996). The quest to diversify

the nation ‘s exports with emphasis on non-traditional export commodities

have led to an increased expansion of cocoa growing areas (Yiridoe &

Nanang, 2001). Large portions of the high forests are therefore cleared

annually for cocoa production. Benhin and Barbier (2004) used a four-

equation model to show that cocoa land expansion is a significant cause of

forest loss in Ghana. However, the cultivation of food crops like cassava,

plantain and cocoyam by farmers also lead to the clearing of more forest

areas. Palo and Yirdaw (1996) stated that so far as the modernization of the

agriculture sector continue to receive little attention the conversion of forests

to farmlands is likely to continue.

Illegal Hunting:

Increased illegal hunting (poaching) continues to be a major threat to

forest biodiversity in many countries. The depletion of wildlife is intimately

linked to the food security and livelihood of numerous tropical forest-region

dwellers, as many of these forest-dependent folks have few alternative sources

of protein and income. Unsustainable poaching pressures are often linked to

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logging activities in most cases across the world (SCBD, 2009). Wildlife

attraction forms part of global tourism to most protected areas in countries,

especially in the tropical sub-region of Africa; however, the environmental

impacts of illegal hunting range from an immediate detrimental effect on the

target species and incidental loss of non-target species, to a long-term

deterioration in ecosystem services with regional and global consequences

(Kaiser & Jennings, 2001), since all species perform a functional role within

the ecosystem of which they are components.

Illegal Mining

The activities of illegal small-scale miners across Africa; especially, in

Ghana have resulted in land degradation through loss of vegetation and

eventual land degradation. Illegal mining strips about 28 billion tons of

material from the earth. The presence of gold deposits discovered in most

places across the country has attracted a lot of unemployed youth and small-

scale mining ventures to those areas. Brilliant and gifted students who could

have blossomed into scholars of repute to take charge of the affairs of the

nation end up in underground (pits). The activities of illegal small-scale gold

mining (dubbed “galamsey”) in those communities are causing serious

environmental havoc and destruction (Tom-Dery, 2012). Most of the minerals

are found in rivers, as such illegal mining companies resort to slating of these

rivers and their surroundings to enable them the access to the targeted mineral

without considering the consequences and dangers this activities will pose on

trees, birds, animals, water source and on the health of individuals residing in

those communities. Surface mining which is commonly practiced uncovers

the minerals through the clearing of the forest leading to cutting done of trees

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and removing the underlying vegetation cover to enable them achieve the go

of gold extraction that result in land degradation. Greater portions of the

vegetation cover in the mined areas lose its properties to be used for any other

purpose such as farming and harbouring wildlife (Charis, 1994).

Illegal Chain Sawing Activities

Illegal exploitation of forest resources, by means of invasion through

extension of admitted farms and timber harvesting by means of chainsaw

milling is quite high in Ghana and are reported to play important roles in

forest management activities (Kotey et al., 1998; Ohene-Gyan, 2004).

Such illegal activity cost the forest lots of damages even though it is not clear

exactly which illegal activities cost the forest more, illegal chainsaw activities

have caught the attention of forest managers and policy makers in terms of its

contribution to forest destruction, lost revenue to the state and the amount of

conflict that it generates (Marfo, 2010). Lack of employment is a critical

factor driving many people to use forests resources unsustainably through

illegal chainsaw operation (Putz et al., 1996). Studies in some countries

indicate that there are five general factors contributing to the occurrence of

illegal chain sawing activity in the forest sector (FAO, 2001).

These include; flawed policy and legal framework, minimal

enforcement capacity, insufficient data and information about the forest

resource and illegal operations, corruption in the private sector and in

government and high demand for cheap timber. Brown (1994), determined

adverse agricultural conditions due to sector policy that influence illegal forest

activities. Such and other policies upset the conditions of production and

productivity for rural people and thus pressure them into illegal 23 forest

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activities. Dudley (2004) analyzed the intricacies of community’s ‘willingness

to participate in illegal chain sawing. Based on a series of community

interviews and social behaviour patterns, the study showed that involvement

in illegal chain sawing primarily interplay between the need for income, the

fact that others are already illegally logging, and the realizations of loss of

their community ‘s control over traditional forest areas.

Over-Exploitation of NTFPs

Firewood collection and charcoal production (NTFPs) are in most cases

the major products derived from the forests in Ghana (Palo and Yirdaw, 1996).

The use and demand for these products keep increasing (Foli et al., 2009).

Firewood and charcoal account for more than 75 % of all energy consumed in

the country (FAO, 2006). It is estimated that about 91 % of total round wood

produced is used for firewood and charcoal production (Teye, 2005). The use

of firewood and charcoal is not only limited to domestic purposes but also used

in local breweries, bakeries and fish processing (Yiridoe & Nanang, 2001). The

demand for firewood and production of charcoal especially in the transition

zone has contributed to the loss of forests in Ghana (Foli et al., 2009; Teye,

2005; Yiridoe & Nanang, 2001). Most of the firewood are collected from the

off-reserve areas and fallow lands, however wood in these areas have become

scarce therefore leading to increased pressure on the forest reserves (Kotey et

al., 1998; IUCN, 1992). Charcoal production has also impacted both the forest

reserves and off-reserve areas (Yiridoe & Nanang, 2001). The entire chain in

the production of charcoal from the extraction has negative impacts on the

structure of the forests (Webi, 21 2005). With increasing population, the

demand and consumption of firewood and charcoal has increased creating a

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gap, and this gap will continue to intensify the pressure on forest reserves

(Yirdaw, 1996).

2.12 Effects of IFA

The understanding of the effects from illegal forest activities (IFA) are

viewed by biologist to be multiple with one linking with other across social,

economic, and environmental perspectives and are seen from the actors.

However, it is often assumed that any logging conducted under prescribed

regulations intended to promote sustainable forest management (SFM) has a

less destructive effect on forests than illegal logging, but in many situations

SFM refers only to selective low impact logging (Pacheco et al., 2016 ); this is

because except the harvested area is afforested, the impacts are not different

from those that are logged illegally. Notwithstanding, any assessment to the

effects resulting from illegal forest activities is complicated since there is no

clear-cut boundary between impacts associated with legal versus illegal

activities since both may lead to similar effects considering the angle one view

it.

Drivers of Change and Pressures on Loss of Biodiversity

Ecosystems vary greatly in size and composition, ranging from a small

community of microbes in a drop of water, to the entire Amazon rain forest.

