Water Supply Notes
Water Supply Notes
MATHENGE TTI
DIPLOMA IN WATER TECHNOLOGY
WATER SUPPLY
CONTENT
1.Introduction
2. Water demand
i. Types of demand
• population and population forecasting
• domestic
• institution and industries
• loses and wastes
• Design period
ii. Population forecasting
iii. Design period
3. water sources
4.Water intakes
i. River intake
ii. Canal intake
iii. Reservoir intakes
iv. Lake intake.
5.Water conveyance
i. conveyance systems
ii. conveyance hydraulics
iii. conveyance appurtenance.
6. water pumping
7.Water treatment
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO WATER SUPPLY
The amount of water required by an individual or for a family is small. But when individuals or families
live together, they form villages, towns and cities and water requirement increases.
Some including the earliest recorded knowledge of water quality and its treatment are found
in Sanskrit literature “Sushuri Sanhita” compiled about 2000 B.C. It deals with storage of
drinking water in copper vessels, exposure to sunlight, filtering through charcoal, sand
etc. The correlation between water quality and incidence of diseases has been
established in the past.
Protected water supply means the supply of water that is treated to remove the
impurities and made safe to public health. Water may be polluted by physical and
bacterial agents. Water is also good carrier of disease-causing germs. The causes of
outbreak of epidemics are traced to pollute water and poor sanitation hospital are
continued to be flooded with the sick due to ignorance about health continues to be
profound.
The water supplied by modern municipalities perform many functions such as, supply physical
needs, preserve body cleanliness, ensure the cleanliness of all personal and municipal
environment, furnishes a mean of fire protection and meet industrial needs.
A water supply scheme consists of the source water, intake works, treatment and distribution systems.
The most important aspect of any water supply scheme is the source of water. The source should be
permanent, reliable and with minimum impurities. They include, lakes, streams, reservoir, springs etc.
After selection of the source of water, the next step is to construct an intake works to collect water and
carry the water to the treatment plant. The treatment depends on the source of supply and the amount
and nature of impurities in it. Water from the treatment is then carried through pipes to clear water
reservoir where it is distributed through distribution systems. The distribution systems consist of large
arterial mains, distribution mains, minor distributors, and appurtenances including valves and fittings.
Through the distribution system the water is able to reach the consumer for use. The diagram below
describes the essentials of a water supply scheme.
2. to supply adequate quantity to meet at least the minimum needs of the individuals
3. to make adequate provisions for emergencies like firefighting, festivals, meeting etc.
4. to make provision for future demands due to increase in population, increase in standard of living,
storage and conveyance.
6. to maintain the treatment units and distribution system in good condition with adequate staff and
materials
Preliminary investigations are carried out mainly to analyze the feasibility of a water supply scheme.
Different aspects of a water supply scheme have to be studied carefully from different view point before
any water supply project are taken up. The following points should be looked into in their sequential
order while considering any public water supply scheme:
1. Source of water supply: The success of any water supply scheme depends on the choice of a good
and reliable source of water for supply. The source of water should be selected keeping in view, quality
and quantity of water available from it.
2. Population: From census data, the current population is accurately determined and using appropriate
method future population predicted. It is general practice to formulate the scheme, to accommodate
expected population of future three or four decades. The units comprising water-works should be laid,
that the expansion of the scheme could be done by adding more units on the sides of existing ones.
3. Financial aspect: In the initial stage of the scheme, the data regarding the availability of funds for the
fulfilment of the water supply scheme should be obtained. If need be the scheme should be adjusted in
relation to available funds and ever effort make to ensure the economic viability of the scheme.
4. Per head water supply: The demand of water depends on various uses such as industrial and
domestic. The per head rate of consumption should be decided by considering all the possible uses.
5.Quality of water: The quality of water dictates the line of treatment it has to undergo. Purer water
requires lesser treatment and less cost.
6. Sanitary survey of the area: A survey should be conducted regarding the sources of water to
estimate the degree of pollution and contamination of water.
7. Topography of the area: The area to be covered should be examined in relation to low buying areas,
ridges and density of population
8. Trend of development of the town: large sizes of components (e.g., pipes) should be laid on the
sides which are likely to develop more. The development should be established in terms of new
industries, institutions and public recreation centers.
WHOLESOME WATER
water found in nature contains number of impurities in varying amounts. Wholesome water is defined
as the water which containing the minerals in small quantities at requisite levels and free from harmful
impurities. The water that is fit for drinking safe and agreeable is called potable water.
