Mycoremediation: a potential tool for

sustainable management

SAYAN DEB DUTTA AND MD SALMAN HYDER

J. Mycopathol, Res, 57(1) : 25-34, 2019;

ISSN 0971-3719
© Indian Mycological Society,
Department of Botany,
University of Calcutta,
Kolkata 700 019, India

This article is protected by copyright and all other rights

under the jurisdiction of the Indian Mycological Society.
The copy is provided to the author(s) for internal non-
commercial research and educational purposes.
J. Mycopathol. Res. 57(1) : 25-34, 2019; (ISSN 0971-3719)
© Indian Mycological Society, Department of Botany,
University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700 019, India

Mycoremediation: a potential tool for sustainable management

SAYAN DEB DUTTA* AND MD. SALMAN HYDER

Mycology and Plant Pathology Research Laboratory, Department of Botany,
University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal

Received : 06.03.2019 Accepted : 11.03.2019 Published : 29.04.2019

One of the major environmental problems faced today is the contamination of soil, water, and air by toxic
chemicals. The distinct and unique role of microorganisms in the detoxification of polluted soil and
environments is well recognized. Mycoremediation systems basically depend upon microorganisms
(fungi) native to the contaminated sites. Fungi belonging to basidiomycetes are also known as
mycoremediators because of their use in remediation of different types of pollutants. Mycoremediation
relies on the efficient enzymes, produced by the fungus, for the degradation of various types of substrate
and pollutants. However, sometimes they absorb the pollutant in their mycelium (biosorption) and
cannot be consumed due to absorbed toxicants. Important fungi include Pleurotus ostreatus, Rhizopus
arrhiz us , Phaneroc haete chry sos porium, Tramates hirsute, T. vers ic olor, Lentinus edodes,
Cladosporium resinae, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. terreus and Trichoderma longibrachiatum. In-situ
mycoremediation treats the contaminated soil in the location in which it was found, whereas, ex-situ
processes require excavation of contaminated soil before they can be treated. However, despite being
the living dominating biomass in the soil, fungi have not yet been significantly exploited for mycoremediation
of such polluted environments. More extensive research needs to be carried out on the use of fungi in
mycoremediation.

Key words: detoxification, mycoremediation, biosorption, excavation

INTRODUCTION harmless gases, such as carbon dioxide etc. Plants

can also be used to clean up soil, water or air; this
Soil pollution has significant deleterious is called phytoremediation. It is also reported that
consequences for the ecosystem. In the past few naturally occurring microbial consortia (bacteria/
years, the soil is getting more and more polluted. fungi) have been utilized in a variety of
Remediation of these polluted soils is a challenging bioremediation processes .
job. Bioremediation is a treatment process that
uses naturally occurring microorganisms to break Bioremediation is an attractive technology that
down, or degrade, hazardous substances into less utilizes the metabolic potential of microorganisms
toxic or nontoxic substances. The microbes used in order to clean up the environmental pollutants
to perform the function of bioremediation are to the less hazardous or non-hazardous forms with
known as bioremediators. To “bioremediate”, less input of chemicals, energy and time. During
means to use living things to solve an the last two decades, many mycologists have tried
environmental problem such as contaminated soil the use of various fungal species in the degradation
or groundwater. The introduction of exogenous of organic compounds. The discovery of the white
microorganisms into environments – rot fungi (Phanerochaete chrysosporium) in
bioaugmentation, has been used as an attempt to bioremediation has brought greater success and
accelerate bioremediation Some microorganisms thus initiated the research throughout the world
that live in soil and groundwater naturally degrade on mycoremediation, establishing the fact that
certain chemicals that are harmful to people and fungi can be successfully used in bioremediation.
the environment. These microorganisms are also
able to change these chemicals into water and The term mycoremediation can be broken down
as myco (fungus) and remediation (to clean,
resolve, or correct), and indeed, mycoremediation
*Corresponding author : sayan91dutta@gmail.com
is the use of fungi, specifically mushrooms, for
26 On mycoremediation [ J. Mycopathol. Res. :