The very existence of people, and that of the millions of species with which

the planet is shared, is dependent on the health of our ecosystems. People are

putting increasing strain on the world’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Despite the importance of ecosystems, they are being modified in extent and

composition by people at an unprecedented rate, with little understanding of

the implications this will have in terms of their ability to function and provide

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services in the future (World Bank, 2003). Currently, population growth and

patterns of consumption, which lead to increased demand for ecosystem

services and energy, are the most important drivers affecting biodiversity.

These drivers result in pressures that have direct impacts on

ecosystems, species and genetic resources. Human activities cause changes in

both the living and non-living components of ecosystems and these pressures

have increased dramatically over the past few decades. Drivers and pressures

seldom act in isolation. They tend to interact in synergistic ways, and their

impacts on biodiversity are more than the sum of the effects of the individual

drivers and pressures themselves (World Bank, 2003). Drivers and pressures

act at different temporal and spatial scales. For example, sediments from 22

deforestations in the headwaters of the Orinoco River, deep in South America,

have impacts far out in the Wider Caribbean Sea basin, changing the nutrient

availability and turbidity of the waters (Hu et al., 2004).

Economic Effects

The economic effects of illegal forest activities are manifold and are

interrelated. According to report filed by the Ministry of Lands and Natural

Resources, 2012; the formal forestry and wildlife sector employs about

120.000 Ghanaians, with employment predominantly in log processing

industry. The timber industry is the fourth largest foreign exchange earner

after minerals, cocoa and oil exports. Primary wood and processed products

account for 89% and 11% of timber exports, respectively. These are lost

every year due to the uncontrolled illegal forest activities within our reserves

across the country.

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I. Illegal logging as the major factor tends to distort timber markets since it

provides cheap wood to growing urban markets. This has negative effects on

benefit distribution along the supply chain since it tends to undervalue the

available timber stocks and pays relatively lower remuneration to local

people, thus prompting an unequal distribution of the monetary benefits

obtained from logging.

II. It also leads to significant losses for the state due to the evasion of forest fees.

Increasing depletion of timber stocks leads to a progressive reduction in the

economic value of the remaining forests vis-à-vis other land uses, which acts

as an incentive for forest conversion to agriculture.

III. Furthermore, illegal logging constitutes a high risk to investors, thus

ultimately reducing local access to affordable long-term sources of finance,

and making forest-based activities unattractive financially. (Pacheco et al.,

2016)

Environmental Effects

The environmental impacts from illegal forest activities are more

evident. Forests as an ecosystem provide a number of goods and services,

such as timber, carbon stocking, biodiversity, soil and water protection that

are lost when illegal activities and unsustainable cutting take place, or when

forests are converted to agriculture. If illegal logging practices which is

contributing factor of IFA occur at a large destructive scale, it can lead to the

conversion of forests to grassland, something which is evident in several areas

of the study and the effects are real. Deforestation and loss of greenhouse

gasses are some of major effects of illegal forest activities on the environment.

a) Illegal logging and or farming in protected areas as being a major factor

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of IFA, tend to disrupt the carbon cycle.

b) Illegal trade in wildlife as a by-product of illegal logging operations,

leading to a depletion of biodiversity; thus, extinction of some endangered

fauna species (Callister, 1999).

a) Water, being a vital necessity of life is also affected both in quality and

quantity by the activities of illegal miners. In Ghana, contaminations of

surface and ground water bodies have particularly been experienced in gold

mining communities especially, in the Ashanti, Eastern, and Western with

particular emphasis on Birim, Tano, and Offin rivers as examples (Ansa-

Asare, 2000).

Social Effects

Fringe communities along forest reserves often rely on the reserve for

their livelihood through foul means. However, destruction of forest resulting

from IFA tend to put a tremendous pressure on the indigenous dwellers

forcing them to migrate to more densely populated areas in search of new life

(Reboredo, 2013). Every forest reserve is known not to provide only timber

product, but also several non-timber forest products; some of which cannot be

quantified (for example, regulatory services of an ecosystem).

2.13 Strategies to Promote Forest Industry and Economic Gains

The importance of every well-conserved and managed forest reserve

cannot be undermined, considering the various ecosystem services man derives

from natures given priceless asset on the planet earth. Forests play a critical

role in supporting the livelihoods of people globally, especially in meeting the

daily subsistence needs of the world’s poor (Toivonen, 2007). Therefore, in

order to rely and enjoy this life-supporting benefits man obtains from the

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forest, it is important to understand the value of a forest for today and the

future. It is on this that the following strategies would be crucial in meeting the

benefits forest provides for individuals, communities, countries, and the world

at large.

2.14Enforcement of Forest Laws

a. Strengthening of law enforcement could be more successful if support is also

provided for the legal arms of the forestry commission and the judiciary,

particularly to enforce the publication of information.

a. An attempt to work with the forestry commission to build internal will and

support for the successful prosecution of illegal forest activities practitioners

are very important in curbing the situation.

b. Efforts to identify individuals who may become champions within national

institutions, or who continue to push for disclosure, are likely to be long-term

strategies to improve suppression of illegal forest activities(Downs, 2013).

The United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals underline the need to

balance objectives and potential trade-offs between poverty reduction, growth

and sustainability. For instance, Goal 15 and Goal 13: lays critical emphasize

on sustainable forests management, to combat desertification, halt and reverse

land degradation, halt biodiversity loss and to take urgent action to combat

climate change and its impact: placing forest management and sustainability

into the international development framework for both developing and

developed countries (Morrison-métois & Lundgren, 2016).

Sustainable forest management is defined to mean practice of managing

our forest resources to meet the needs of today without compromising the

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benefits to the unborn generations (Green works, 2005). Forests provide wide-

range and diverse benefits to people in the world and these benefits consist of

economic outputs such as the income and employment that is generated by

forest industries (Amarh, 2014). Well-managed forest is where felling limit is

adhered to, in order to meet the benefits which cannot be valued in monetary

terms. However, understanding the value that people place on these benefits

provides useful information for the management of forest resources with the

future generations in mind.

Education

With the increase of illegal forest activities across the world, it has

become necessary to educate all and sundry on the importance of forest to the

existence of man. In view of that, it is prudent to focus on the need to widen

the traditional education and training of foresters so as to incorporate multiple

land use, sustainable development and an awareness of how land use interacts

with social conditions (FAO, 1994) . Considering all the various ecosystem

services obtained from the forest, it has become more important to socialized

fringe communities in order to desist or limit illegal practices.

2.15 Changing the Status of the Reserve

Converting the status of the forest to farmland is a deliberate attempt,

and this is done by considering the benefits derived from the timber stock of a

given compartment as compared to the degraded part of the same reserve.