6. It should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid so that it may remain fresh
1. The public gets wholesome water to drink. This prevents spread of diseases, and public health is
protected from water borne diseases.
2. Public gets fresh, odorless and tasteful water to drink
3. Industries do not have to install their own water purification units as they get their supply from
public water supply scheme directly.
4. Better cleanliness is possible only with adequate water supply. Flushing water closest, urinals etc.
is possible only with water supply scheme.
5. Installation of water supply scheme opens new avenues of employment for the local people.
6. New business in pipes, valves and other water supply appurtenances is set up by the local traders
EXERCISE
While planning a water supply scheme it is necessary to find out not only the total yearly water demand
but also to asses the average rates (or draft) and the variations in these rates. The following quantities
are generally assessed and recorded:
It is very difficult to asses the quantity of water demanded by the public since there are many variable
factors affecting the water consumption. A particular method or formula has therefore to be decided to
asses the quantity which may give fairly accurate results.
v. Fire demand
The quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc. is called
domestic water demand and mainly depends upon the habits, social status, climatic conditions and
customs of the people. Under normal conditions, the domestic consumption of water is about 135
litres/day/capita. But in developed countries this figure may be 350 litres/day/capita because of use of
air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, automatic household appliances.
--------------------------
135 litres/day/capita
INDUSTRIAL DEMAND
The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries, which are existing in the
city. The water required by factories, paper mills, Cloth mills, Cotton mills, Breweries, Sugar refineries
etc. comes under industrial use. The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to
25% of the total demand of the city.
Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and commercial centers including office buildings,
warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centers, health centers, schools, temple, cinema houses, railway
and bus stations etc. comes under this category. Water supply requirements for the public buildings
other than residences as follows;
Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and sprinkling on roads,
cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc. comes under public demand.
To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the total consumption is made designing
the water works for a city. The requirements of water for public utility shall be taken as given in table
below.
FIRE DEMAND
Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching materials, explosions,
bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen mis happenings. If fires are not properly
controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to serious damage and may burn cities.
All the big cities have full fire-fighting squads. As during the fire breakdown large quantity of water is
required for throwing it over the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to
supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose. In the cities
fire hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100 to 150 m apart for fire demand. The quantity of
water required for firefighting is generally calculated by using different empirical formulae. Formulae
used in estimating demand.
Y = 2.8 √𝑃
Q =4637√𝑃 (1 – 0.01√𝑃)
3. Kuichling’s formula
Q =3182√𝑃
Where
4. Buston’s Formula
Q =5663√𝑃
Where Q = quantity of water required in litres per day
P= population
EXAMPLE 2.1
1. The population of a city is 100,000. Estimate the fire flow for that city using the National Board of
Fire Underwriters Formula
Q =4637√𝑃 (1 – 0.01√𝑃)
SOLUTION
Q =4637√100 (1 – 0.01√100)
= 4637(10) (1-0.1)
All the water, which goes in the distribution, pipes does not reach the consumers. The following are the
reasons:
1. Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and fittings.
2. Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of public taps even when they are not using the water
and allow the continuous wastage of water.
While estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15% of total quantity of water is
made to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.
This is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person and includes the domestic
uses, industrial and commercial use, public use loses and wastes etc. It is expressed as:
𝑄
q= liters/day
𝑃×365
P= Design population
Per capita demand of the town depends on various factors like standard of living, no. and type of
commercial places in a town etc.
For example, in an average Indian town, the requirement of water in various uses is as under
The total quantity of water required by the town per day shall be 270 multiplied with the total
population in liters/day.
use of water freely by the people as compared when they get it scarcely and more water loss
due to leakage, wastage and thefts etc.
f) System of sanitation: Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage system will be
more than the town where this system is not being used.
g) Cost of water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water is more, less
quantity of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost is low.
h) Metering policy:
Water tax is generally charged in two different ways:
a. On basis of meter reading (meter fitted at the head of the individual house
connections and recording the volume of water consumed).
b. On basis of a certain fixed monthly flat rate.
In unmetered water people do not practice economy in the use of water as the amount is fixed
irrespective of the quantity of water used by them. In such cases mostly people leave the taps
flowing unused. Although metered supplies are preferred due to lesser wastage, they often lead
to lesser water consumption by poor and low-income groups leading to unhygienic conditions.
The following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of metered supplies.
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water demand is maximum,
because the people will use more water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering and street sprinkling.