creating simple yet effective biomass capable of These are able to oxidize recalcitrant pollutants in
breaking down environmental and industrial vitro. These enzymes are typically induced by their
pollutants. The mycelium is a sort of self-healing substrates. These enzymes have also been found
filter that targets specific organic compounds and to degrade non-polymeric, recalcitrant pollutants
pollutants. Research has proven the efficacy of such as nitrotoluenes PAHs organic and synthetic
using fungi to degrade contamination such as dyes, and pentachlorophenol under in vitro
PCBs, aromatic hydrocarbons, and oil spills. conditions . Recently, it is reported that mushroom
Biological pollutants, especially E. coli, have been species are able to degrade polymers such as
of special interest in recent years, and a wealth of plastics . The biodegradation mechanism is very
data now supports the benefits of mycoremediation complex. The reason is the influence of other
in reducing or eliminating such pathogenic biochemical systems and interactions of lignolytic
organisms. So, mycoremediation is described as enzymes with cytochrome P450 monooxygenase
a form of bioremediation in which more system(Cerniglia and Sutherland, 2010; Kasai, N.
contaminated sites are converted into less et al. 2010 ; Subramanian and Yadav 2009),
contaminated sites by the use of fungi. Mycelium hydroxyl radicals and the level of H?O? which are
stimulates microbial and enzyme activity and thus produced by the mushroom.
reduces in-situ production of toxins (Adenipekun
and Lawal, 2012). The potential applications for ROLE OF FUNGI IN MYCOREMEDIATION
mycoremediation technologies have been reported
from time to time. Fungi have been shown to Fungi have been harnessed in many diverse
accumulate toxic metals and even rare earth applications for thousands of years ago. In an
elements. Fungi are great biodegraded and the ecosystem, they are among the major
resultant compost has been used to enhance the decomposers of various complex polymers as -
growth of plants as well as bioremediation activity cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin etc. Fungi
in the environment. Mycelia of fungi are unique have the ability to store, release various elements
among microorganism having the ability to and ions and they can even accumulate toxic
enhance plant growth. They secrete a variety of elements An edible and medicinal fungus also
extracellular enzymes involved in pollutants plays an important role as natural environment
degradation. Some fungi are hyper-accumulators remediator . The goal of mycoremediation is to
and are capable of absorbing and concentrating stimulate microorganisms with nutrients and other
heavy metals in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms chemicals that will enable them to destroy the
(Adenipekun and Lawal, 2012). contaminants. Mycoremediation is an innovative
biotechnological application that uses living fungus
Mycoremediation practices involve mixing of for in situ and ex-situ cleanup and management
mycelium (the vegetative part of a fungus) into of contaminated sites (Thomas et al. 2009).
contaminated soil; placing mycelial mats over toxic
sites; or and even the combination of these two Mycoremediation is not widely used at present,
techniques. Mycoremediation has been applied to but the above applications suggest its broader
oil spills, contaminated and polluted soil, industrial potential. Fungi perform a wide variety of functions
chemicals, contaminated water and even farm in the ecosystem and maybe a clean, simple and
waste . They reported that bioremediation relatively inexpensive method of environmental
technology leads to the degradation of pollutants remediation, especially if species native to each
and maybe a lucrative and environmentally site is used. Mycoremediation is a form of
beneficial alternative. Many reports have published bioremediation that uses native fungi and fungal
to emphasize the role of mushroom in mycelium applied to surface soils to remove and
bioremediation of wastes by the process of degrade contaminants (Thomas et al. 2009).
biodegradation, biosorption, and bioconversion.
The mushroom can produce extracellular MYCOREMEDIATION AND XENOBIOTICS
peroxidases, ligninase (lignin peroxidase,
manganese-dependent peroxidase, and laccase), Contamination of soil and water by toxic pollutants
cellulases, pectinases, xylanases and oxidases is a worldwide problem. These contaminants
(Kulshrestha et al. 2014; Majeau et al. 2010 ; include Petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic
Ruiz-Duenas et al. 2008 ; Hofrichter et al. 2010). aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), halogenated
: 57(1) April, 2019] Sayan Deb Dutta and Md. Salman Hyder 27