However, taking into accounts the various illegal activities: for example; illegal

farming within the forest reserves then can inform in decision making as to

whether to convert a forest to farmland or not. A typical example however is,

in parts of the New Guinea Highlands, this type of transition has led to the

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conversion of a formerly productive forest-garden that saw a cycle of

deforestation being converted to subsistence horticulture and woody re-

generation into a short grassland ecosystem for grazing (Oldfield & Dearing,

2013). More importantly, it becomes apparent that in order to understand the

present-day status and future changes in contemporary systems that are

undergoing this type of pressure, it is necessary to study impact over relatively

long time periods before concrete decision is made (Sandor & Gesper 1988,

Sandor & Eash 1991). In many examples of forest degradation through human

activities, the key issue is a critical shift in the balance between the rate of

depletion of key functional attributes and the rate of their renewal within a

given system of production. Beyond a certain threshold in the shifting balance,

a persistent state of lower productivity may develop that is difficult to reverse.

Compliance to International Agreements

Several international agreements are emerging between producer and

consumer countries, aimed at committing them to jointly in improving

compliance with logging and forest products trade laws (Contreras-hermosilla,

2003), due to the current illegal activities witnessed in the forest industry over

the years. This section highlights on the 1973 Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species. For those most directly relevant to forestry and

the timber trade, it evaluates the potential for the international community to

use their provisions to reduce illegal logging and trade in illegal timber.

According to Luca Tacconi, Boscolo, & Brack, 2003; the 1973 Convention

on International Trade in Endangered Species, commonly known as CITES

held in Washington aims to protect endangered species from over-exploitation

by controlling international trade, under a system of import and export

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permits. From the said global meeting, species were categorized and placed on

different lists dubbed Appendix.

Appendix I includes all species that are threatened with extinction;

Appendix II includes species that are not necessarily threatened with

extinction now but may become so unless trade in such species is subject to

strict regulation; and Appendix III includes species that a party identifies as

being subject to regulation for the purposes of preventing or restricting

exploitation, and where it needs the co-operation of other parties in controlling

trade. Trade in any species under any of the appendix is prohibited except in

accordance with CITES. The treaty has had some successes in preventing the

extinction of some endangered species, especially those categorize under

Appendix I listing, (Luca Tacconi et al., 2003). Also, under the Rio

conventions, the convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United

nations convention to combat Desertification (UNCCD) and the United

nations Framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC), recognize the

significant contribution of forests to the achievement of their respective goals

and objectives (UNFCCC, 2012), hence the need for member countries to

prioritise in the adherence and compliance of all commitment they all

endorsed.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Timber plays an essential role in the economy of the country. Forest

reserves houses a lot of flora and fauna that are of great importance. However,

poverty, increasing human population and expansion of farms towards forest

reserves has led to the over-exploitation and increased number of illegalities in

forest reserves. The study was conducted to identify the effects of illegal

activities on timber production in Southern Scarp Forest Reserve (SSCP). Ten

communities were selected using random sampling technique. A total of

hundred respondents were selected with ten from each of the ten communities.

Both questionnaires and interviews were used in the data collection exercise.

Purposive sampling was used in selecting a total sample of 100 participants

from the study population. Illegal farming was noted as the main contributing

factor to the destruction of forest reserves. There is the believe that, illegalities

on timber production in the reserve have led to the destruction of water bodies

and degradation of lands. The results also indicated that there was a decline in

fauna and NTFPs e.g. (snail) in the reserve due to illegalities in the reserve. As

a means of ensuring effective ways of managing the forest reserve, forest

guards should be well equipped and motivated to work to their full ability.

Also, frequent monitoring and patrols by responsible stakeholders should be

done. Moreover, communities in forest fringe areas should be educated on the

importance of forest and effect of illegalities. Areas affected by such illegalities

should be planted up by offenders when apprehended. There is also the need to

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advice timber contractors who work in timber concessions to employ

sustainable logging to reduce the impact of logging on the forest.

The study methodology followed a sequence of steps to achieve the

objectives of the paper. First, a description of the area in which the study will

be conducted is presented to provide the reader with some background and

geographic information. Next, the type of data collected and the rational for

collecting them will be highlighted. Primary data will be collected from target

people within some selected fringe communities as well as some resources

guards around the reserve. Furthermore, the researcher will provide

instruments that will be used to analyse the primary data.

3.2 Study Area

The Southern Scarp Forest Reserve, Akim portion is believed to have

been established in 1935. The reserve is located in the Eastern Region of

Ghana and falls within four (4) Political Districts. These are Fanteakea North

and South and Atiwa District Assemblies as well as East Akim Municipal

Assembly with their capitals as Begoro, Kwabeng and Kibi respectively. It

falls under the Akim Abuakwa Traditional council and share boundaries with

Kwahu portion of the Southern Scarp at a distance of 5.5km and Worobong

South Forest Reserve at a distance of 13.95km respectively. The Southern

Scarp Forest Reserve has total land area of about 15,223ha and lies on

mountainous range which peaks up to 640m above sea level, and is

characterized by plateaus.

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Figure 1: Map of Southern Scarp Forest Reserve, Akim Portion

Source: Forestry Commission-Eastern Regional Office

3.3 Topography, Drainage and Geology/Soils

The Southern Scarp Forest Reserve’s topography as the name depict has

steep slope or cliff at the edge of a plateau gently rolling with hills ranging

between 1,840 meters and 2,330 meters above sea level. The reserve is fairly

well–watered forming the catchments area for major rivers such as Akrasu,

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Bosu, Subri, Ahinkwa, Ponpon, Danswa, Asuduasa, Aboabo and Bremuadaa.

The numerous small rivers and streams running through some portions of the

reserve become water-log during the peak of the rainy season. The district is

generally hilly and has an undulating landform. Average height of the land is

about 8,762 metres above sea level. The reserve is also recognized as a

nationally important tourist site because of Atiwa Waterfall located at

Adasawase which is also a source of water for irrigation and domestic use for

surrounding communities. Geologically, the underlying rock of the reserve is

upper and lower Birimian and Voltain sandstone. The soil varies from reddish

to brownish colour and it is mostly sandy loam with patches of clay. In the

rocky areas, the soil is reddish clay or quartz on the side of the rocky outcrops.

The soils in this area are mostly ochrosols with forest oxysols occurring in the

wet swampy area.