This demand will become minimum in winter because less water will be used in bathing and
there will be no lawn watering. The variations may be up to 15% of the average demand of the
year.
DAILY VARIATIONS
This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions and character of city
as industrial, commercial or residential. More water demand will be on Sundays and holidays
due to more comfortable bathing, washing etc. as compared to other working days. The
maximum daily consumption is usually taken as 180% of the average consumption
HOURLY VARIATIONS
On Sundays and other holidays, the peak hours may be about 8 A.M. due to late awakening
where as it may be 6 A.M. to 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. and minimum flow may be between
12P.M. to 4P.M. when most of the people are sleeping. But in highly industrial city where both
day and night shifts are working, the consumption in night may be more. The maximum
consumption may be rise up to 200% that of average daily demand. The determination of this
hourly variations is most necessary, because on its basis the rate of pumping will be adjusted to
meet up the demand in all hours. The figure below shows a typical variation in hourly demand
of a town.
3. The pipe main: the pipe main taking water from the source up to the service reservoir may be
designed for maximum daily demand.
4. The filter and other units: the filter and other units at the water treatment plant may also be
designed for maximum draft. Sometimes, an additional reserve is also made for breakdown and
repair. Therefore, they may be designed for twice the average daily instead of 1.8 average daily
demand.
5. The pumps: the pumps lifting the water may be designed for maximum daily draft plus some
additional reserve for repairs and breakdown. It should be noted that when pumping is not done
for 24 hours such as in small water supplies the draft may be multiplied by:
24
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
6. The distribution systems: the distribution systems (including pipes carrying water from service
reservoir) should be designed for maximum hourly draft.
7. Service reservoir: the service reservoir is designed to take care of hourly fluctuations in demand,
fire demand, emergency reserve in hours few than 24 hours.
Example 2.2
A water supply scheme has to be designated for a city having a population of 1,000,000 with an average
consumption of 250litres per day.
(a) Estimate:
i. Maximum daily draft
ii. Maximum hourly draft
(b) estimate the capacities of the following components
i) the intake structures
ii) pipe carrying water from treatment intake to the treatment plant
iii) filter and other units at the treatment plant
iv) the lift pumps (assuming the pumps are operated at 8 hours per day)
v) distribution system
Assume maximum daily demand= 180% of the average annual daily draft
maximum hourly demand= 270% of the average annual hourly draft
SOLUTION
(a) average daily draft = (Per capita average consumption) × population
= 250lpcp × 1,000,000persons
= 250 million liters/day
180
Maximum daily demand = (250 million liters/day)
100
= 45 million liters/day
270
Maximum hourly demand = (250 million liters/day)
100
= 67.5 million liters/day
i) The intake structures etc. for fetching water from the stream may be designed for the
maximum daily draft i.e. 45 million liters/day, hence;
Required capacity = maximum draft
=45 million liters/day
ii) The pipe mains carrying water from intake to the treatment plant and then to the service
reservoir may be designed for the maximum daily draft i.e. 45 million liters/day, hence;
Required capacity = maximum draft
=45 million liters/day
iii) The filters and other units at the treatment may be designed for the maximum daily draft
plus some reserve (say twice instead of 1.8 times the average), hence;
Required capacity = 2 × 25 million liters per day
=50 million liters per day
iv) The lift pump may be designed for the twice the average, hence;
Required capacity = 2 × 25 million liters per day
= 50 million liters per day
If the pumps are not operated for the 24 hours but for 8 hours then the design draft will be
given as:
24
(normal design draft)
8
24
= (50 million liters per day)
8
=3(50 million liters per day)
= 150 million liters per day
v) The distribution system including the pipes carrying water from the service reservoir may be
designed for the service reservoir to the distribution system may be designed for coincident
draft with fire or maximum hourly draft. Applying National Board of Fire Underwriters Formula,
fire flow
Q =4637√100 (1 – 0.01√100)
DESIGN PERIOD
By definition design period refers to Number of years the scheme is supposed to serve before it
is rendered obsolete.
The complete water supply project includes huge and costly constructions such as dams,
reservoirs, treatment works and network of distribution pipelines. These all works cannot be
replaced easily or capacities increased conveniently for future expansions. While designing and
constructing these works, they should have sufficient capacity to meet future demand of the
town for number of years. The number of years for which the designs of the water works have
been done is known as design period. Mostly water works are designed for design period of 22-
30 years, which is fairly good period.