organic compounds, dyes, nitrogen-containing these recalcitrant to biodegrading. Halogen

xenobiotics, pesticides and inorganic pollutants substituents can increase the hydrophobicity of the
(heavy metals). These chemicals are called compounds, increasing their tendency to
xenobiotics [G. xenos = foreigner, stranger; bios bioaccumulate in food chains as well as to sorb to
= life] since these compounds differ substantially the soil. Finally, the halogen substituents can
in chemical structure from natural organic contribute to harmful biological effects of the
compounds and these are relatively recalcitrant compounds, increasing their toxicity, mutagenicity
to biodegradation. Certain substituents such as and other detrimental capacities. Some xenobiotic
halogen, sulfo-, azo- or nitro-groups, particularly halogenated organic compounds are
the accumulation of such groups and specific pentachlorophenol (PCP), trichloroethene (TCE),
substitution patterns, confer xenobiotic character 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-D),
to a synthetic compound. Moreover, the electron- polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), dioxins (Table 1).
withdrawing character of these substituents
generates an electron deficiency and thus makes Dyes
the compounds less susceptible to oxidative
catabolism. The contamination of soil due to toxic Synthetic dyes are employed increasingly in the
pollutants is classified as following textile, paper, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food
industries, due to high stability, a wide variety of
Petroleum hydrocarbons (PHs): color, and good cost-effectiveness in synthesis
compared to natural dyes. These are also used in
Petroleum hydrocarbons contain a complex printing industries, color photography, and as
mixture of compounds that can be categorized into additives in petroleum products. Environmental
four fractions: saturates, aromatics, asphaltenes, control of dyes is important due to their possible
and resins(Das and Chandan, 2011).The toxicity and carcinogenicity (Table 1).
saturated fraction consists of straight-chain
alkanes (normal alkanes), branched alkanes Pesticides
(isoalkanes), and cycloalkanes (naphthenes). The
aromatic fraction includes volatile monoaromatic Synthetic pesticides have been known since 1939
hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, and when the insecticidal properties of DDT were
xylenes; polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) such discovered. Pesticides are used extensively related
as naphthene aromatics; and aromatic sulfur to agriculture, animals, and humans to protect
compounds, such as thiophenes and public health. The extensive use of pesticides has
dibenzothiophenes. The asphaltene (phenols, fatty contributed to the contamination of many terrestrial
acids, ketones, esters, and porphyrins) and resin and aquatic global ecosystems due to their extreme
(pyridines, quinolines, carbazoles, sulfoxides, and toxicity and persistence in the environment. Based
amides) fractions consist of polar molecules on their applications in agriculture, animals, and
containing N, S, and O?. Asphaltenes are large humans, pesticides are divided into three
molecules dispersed in oil in a colloidal manner, categories: insecticides, herbicides, and
whereas resins are amorphous solids truly fungicides. Insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides
dissolved in oil (Table 1). are further classified into different categories
based on chemical composition and organic
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) grouping (Table 1).