3.4 Climate and Vegetation

The Akim portion of the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve lies within the

Tropical humid climatic zone with two pronounced seasons due to it closeness

to the Atiwa Range: thus, the hot-dry harmattan season coupled with North-

Easterly Harmattan winds which are charged with fine dust particles occurring

between December and March and the rain bearing South-Westerly winds

occurring in the rainy season. The mid portion of the reserve which lies

between Dwenease and Fremponso is the wet semi-equatorial climatic zone,

which is characterized by high temperatures and a double maxima rainfall

regime. It has a mean monthly temperature of between 24 and 29°C, and

experiences a mean annual rainfall of between 1500 and 2000mm. The first

rainfall peak occurs in March-Early August with the second occurring in Late

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August-November while October recording the maximum. The dry seasons

are really distinct with the main season commencing in November and ending

in late February. Temperature is found to be fairly uniform ranging between

27°C in August and 31°C in February. Relative humidity is generally high

throughout the year, ranging between 70% - 80% in the dry season and 75% -

80% in the wet season (Ansa-Asare & Asante, 2005).

The vegetation consists basically of the wet-semi deciduous rain forest

and the savannah scrub which is found at the Akim New Tafo stretch of the

reserve. The wet-deciduous part of the reserve is characterised with thick

vegetation, however experiencing continuous human activities including

illegal farming, illegal logging, illegal mining, collection of non-timber forest

products. The vegetation cover also includes few patches of some troublesome

terrestrial invasive species such as Chromolaena odorata and Megathyrsus

maximus.

3.5 Methods of Data Collection

The study was conducted by the use of questionnaire and an interview

guide in gathering relevant information from the selected communities. The

questionnaire was made up of both open and closed ended questions that

helped in the collection of relevant data from the field of study. Interview guide

was also used in the collection of data from specific key informant, thus

District Officers of the Forestry Commision, and other opinion leaders within

the selected communities. Secondary data was also sourced from books,

relevant articles, journals and magazines as well as relevant publications and

researches conducted on the subject matter by individuals and institutions.

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3.6 Sampling Technique

The study employed non probability sampling technique, hence it

deployed both purposive, random and snowball sampling techniques which

enabled the researcher locate the target as accessible as possible. These were

used to select ten (10) respondents each from ten (10) selected communities.

Therefore, a sample size of one hundred (100) respondents specifically loggers,

hunters, miners and farmers from the four political districts were interviewed.

The sample was selected to suit the purpose of the study. A reconnaissance

survey was first undertaken in some fringe communities of the study area that

helped to identify the problems and developed research strategies which aided

in the administering of the instrument used for primary data acquisition and

also embarked upon personal interactions with the major stakeholders from the

Forest Services Division of the Forestry Commission in the District and other

opinion leaders within the selected communities.

3.7 Data analysis

The research was analysed by deploying themes base on the responses

from the various target population, stakeholders as well as field observation.

Both statistical package for social scientist (SPSS version 22) and Microsoft

Excel were used in analysing the data to yield detailing comprehensive results

with the provision of tables and charts for the discussion.

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Age Distribution of Respondents

One hundred (100) questionnaires were administered to ten (10)

communities with ten respondents from each selected community. The

questionnaires were aimed at gaining relevant information from loggers,

farmers, miners and hunters and key persons who have stayed in various

selected communities for years in other to help determine the variation in

condition regarding the effect of illegal activities on timber production in

Southern Scarp Forest Reserve over time. Findings from the study shows that

4% of the respondents were within the age category of 65 years and above,

13% fell within the age category of 55 – 65 years, 26% fell within the 45 – 54

years age category, 26% also were within the 35 – 44 category, 22% fell within

the age category of 25 -34 whiles 9% of the respondents were within the age

category of 18 – 24. This indicates that middle age men and women outnumber

the youth and the aged and therefore engage themselves in all forms of illegal

activities. The survey results of age respondents are shown below in Table 1.

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Table 1:Age Distribution

Age of Respondents (Years) Number Percent

18-24 9 9.00

25-34 22 22.00

35-44 26 26.00

45-54 26 26.00

55-65 13 13.00

65+ 4 4.00

Total 100 100.00

Source: Field Survey (2020)

4.2 Sex, Educational Background and Other Occupations of The

Respondents

The survey revealed that, out of the 100 respondents interviewed, 75%

of the respondents were males while 25% of them were females. However,

people in the study area do not only depend on the income from farming for

their livelihood, they are also being involved in alternative occupations that can

help supplement the meagre income. Some occupations community members

are involved in includes; tailoring, driving, carpentry, trading, mining, and

farming activities. Therefore, information gathered was one way or the other

from people who have been involved in at least one of the illegal activities

degrading the forest and the environment at large.

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80% 75%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30% 25%
20%
10%
0%
Males Females

Figure 2:Sex Characteristics of Respondents

Source: Field Survey (2020)

4.3 Education of the Respondents

The result from the data collected indicates variations in the educational

statuses of respondents. Majority of the respondents have had at least some

form of formal education, either in basic, secondary or tertiary education. 17%

of the respondents had no formal education, 16% of the respondents had

education up to the primary level, 40% had education up to the junior high

school level and 15% of respondents had senior high school level education

with 8% of the respondents having tertiary education while 4% of the

respondents also had other forms of education. From these figures it can be

deduced that most of the respondents have had some level of formal education

with only few who had no formal education.

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A CHART SHOWING THE EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF

RESPONDENTS
45

40

35

30
PERCENTAGE

25

20 40

15

10
17 16 15
5
8
4
0
None Primary JHS SHS Tertiary Other
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL

Source: Field Survey (2020)

Figure 3:Bar Chart Showing the Educational Status of Respondents

4.4 Years of Residency

Data obtained from the survey indicated that, 50% of respondents

questioned have lived in the community for over 20 years; also 20% have

resided in the community for 10-14years; 11% have lived 15-19years; 10%

have lived 5-9 years and 9% have lived 1-4 years in the community. This

implied that most of the respondents have been residing in the area for quite a

long time and as a result they depend on the forest resources to meet their

various needs.

4.5 Other Occupations of the Respondent

Communities situated around the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve indulge

in farming activities. About 59% of respondents questioned were farmers. This

is a clear indication that most communities in forest areas depend on the forest

as a means of generating income to support the family needs. However, people

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in the study area do not only depend on the income from farming for their

livelihood, they are also being involved in alternative occupations that can help

supplement the meagre income. Other occupations involved include teaching,

driving, trading, carpentry and tailoring. Furthermore, 20% of persons

questioned are unemployed.

4.6 Benefits Derived from the Forest Reserve

Timber was stated by respondents as the major benefits that are

obtained from the forest reserve. Timber serves as an important resource in the

forest. 30% of respondents questioned mentioned timber as the most important

resource in the forest that benefits the community and the country as a whole.

The community benefits from some forest when contractors harvesting timber

in the concession pay an amount as Social Responsibility Agreement, thus, 5%

of the estimated stumpage amount to the community. Such amount can be used

for developmental projects in the community. Non-Timber Forest Products

(NTFPs) are very important to the people that live around forest reserves.