The design should not be too long nor too short. The design period cannot exceed the useful life
of the component structures and is guided by the following considerations:
i. Useful life of component structure and the chances of their becoming old and obsolete. Design
period should not exceed those respective values.
ii. Ease and difficulty that is likely to be faced in expansion if undertaken at future dates. For example,
more difficult expansion means adopting a higher value in design.
iii. The amount and availability of additional investment likely to be incurred for additional provisions.
For example, if the funds are not available one has to keep a smaller design period.
iv. The rate of interest on borrowing and additional money invested. For example, if the interest is small
a higher value of design period may be economically justified and therefore adopted.
v. Anticipated rate of growth of population, including possible shifts in communities, industries and
commercial establishment. For example, if the rate of increase of population is less, a higher value of
design period may be adopted
The following are design periods often used in designing public water supply scheme.
SN. NO TYPE AND NAME OF SPECIAL DESIGN PERIOD IN
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS YEARS
STRUCTURE AND REASONS FOR
SELECTED DESIGN
PERIOD
1 Dams, reservoirs Difficult and costly to 20-50
and penstock pipes expand at later date
2 Wells, distribution Easy to extend 20-25 (when growth
systems and filter and interest rates
plants are low).
10-15(when growth
and interest rates
are high)
3 Pipes more than Replacement of 20-25
30cm diameter smaller pipes is more
costly in the long run
4 Laterals and Requirements may Full development
secondary and change rapidly
secondary main less
than 30cm diameter
Projection Years
Water demand projections should normally, be made for the “initial” the “future” and the “ultimate”
year. The “initial” year is the year when the supply is expected to be taken into operation that may be
assumed to be 0-5 years from the date of the commencement of the preliminary design. The “future” is
10 years and the “ultimate” year 20 years from the initial year. Once the initial, future and ultimate
years have been determined for a project they should not normally be changed during the design
period.
Design Demand
A water supply should normally be designed for the ultimate demand. However, phasing of the
implementation will often become a financial necessity and the possibilities of phasing should therefore
be examined using the initial and future demand projections. Mechanical equipment such as “pumps
and power sources” are often designed for shorter periods. Refer water supply manual.
Due to these varying influences, the task of predicting future population is necessitated as it is
very difficult and time consuming for the engineer to evaluate these economic and social
factors.
POPULATION FORECASTING
For the prediction of population, it is better to study the development of other similar towns,
which have developed under the same circumstances, because the development of the
predicted town will be more or less on the same lines.
The following are the standard methods by which the forecasting population is done
This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at a constant rate. The rate of
change with time is constant. The population is calculated the formula.
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃 + 𝑛 × 𝑋̅
Where;
EXAMPLE 2.3
The following data have been noted from the census department.
YEAR POPULATION
1940 8000
1950 12000
1960 17000
1970 22500
Determine the probable population in the year 1980,1990 and 2000 arithmetical increase method
SOLUTION
Letting n be the number of decades therefore the average increase in population will be given as shown
in the table below.
TOTAL 14500
AVERAGE 4833
The probable population in the year 1980,1990 and 2000 will be calculated as shown in the table below.
EXAMPLE 2.4
The population of 5 decades from 1930 to 1970 are given below. Find out the population after one, two
and three decades beyond the last known decade using arithmetic increase method.
SOLUTION
TOTAL 22,000
P1980 = P1970 + 1 × 𝑋̅
= 47,000 + 1 × 5,500
= 52,500
b. Population after two decades beyond 1970
P1990 = P1970 + 2 × 𝑋̅
= 47,000 + 2 × 5,500
= 58,000
c. Population after one decade beyond 1970
P2000 = P1970 + 3 × 𝑋̅
= 47,000 + 3 × 5,500
= 63,500
This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population from decade to
decade remains constant. In this method the average percentage of growth of last few decades is
determined, the population forecasting is done on the basis that percentage increase per decade will be
the same. The population at the end of ‘n’ decades is calculated by
𝑟𝑠 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100
Where;
𝑡
√𝑟1 × 𝑟2 × 𝑟3 × … . . 𝑟𝑡
EXAMPLE 2.5
In example 2.3 above determine the probable population in the year 1980,1990 and 2000 geometric
increase method.
SOLUTION
Letting n be the number of decades, the percentage increase in population is calculated as shown in the
table below.