PAHs are released into the environment as a result Heavy metal toxicity and its sources
of a variety of activities, such as incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels, shale oil, and cigarette The term heavy metals strictly refers to metallic
smoke; accidental discharge of petroleum or elements which have a specific mass > 5 gcm-³
during the use and disposal of petroleum products; and able to form sulfides. Zn, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Co
and coal gasification and liquefaction (Fig 1; Table are essential nutrients and are toxic at high
1). concentration; Cd, Pb, As and Hg are non-
Halogenated organic compounds (HOCs): essential with no known biological function and are
toxic at low concentration. After entering within the
The relatively great electronegativity of halogens cell through specific uptake system, heavy-metal
confers chemical stability of the compound, making
 28

Table 1: List of some fungi (both filamentous and white-rot fungi) involved in mycoremediation
On mycoremediation
[ J. Mycopathol. Res. :
: 57(1) April, 2019] Sayan Deb Dutta and Md. Salman Hyder 29
Fig. 2 : List of some commonly occurring white-rot fungi involved in mycoremediation

30
On mycoremediation
[ J. Mycopathol. Res. :
: 57(1) April, 2019] Sayan Deb Dutta and Md. Salman Hyder 31

cations, such as Hg²+ and Cd²+ tend to bind to

SH groups and inhibit the activity of sensitive
enzymes. Other heavy-metal cations may interact
with physiological ions, thereby inhibiting the
function of the respective physiological cation. The
sources of the metals in the soil are diverse,
including the burning of fossil fuels, mining, and
smelting of metalliferous ores, municipal wastes,
fertilizers, pesticides, sewage sludge
amendments, effluents from industries like
electroplating, leather tanning, wood preservation,
pulp processing, steel manufacturing, etc. To
survive under metal-stressed environment,
microorganisms have evolved several
mechanisms (Fig 3). They can change or reduce
the toxicity of metallic contaminants through pH
change, biosorption and bioaccumulation.
Biosorption consists of a metabolism-independent

Fig.1: Three major pathways of degradation of polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) by fungi and bacteria

binding of metal ions to negatively charged free

groups in several biopolymers that form the
microbial cell wall whereas bioaccumulation
employs an energy-dependent metal influx. They
produce intracellular/extracellular enzymes to
resist the metal concentration or they possess the
processes of active transport of metal ions outside
the cell, masking metals by chelating, enzymatic
transformation of metal ions, creating vacuoles in
which metal ions are gathered and immobilization
in the form of polyphosphates, increased
production of melanin and other pigments, and
production of specific metal-binding compounds
(e.g. metallothioneins) inside the cell.
Biovolatilization is an enzymatic conversion of
organic and inorganic compounds of metal (loid)
s into their volatile derivatives by an intracellular
biochemical reaction (biomethylation) (Table 1).
32 On mycoremediation [ J. Mycopathol. Res. :

HOW DOES MYCOREMEDIATION WORK? environmental organic chemicals and to decrease

the risk associated with metals, metalloids, and
In order for the fungal cultures to do their work, radionuclides, either by chemical modification or
the extrinsic and intrinsic growth factors viz., right by influencing chemical bioavailability.
temperature, nutrients and amount of oxygen must Furthermore, the ability of these fungi to form
be present in the soil and groundwater. The right extended mycelial networks, the low specificity of
combinations of these cultures can eat the their catabolic enzymes and their independence
pollutants until they disappear. After the process from using pollutants as a growth substrate makes
of remediation is over, the fungal mycelia them well suited for bioremediation processes
themselves disappear because there’s no more (Harms et al. 2011).
pollution for them to eat. Fungi are proficient
bioremediators by breaking down long chained POTENTIAL OF MUSHROOMS IN MYCORE-
toxins into simpler less toxic chemicals. They MEDIATION
remove metals from land by channeling them to Although bioremediation by bacterial agents has
mushroom fruiting bodies for removal. They received the attention of workers, the role of fungi
essentially use and digest these toxins as has been inadequately studied. The ability of fungi
nutrients. Even the enzymes secreted from to transform a wide variety of hazardous chemicals
mycelium can decompose some of the most has aroused interest in using them for
resistant hazardous toxin materials made by bioremediation. Mushroom-forming fungi (mostly
humans or nature. These toxins are vulnerable to basidiomycetes) are amongst nature’s most
enzymes secreted by the mycelia. Fungi possess powerful decomposers, secreting strong
the biochemical and ecological capacity to degrade extracellular enzymes due to their aggressive