Community depend on the resources (NTFPs) such as charcoal, mushrooms

and snails to fend for their families. The chart below shows the benefits the

community derive from the forest as well as the country at large.

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CHART SHOWING SOME BENEFITS DERIVED FROM

THE SOUTHERN SCARP FOREST RESERVE
35 30
30
25 22
20
14
15 10 11
10 8
4
5 1
0

Benefits

Source: Field Survey (2020)

Figure 4:Figure 4: Some Benefits Derived from the Southern Scarp Forest
Reserve
4.7 Illegal Activities posing threat to the Reserve

The study revealed most of the illegal activities that are posing threat to

the Forest Reserve. The table below provides view of the menace affecting the

reserve according to respondents;

Table 2: Illegal Activities Posing Threat to The Reserve

Activities Frequency Percentage

Illegal farming & Mining 7 7.00

Illegal farming, mining & hunting 7 7.00

Illegal farming, hunting & logging 34 34.00

Illegal mining, hunting & logging 5 5.00

All the above 47 47.00

Total 100 100

Source: Field Survey (2020)

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Illegal activities pose a series of threat to the environment. Illegal

activities such as mining activities not only affect the soil but also pollute

streams in the forest. Miners often use chemicals to mine in the reserve. Such

chemicals get washed into the water bodies and make it very intoxicated with

heavy metals that are very harmful to human and aquatic life. Farmers around

forest have cleared and burned several portions of the forest reserves to pave

way for farming activities. Not only is the land burned, fauna that have their

habitat in the forest reserves get swept away by fire. Some farmers do not

concern themselves with the timber species that have been planted, but are only

interested in their crops that they clear the land for. Other respondents also

mentioned hunting as another factor posing threat to the reserve. This occurs

whereby farmers set fires into certain portions of the reserve in bid to catch

‘’game’’. Most of the illegal activities is mostly caused by the community

members themselves. Due to less education on the conservation of the reserve,

mismanagement of it has become the norm to indigenes of such forest fringe

communities

Many respondents had the opinion that, there has been a massive

decline in the state of the reserve comparing it to some years back. About 86%

of respondents also said that, comparing then to now, there has been a decline

in the diversity and composition of the forest reserve. Others attributed the

decline in species diversity to anthropogenic activities such as bush burning,

hunting, farming and other illegal activities. Some also stated that some species

has been over-exploited and has led to the decline in such timber species. 5%

of respondents also stated that they feel the forest has got better over the years.

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The Table below shows the opinion of respondents concerning the state of the

reserve;

Table 3:Current State of SSCP Forest Reserve

Unit Frequency Percentage

No Idea 5 5.00

Getting Worse 86 86.00

Staying the Same 4 4.00

Getting Better 5 5.00

Total 100 100.00

Source: Field Survey (2020)

4.8 Illegal Activities Communities Involve Themselves In

Members residing around the reserve one way or the other are involved

in an illegal activity that rapidly leads to the decline in the resources in the

reserve. One way or the other, community members have been involved in at

least one or more offence pertaining to illegal activities. 54% of respondents

have been involved in illegal farming in the forest reserve. Most inhabitants of

forest fringe communities depend on their immediate surroundings for their

needs. 12% of respondents also have been involved in hunting activities in the

forest. 11% have also been involved in illegal logging of timber species in the

reserve. The table below shows the illegal activities on-going in the reserve.

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Table 4:Illegal Activities Communities Involve In

Activity Frequency Percentage

Illegal Farming 54 54.00

Illegal Mining 9 9.00

Illegal Logging 11 11.00

Illegal Hunting 12 12.00

Illegal Sawing 6 6.00

None 8 8.00

Total 100 100.00

Source: Field Survey (2020)

4.9 Factors That Causes Illegal Activities in The Reserve

From the survey, 68% of respondents attributed the causes of illegal

activities in the reserve to high unemployment rate in the country. Most of the

inhabitant within the study area are unemployed and do not have fixed means

of income unlike as if they had been employed. This makes them heavily dwell

on the resources in the reserve. 15% also attributed the cause of the illegal

activities to negligence. Communities in such areas need to be educated on the

importance of the forest to the ecosystem and how its conservation will go a

long way to help the community and the country as a whole. 13% of

respondents also said that, the illegal activities that go on in the reserve can be

as a result of the blockage of the boundary lines in the reserve. A clear

boundary makes it easy to patrol compared to the bushy boundary.

Furthermore, 3% of respondents also attribute the cause of illegal

activities to the low motivation to resource guards. Others also said that, forest

guards sometimes fuel the illegal activities in the reserve by extorting an

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amount of money from operators in other to serve as inside-men for such

operators. It is believed that if forest guards had been well equipped and

motivated, such irresponsible activities on their side could be mitigated. The

table below indicates factors that cause illegal activities in the reserve stated by

respondents.

Table 5:Causes of Illegal Activities in The Reserve

Factor Frequency Percentage

Negligence 15 15.00

High Unemployment Rate 68 68.00

Low Motivation to Resource 4 4.00

Guards

Blockage of Boundary Lines 13 13.00

Total 100 100.00

Source: Field Survey (2020)

4.10 Lack of Community Support

Another important contribution towards illegal activities in the forest

reserves is the lack of support from community. The combating of illegal

activities can be effective with the involvement of the community but the

situation is on the other way round where the local communities provide

information to the illegal operations as other studies have indicated (Nketiah et

al., 2003; Afful 2006). Members of the community act as informants to illegal

operators and give them information as to where to seek refuge when they are

being pursued by responsible bodies. To add to this, system where the local

community cannot cultivate the culture of sustaining forest resources and its

management and the high level of illiteracy are some of the problems

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hampering the enforcement of the forest resource management programmes.

Over the year the lack of local community participation in forest protection and

management, has led to the massive depletion of the forest and its resources.

4.11 Factors That Drive People into Illegal Activities in the Reserve

People residing in areas of vast resources seek to exploit the resources,

and this area if no exception. Residents exploit from the reserve illegally. The

chart below shows some factors according to respondents drive them into such

activities. Several factors drive people into certain things. 25% of respondents

mentioned poverty as one important factor that drives them into illegal

activities. Some members often go to the forest to try and make a living from

the resources they harvest since they have no other means of fending for their

families. 4% also recognised the fact that, population increase is a driver for

illegal activities in the reserve. Population increase means more mouth to feed

in the family. This therefore compels them to go to the reserve to clear land for

farming activities to supplement the meagre money they have.