𝑡
𝑟𝑠 = √ 𝑟1 × 𝑟2 × 𝑟3 × … . . 𝑟𝑡
3
𝑟𝑠 = √50 × 41.7 × 34.24 =41.48%
41.48 41.48 2
1990 31,833+ × 31,833= 45,037
100 22500 (1 + ) = 45,037
100
41.48 41.48 3
2000 45,037+ × 45,037= 63732
100 22500 (1 + ) =63,719
100
EXAMPLE 2.6
Using the data given in example 2.4 above solve the population by geometrical increase method
SOLUTION
TOTAL 22,000
This method is improvement over the above two methods. The average increase in the population is
determined by the arithmetical method and to this is added the average of the net incremental increase
once for each future decade. A progressive increase or decreasing rate is adopted rather than constant
rate. The future population is given by
𝑛(𝑛+1)
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃 + 𝑛 × 𝑋̅ + 𝑌̅
2
This method gives the end results, somewhere between the results given by arithmetic increase method
and geometric increase method and thus considered to be giving quite satisfactory results.
EXAMPLE 2.7
In example 2.4 above determine the probable population in the year 1980,1990 and 2000 incremental
increase method.
SOLUTION
The increase in population and their incremental increase are calculated as shown in the table below.
YEAR POPULATION
1980 1(1+1)
22500 + 1 × 4833 + 750 =28083
2
1990 2(2+1)
22500 + 2 × 4833 + 750 =34416
2
2000 3(3+1)
22500 + 3 × 4833 + 750 = 41499
2
EXAMPLE 2.8
SOLUTION
Since the rate of increase in population goes on reducing, as the cities reach towards saturation, a
method which makes use of the decrease in the percentage increase is, many times used to give quite
rational results. In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out, and is
then subtracted from the latest percentage increase for each successive decade, as explained in the
example below. This method is however applicable only in cases where the rate of growth shows a
downward trend.
EXAMPLE 2.9
Using the data given in example 2.5 above, solve the population at the end of 3 decades from 1970
SOLUTION
11.87−0.03
= 52,570 + × 52,570
100
11.84
= 52,570 + × 52,570
100
= 52,570 + 62,230
= 58,800
e. The expected population at the end of year 2000
11.84−0.03
= 58,800 + × 58,800
100
11.81
= 58,800 + × 58,800
100
= 58,800 + 6,950
= 67,750
EXAMPLE 2.10
Given the following data, calculate the population at the end of the next three decades by decreasing
rate method.
YEAR POPULATION
1940 80,000
1950 120,000
1960 168,000
1970 228,000
SOLUTION
29
= 58,800 + × 58,800
100
= 294,870
b. The expected population at the end of year 1980
29−7
= 294,870 + × 294,870
100
22
= 294,870 + × 294,870
100
= 359,740
c. The expected population at the end of year 1980
22−7
= 359,740 + × 359,740
100
15
= 359,740 + × 359,740
100
= 413,700
In this method, a graph is plotted for the available data, between time and population. The curve is
then smoothly extended up to the desired year. The method however gives approximate results, as the
extension of the curve is done by the intelligence of the designer.
EXAMPLE 2.11
Work out the population of the year 2000 from the data given below using simple graphical method.
YEAR POPULATION
1880 25,000
1890 27,500
1900 33,000
1910 39,000
1920 45,000
1930 54,500
1940 61,000
SOLUTION
The graph between time and population is plotted from the given data as shown below.
The curve is smoothly extended up to 2000 and the corresponding population is read as 81,000
DESIGN PERIOD
Projection Years Water demand projections should normally, be made for the “initial” the “future” and
the “ultimate” year. The “initial” year is the year when the supply is expected to be taken into operation
that may be assumed to be 0-5 years from the date of the commencement of the preliminary design.
The “future” is 10 years and the “ultimate” year 20 years from the initial year. Once the initial, future
and ultimate years have been determined for a project they should not normally be changed during the
design period.
Design Demand
A water supply should normally be designed for the ultimate demand. However, phasing of the
implementation will often become a financial necessity and the possibilities of phasing should therefore
be examined using the initial and future demand projections. Mechanical equipment is often designed
for shorter periods. Further see chapter “pumps and power sources”.
EXERCISE
Estimate the population of the town in the year 1981,1991 and 2001 by
From past population census (2019) data which method proves more accurate in the estimation of
population
(2019)
Table 1
YEAR POPULATION
1970 10,000
1980 15,000
1990 18,000
2000 22,000
2010 25,000
CHAPTER 3
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
After estimating the water requirements for water supply scheme, the planner must go into search of
nearby water sources which may be able to supply the required amount of water. If available supplies of
a particular source or sources are selected in the vicinity of the area are not able to meet the demand,
then it becomes imperative upon the planner to search some other distant source or sources and make
arrangements for bringing water from there.