Fig.2: Commonly occuring white-rot fungi involved in mycoremediation. (a) Genus Agaricus; (b) Genus Agrocybe; (c) Genus
Auricularia; (d) Genus Clitocybe; (e) Genus Coprinus; (f) Genus Fistulina; (g) Genus Flammulina; (h) Genus Ganoderma; and (i)
Genus Laetioporus.
: 57(1) April, 2019] Sayan Deb Dutta and Md. Salman Hyder 33

Fig.3:Fungus-metal interaction.Metal mobilizationresults from the production and excretion of organic acids (for example, citrate and
oxalate), which increase metalsolubility through acidification of the mycosphere and provision of metal-complexing structures. This
frequently occurs as a side effect of the dissolution of primary minerals containing phosphate, carried out by mycorrhizal fungi.
Siderophores are chelators excreted for the acquisition of iron, and they may cross-react with other metals. Extra-hyphal immobilization
occurs through the formation of secondary minerals, biosorption to cell wall constituents such as chitin and chitosan, complexation
by glomalin (that is, metal-sorbing glycoproteins excreted by arbuscularmycorrhizal fungi) and effects of fungal mycelia and glomalin
on soil aggregate stability against wind and water erosion. Metal uptake occurs, for example, through specific transporters for the
acquisition of essential metals, and these transporters may cross-react with other metals. Intracellular metal immobilization involves
storage in vacuoles and complexation by cytoplasmic metallothioneins144 and phytochelatins (that is, proteins and peptides,
respectively, that are rich in SH groups). Metal transformations such as reactions involving organometals (for example, methylations)
and redox reactions frequently result in metal volatilization. Streams of cytoplasmic vesicles and vacuoles along fungal hyphae may
translocate metals to other parts of the mycelium and to the plant symbionts of the fungi. MnP, manganese peroxidase.

growth and biomass production. These enzymes fungus produces various enzymes which are non-
include lignin peroxidases (LiP)(Ruiz-Duenas et specific, means that they can act on various
al. 2008 ; Hofrichter et al. 2010), manganese environmental pollutants. There are numerous
peroxidase (MnP) (Ruiz-Duenas et al. 2008) and advantages of using mycoremediation over
laccase (Majeau et al. 2010), etc. Thus, carbon commercialized technologies, including the
sources such as sawdust, straw and corn cob can following:
be used to enhance the degradation rates by these
organisms at polluted sites (Adenipekun and (1)It is a natural system and does not introduce
Lawal, 2012). In short, white-rot fungus (Fig 2; any corrosives or harmful chemicals for
Table 2) accounts for at least 30% of the total cleanup;(2)The process is environmentally friendly
research on fungi that are used in bioremediation. and works on a variety of organic and inorganic
compounds ; (3) Mycoremediation is expected to
ADVANTAGES OF MYCOREMEDIATION
be safer than most other alternatives of
Mycoremediation technologies assist fungal bioremediation. It does not require digging up
growth and increase its population by creating contaminated products and disposing of it at waste
optimum environmental conditions for them to sites ; (4)The technology is simple than many other
detoxify the maximum amount of contaminants. A alternatives ; (5)Low maintenance and reusable
34 On mycoremediation [ J. Mycopathol. Res. :

of end products ; (6) The cost of using safe products to their customers. If the
mycoremediation is relatively low in comparison underexploited potential of fungus mycelium is
to other technologies and treatment methods, as further exploited, it will go a long way in eradicating
it does not require the building of new structures pollution from soil (Thakur, 2014).
and (7) The technology shows immediate results.
There is immediate mitigation of odor and visible ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
improvement to a site. For end results,
mycoremediation is quicker than other The work has been supported by the funds
technologies, such as phytoremediation and received from the University of Kalyani and DST-
bacterial bioremediation. PURSE programme, Govt. of India.

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