Table 6:Factors that Drive People into Illegal Activities in the Reserve

Factor No. Percentage

Poverty 25 25.00

Population Increase 4 4.00

35.00
Limited Farmlands 35

Table: 6 cont’d

Unemployment 31 31.00

None 5 5.00
Source: Field Survey (2020)

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4.12 Actions Taken to Combat these Illegal Activities

Actions believed that when taken into consideration will help curb the

menace of illegal activities in the reserve includes the following arranged in

order of effectiveness below:

• Conservation Education to Fringe Communities

Education on the importance of forest and the ecosystem ought to be

communicated to the people in fringe areas in other to help them know the

essence of the forest. Some exploit the forest without thinking about the

aspirations of future generations. Informing them about the benefits, forest

contributes to the environment will go a long way to educate them

• Stopping the Expansion of Farms towards Forest Reserves

Farmers in such areas are used to practicing fallow cropping. After exploiting

the land, they farm on, they live it in search of a new land to grow crops on.

However, they then tend to seek for such lands in the forest reserves where the

land is very fertile and good for farming. Farmers who involve themselves in

such activities should be stopped from expanding of their farms towards the

forest reserves to prevent depletion and degradation of the reserve.

• Motivation for Forest Resource Guards

Forest Guards are the watchmen of the forest and ought to be well equipped to

protect the forest. Protecting the forest requires equipment (Protective

materials) and material that will aid them. They ought to be well motivated in

other to be able to work to their full potential

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• Enacting Strict laws and regulations concerning logging

Strict laws and regulations should be enacted. Penalties and fines can be

implemented to check logging and illegal activities in the reserve. Heavy fines

should also be implemented to serve as a deterrent to people.

4.13 Illegalities in the Reserve

Communities residing in areas of forest reserves tend to exploit the

resources in them. Such is the case in the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve. In

Ghana, increasing evidence indicates that, the rate of environmental

degradation has increased in recent times (Gyasi et al., 1995), with previously

well-endowed forest being degraded. The decline in forest resources can be

attributed to anthropogenic activities.

Such activities that cause the reduction in the resources in the forest reserve

include:

• Farming

• Illegal Logging

• Mining

• Hunting Activities and Wildfires

Most of these activities occur owing to the fact that the indigene in areas of

forest reserves depend on their immediate surrounding vegetation to

supplement their basic needs.

4.14 Farming Activities

Fifty-four (54%) of respondents interviewed attributed the decline in

the forest resources to farming activities. Many inhabitants indulge in farming

activities to ease the pressure that comes with having to fend for the family.

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Agriculture is considered as the main contributor to the economy of Ghana.

About 60% of the economically active population is involved in different

agricultural activities, with forests and land as the main production input (Teye,

2005; Benhin & Barbier, 2004; Palo & Yirdaw, 1996). Despite the great

benefits of farming to the community and economy at large, many people

practice unsustainable agriculture in the reserves. People clear the forest and

burn the vegetation to grow crops for a short period and subsequently clear

other areas when they render the soil infertile. The persistent migration by

settlers to the southern parts of the country has been found to contribute to the

high rates of forest degradation (ITTO, 2006)

This conforms to what (Riswan & Hatanti, 1995) said, that the

traditional practice of shifting cultivation was itself not destructive to the forest

ecosystem, however the challenge is the continued clearing of large tracts of

forest areas (Benhin & Barbier, 2004). Shifting cultivation is considered as the

main cause of deforestation, accounting for more forest loss than the combined

effects of all the other direct factors (Sandler, 1993; Myers, 1992). Forest

Reserves have been destroyed by farming which has been blamed for the loss

of several hectares of forest. The major factor impelling the increased farming

activities was population pressure and unemployment.

4.15 Illegal Logging

One important cause of degradation of the forest is logging. Illegal

logging constitutes a serious problem in Ghana. 11% of respondents

mentioned mining as one of the factors that cause the deterioration of the

forest. However, respondents also mentioned the unsustainable way of logging

and extraction of timber by contractors. Some also raised very important causes

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of forest damage through excessive logging which makes the forest susceptible

to fire by causing loading residues which are highly combustible. There is

shared support for this view by many researchers, (Palo & Yirdaw, 1996;

Hawthorne & Abu-Juam, 1993) in particular, who said logging has been very

intense especially in the semi-deciduous zones and has not only led to changes

in the composition but also degradation of the forests. Others also stated that,

inaccessible roads have been opened up to illegal chainsaw operators as roads

have been constructed during logging operations. Logging in Ghana has

generally been seen as very wasteful. Residuals from logging serve a great fuel

for forest fires. Inefficient logging activities have affected the forest reserve.

Data obtained from Forest Service Division also indicated that, timber

companies given concession in forest reserves deliberately fell outside the

approved yield.

4.16 Wildfires and Hunting Activities

Data revealed that, 12% point out wildfires and hunting as a cause of

reserve degradation. Wildfires play such an important role in natural cycle

which influence the development and structure of forest ecosystems (Attiwell,

1994). Most forest fires is however caused by anthropogenic activities The

residents said people burn the forest reserves in bid to clear the place for

farming activities thereby burning down some saplings and vegetation. Some

also set fire in the reserves to hunt for bush meat. These practices affect

ecosystem balance in the reserve. Fire causes a lot of damage in the country.

The damage cause by wildfires has been estimated at US$24 million every year

(ITTO, 2006). Some also attributed the causes of wildfires to the irresponsible

behaviour of some persons in the community. Some intentionally set fire into

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the reserve to clear the place to set up their farms. They believe it is easier to

clear the land with fires to using a cutlass and doing it manually.

However, this practice kills the soil by evaporating minerals that help

plant life. Though recent figures from the Wildlife Management Project

suggest a reduction in the frequency of fires, the spread and intensity are still

causing serious effects on the forests. Hunting activities are no different from

wildfires as it also impacts on the forest negatively. Some farmers sort to the

use of fires to trap some animals in the reserve. E.g. Rat. They set fire in the

habitat of such animal in bid to harvest it for a meal. Such fires cause worse

than good to the forest. Not only is the rat harvested, but also some important

ecosystem engineers (microorganism) affected by such activities. One way or

the other, hunting and wildfires are intertwined.

4.17 Mining

Even though mining plays a pivotal role in the country, the negatives

that it contributes to society ought to be mitigated. Mining activities in the

reserve has led to the destruction of water bodies in the reserve. Some water

bodies affected by mining includes, Bosu, Aprapon. Etc. Chemicals used for

mining activities gets washed into the water bodies thereby harming the aquatic

life and making the water not safe for drinking. Despite the fact that mining

contributes a lot of revenue to the country, the negatives it causes cannot be

overlooked. Miners often degrade the land. Such lands after use become very

infertile and become susceptible to erosion.

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4.18 NTFPs

Harvesting of NTFPs is very common in such forest fringe

communities. Firewood collection is very common in such areas as farmers

depend on offcuts as fuel for domestic use. The use of firewood keeps

increasing due to over-population in such areas. NTFPs such as snails,

mushrooms amongst others also get harvested in the forest reserves as well.

Some of the products generated from the forest is not only used for domestic

use only, but sometimes sold to make some money from them. They see

firewood as a cheaper option to the Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). However,

some over-exploit the NTFPs in the reserves. They go to extreme length just to

harvest such resources. Some species of snails and mushrooms have become

difficult to find due to excessive exploitation of them in the reserves.

4.19 Impacts of Various Illegalities on Timber Production within

the Reserve

Timber makes a significant contribution to the economy. As stated by

Marfo (2010), timber is the fourth largest contributor to Ghana’s foreign

exchange aside minerals, cocoa and tourism. However, its unsustainable

exploitation has led to the distraction of the forest reserves. Respondents also

stated that, the distraction of timber in the reserve has led to the pollution of

streams in the reserve and has made it quite difficult to use for domestic

activities. Others also believe that such illegal activities have led to the decline

in None Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) such as mushrooms, snails in the

forest reserves. Forest reserves hoards a vast of flora and fauna and any illegal

activities that goes on affect the balance of the ecosystem. Farmers that seek to

clear portions of the forest for farming activities using fire affect the land.

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Certain nutrients in the soil get evaporated into the atmosphere and also makes

the soil loose. Although forest reserves hoards lots of resources, it

unsustainable exploitation might lead to the extinction and rarity of some flora

and fauna species in the reserve. Sixty-five (65%) of respondents stated that,

they believe the illegal activities on-going in the reserve has a very impact on

the forest resources. Measures ought to be put in place to check the illegal

activities going on in the reserve.

4.20 Rare Species

Majority questioned stated that there has been a decline in the

availability over the years of timber species in the reserve. Respondents

mentioned some timber species that have become quite rare in the Southern

Scarp Forest Reserve due to the on-going illegal activities. The table below are

some species according to respondents has become very rare in the Southern

Scarp Forest Reserve.

Table 7: Rare Species in the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve

Local Name Scientific Name

Okoro Albizia zygia

Sinuro Alstonia boonei

Odum Milicia excels

Kusibiri Diospqros sanza-minika

Watapuo Cola gigantean

Asanfena Aningeria spp

Kokrodua Pericopsis elata

Papao Afezelia Africana

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Table 7 Continued

Local Name Scientific Name

Sapele Entandrophragmacylindricum

Wawa Triplochiton scleroxylon

Wama Ricinodendron heudelotii

Oprono Mansonia altissima

Hyedua Daniellia ogea

Avodire Turraeanthus africanus

Ofram Terminalia superba

Kaku Scientific Name

Bako Lophira alata

Dahoma Tieghemella heckelii

Akasaa Piptadeniastrum africanum

Koto Chrisophyllum albidum

Afina

Otie Pterygota marcrocarpa

Strombosia pustulata

Esa Pycnanthus angolensis

Kwabohoro Celtis mildbreadii

Danta Guarea cedrata

Aprokuma Nesogodonia papaverifera

Kusia Antrocaryon micraster

Yaya Nauclea diderrichii

Akye Amphimas pterocarpoides

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Table 7 Continued

Local Name Scientific Name

Prepresa Blighia sapida

Penkwa Celtis philippensis

Funtum Entandrophragma cylindricum

Chenchen

Hyedua

Kyereye Funtumia elastic

Subaha Antiaris Africana

Daniella ogea

Wama Pterigota macrocarpa

Mitragyna stipulosa

Ricinodendron heudelotii

Source: Field Survey (2020)

4.21 The Way Forward

• Forestry Commission

Respondents indicated the need to strengthen forest regulations. They

emphasized on the need for community sensitization on the relevance of

protecting the nation’s forest reserves; similarly, others also believe that

governments should have a strong political will and also provide incentives to

the workforce if effective policy implementation is to be achieved. It was

evidently clear from the study that; most forestry field supervisors were not on

top of their jobs. Consequently, respondents were of the view that there should

be capacity building for staff so as to upgrade them to meet the challenges the

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job brings. They further intimated the essence of involving fringe communities

in forest protection whiles others also suggested the provision of logistics to

help ensure effective forest protection and management.

• The District Assemblies

The District Assemblies (DAs) in Ghana are statutory institutions

which was enactment of the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, under

Decentralization and Local 30 Government in section 240 of the Constitution

that seeks to decentralize local governance administration to the local

communities for development under the Local Government Act 462 of 1993.

The act empowers the district assemblies to exercise political and

administrative authority in the district, to provide guidance, give directive and

supervise all administrative authorities in the districts. The district assemblies

through their power can enact by-laws which lead to combating the operations

of the chainsaw operations. The assembly could involve Area Councils and

Unit Committees to strictly monitor the activities of the chainsaw operators and

apply appropriate sanctions to defaulting operators to discourage prospective

offenders.

4.22 Some Strategic Decisions for the Effective Management of The Forest

Reserve

Forest Reserves serves humanity in so many ways. Not only to we

obtain timber and NTFPs from the forest, the ability for trees to absorb carbon

dioxide from the atmosphere is a great. Trees in the forest also serve as a

habitat for fauna in the forest. So, harvesting and destruction of the reserves not

only affect the land but also the fauna that depend on the forest for survival.

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The forest is very important and provides numerous benefits. Therefore, its

protection is very paramount to the environment and ecosystem as well.

Everyone one interviewed mentioned a strategic method that will help in the

effective management of the forest reserve. The following are strategies that

respondents emphasized on;

• Educating fringe communities on the importance of the forest to the

environment, the effect illegal activities has on the forest reserve and

making them know the importance of sustainability.

• Frequent patrols on the boundaries of the reserves by Forest Guards and

stakeholders that are responsible for that.

• Forming of Community Volunteer Groups to help with monitoring

duties in forest fringe communities.

• Forming Fire Volunteer Groups within the community will help in

checking the outbreak of bush fires in the reserve.

• Illegal operators when apprehended must not only be punished

(penalty), but also made to plant-up the area of destruction.

• Motivation for Forest Guards and provision of necessary equipment

that will aid their work.

• Educate and advise timber contractors to operate sustainably and to

practice sustainable logging in the reserve to help minimize the effect

of their activities.

• Clearing of boundary lines in the reserve to make patrolling duties very

easy and boundary accessible

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

Illegal activities in the Southern Scarp Forest Reserve have led to a

decline in the quality and quantity of flora and fauna alike in the reserve.

Respondents believe that, illegalities on timber production in the reserve have

led to the destruction of water bodies and degradation of lands. Some also

stated that, there has been a decline in fauna and NTFPs e.g. (snail) in the

reserve due to illegalities in the reserve as well. As a means of ensuring

effective ways of managing the forest reserve, many stated that, forest guards

should be well equipped and motivated to work to their full ability. Also,

frequent monitoring and patrols by responsible stakeholders should be done.

5.2 Conclusion

The study identified the various illegal activities in the Southern Scarp

Forest Reserve that are contributing to the rampant decline of timber

production. Most of these factors leading to the destruction is anthropogenic

activities. 54% of respondents named farming as the major illegal activity

leading to the decline in timber production in the reserve, while wildfires and

hunting activities 12% the cause of the decline according to respondents.

Also, Illegal logging was named by 11% of respondents, also 9% and 6%

named mining activities and illegal chain sawing respectively as factors

leading to decline in timber production in the reserve. Respondents believe

that, illegalities on timber production in the reserve have led to the destruction

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of water bodies and degradation of lands. Some also stated that, there has been

a decline in fauna and NTFPs e.g. (snail) in the reserve due to illegalities in

the reserve as well. And this destroys the balance in the ecosystem.

Furthermore, some also emphasized that, some timber species have become

rare as a result of such destructions in the reserves.

As a means of ensuring effective ways of managing the forest reserve,

many stated that, forest guards should be well equipped and motivated to work

to their full ability. Also, frequent monitoring and patrols by responsible

stakeholders should be done. Moreover, communities in forest fringe areas

should be educated on the importance of forest and effect of illegalities and

areas affected by such illegalities should be planted up by offenders when

apprehended. Some also stated that, timber contractor who work in timber

concessions should also be advised to employ sustainable logging to reduce the

impact logging has on the forest.

5.3 Recommendations

In view of the findings made in the study, the following

recommendations are drawn for successful mitigation of illegal activities in

the reserve;

1. Regular seminars should be organized to educate the fringe

communities on wildfires, and the importance of forest to the

environment.

2. Forest guards should be motivated and well equipped with relevant

materials that will enhance their work in order to improve their ability

to monitor and safeguard the reserve.

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3. Studies should be carried out to find the impacts of illegal activities on

fauna in the forest reserve to provide enough data for further research.

4. There should be regular and frequent monitoring by field supervisors in

charge to serve as a check measure to putting the forest guards on their

toes to yield maximum productivity.

5. Volunteer Task Team (VTT) in forest fringe areas should be formed to

act as monitors in their communities to report and check on incidences

of fire and also illegal activities.

6. Apart from penalties being implemented when caught, offenders should

be made to plant up the area of destruction in bid to help reforest the

area that has been affected.

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APPENDIX

The questionnaire is a research instrument for my master’s degree thesis on “an

assessment of effects of illegal activities on timber production in Southern

Scarp Forest Reserve”, and it is mainly for academic purpose. All information

collected will be solely for the purpose for which it is intended

PART A: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

1. Name of respondents………………………………………………..…..

2. Age of respondents

a) 18-24years b) 25-34years c) 35-44years d) 45-54years e) 55-

64years f) 65years and above

3. Gender:

a) Male b) Female

4. Educational Status:

a) None b) Primary c) JHS d) SHS e) Tertiary f) Other

5. Marital Status:

a) Single b) Married c) Divorced ::

6. Occupation:

a) Teacher b) Seamstress c) Farmer d) Unemployed e) Tailor f)

Carpenter h) Driver i) Trader g) Other

PART B: Dwellers know how on Forest Illegalities

7. For how long have you lived in the community?

a) 1-4yeras b) 5-9years c) 10-14years d) 15-19years e) 20years and

above

8. What are some benefits we derive from the forest as a community and a

country as a whole?

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a) Timber b) Water and air purification c) Maintenance of wildlife

habitat d) Fuel wood e) None-Timber Forest Products

9. What is the current state of the reserve?

a) Getting better b) Staying the same c) Getting worse d) Don’t

Know

10. What are some of the illegal activities in your view posing threat to the

reserve?

i) Illegal farming ii) Illegal mining iii) Illegal hunting iv) Illegal

logging

a) i & ii b) i, ii & iii c) i, iii & iv d) ii, iii & iv e) All the above

11. Which of the illegal activity have you been involved before?

a) Illegal farming b) Illegal mining c) Illegal logging d) Illegal

hunting e) Illegal sawing

12. What are your reasons for getting involved in those illegalities?

a) Poverty b) Population increase c) Limited farmland d)

Unemployment

13. How often are these illegalities in the reserve?

a) Fairly often b) Very often c) Most high often d) Fiercely often

14. What do you think has accounted for that?

a) Negligence b) High unemployment rate c) Low motivation to

resource guards d) Blockage of boundary lines

15. What are your general concern/view on the various

activities?...................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................

PART C: Effect of the illegalities on the Reserve and the Economy

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16. How has the said impacted on the forest?

a) Severely b) Fairly c) No effect d) No idea

17. What are some of the economic species that were initially found in the

reserve?......................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................

18. In the absence of these economic species, how has it affected the people

around the reserve and the country at large?

................................................................................................................

PART D: Strategies to halt Forest Illegal Activities

19. What actions have been taken to combat these illegal activities?

a) Forest guards have been resourced and motivated

b) Ban on logging for timber

c) Ban on Charcoal burning

d) Conservation education to forest fringe communities

e) Stopped the expansion of farms towards forests

20. What do you suggest should be done to protect the

reserve?......................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................

21. What alternative land use can the reserve be put to realise its full

objectives and/or

importance?...............................................................................................

...................................................................................................................

22. How can you in your own way help in the conservation of the forest

reserve?......................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................

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23. What strategy would you recommend to be included in the management

of the reserve to protect economic

species?....................................................................................................

24. Why is it important to conserve the forest?...............................................

Interview Guide for key Informant and other Stakeholders

1. How long have you lived here?

2. How was the state of the forest decades ago?

3. In your view, what do you think is affecting the state of the reserve?

4. What do you think has accounted for the current happenings in the

reserve, can you name some?

5. Comparing the reserve’s status today to about 10 years ago, what can

you say?

6. In your own view, what do you think has accounted for this?

7. Have these factors in any ways affected the reserve and the country?

How?

8. How have you been managing the forest reserve, and why?

9. What do you suggest should be done differently to protect the reserve?

10. Have you been encountering some challenges in your field of work?

11. What challenges do you encounter in the field of work pertaining to the

conservation of the reserve?

12. Any recommendations or suggestions on the conservation of the

reserve?

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