The water which goes in atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration again comes back in the form of
precipitation under favorable climatic conditions is known as hydrological cycle of water.
Due to sun’s heat water from the earth’s surfaces, lakes, rivers, seas etc. evaporates and rises upwards.
At high altitude due to reduction in the atmosphere pressure these water vapors expand by absorbing
energy from the surrounding air, which cools down. When it falls below the dew point it cannot retain
the excessive moisture, which starts falling in the form of rain, hails, dew, sleet, frost or precipitation.
Various factors such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, velocity of wind, height of mountains in the
region, presence of forests, position of land and water areas etc. and their complex relation are
responsible for the precipitation. This precipitation and evaporation processes continue forever and
balance is maintained between the two by nature.
PRECIPITATION
The evaporated water from the surfaces of streams, rivers, sea, ponds, wet surfaces, trees and plants
etc. again returned to the earth surface by the condensation in the form of rain, hails, dew, sleet etc is
known as precipitation. The major part of the precipitation occurs in the form of rain and other forms
quantities are very small.
i. RUN-OFF: After precipitation a portion of its water flows over the ground in the form of rivers
and streams and some water flows towards lakes and ponds and collected there. After
precipitation a portion of this water is lost to the atmosphere through evaporation,
transpiration and a portion infiltrates in to the soil. The remaining portion is called surface
runoff and it flows and joins the surface streams. However, the total flow or runoff of a surface
stream is a combination of surface runoff and the runoff derived from underground water
called baseflow. The total flow in streams is called runoff or streamflow and is very important as
it tells us the amount of water available in the surface sources and hence their yield at different
times.
ii. INFILTRATION: A portion of precipitation, percolates in the ground and it is stored in the form of
sub-soil or ground water. Infiltration takes place on the uppermost stratum of soil.
iii. EVAPORATION: some portion of the precipitation is also evaporated from the lakes, rivers,
reservoirs and wet surfaces in the form of vapor due to sun’s heat is known as evaporation
iv. EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION: The roots of the trees suck water from the ground and some portion
of it evaporates in the atmosphere through leaves in the form of transpiration.
v. PERCOLATION: This is the process which water enters the ground surface and travels through
soil to join the ground water reserves.
Forms of precipitations
A major part of the precipitation occurs in the form of rain and a minor part occurs in the form of snow.
Other forms of precipitation include; hail, sleet, mist, etc. and are generally ignored in the design of the
hydrological works and therefore are not of much importance in design considerations.
Types of precipitations
Depending upon the way in which the air is cooled so as to cause precipitation, we can have three
types/kinds of precipitation.
i. Cyclonic precipitation is caused by lifting of an air mass due to the pressure difference. If the air
flows horizontally from surrounding area causing the air in low pressure area to lift, the
resultant precipitation is called non-frontal cyclonic precipitation. If the air mass lifts over
another air mass, the precipitation formed is called frontal cyclonic precipitation. Cyclonic
precipitation can occur in form of drizzle, intermitted rain or steady rain.
ii. Convectional rainfall is due to upward movement of the air that is warmer than the
surrounding. During warmer days, the ground gets heated unequally causing warmer air to lift
up and cooler air to come down to take its place. The precipitation takes place especially in the
tropical regions and can occur in form of showers of high intensity and duration.
iii. Orographic precipitation is responsible for most heavy rains. It is caused by air masses which
strike some natural topographic barrier like mountains and cannot move forward and hence it
rises up causing condensation and precipitation on the wind ward side with very little
precipitation on the leeward side
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Measurement of rainfall.
All forms of precipitations are measured as the depth that could accumulate on a level surface, if the
entire precipitation remained where it fell. The volume of precipitation is therefore obtained by the
product of the precipitation depth and the area of the entire catchment area. Since the amount of
precipitation varies from place to place, it is necessary to install the measuring devices at key points. The
simplest way of measuring precipitation is by setting up gauges with a horizontal circular aperture of
known area and collecting and measuring at regular intervals the amount of precipitation collected in
them. It is assumed that the rainfall collected in the gauges is a representative of a certain area around
the point where the measurement is made.
i. Non-recording gauges
ii. Recording gauges
Non-recording gauges do not record the rain, but only collect the rain. The collected rain is measured by
means of a graduated cylinder so as to directly represent the volume of rainfall and the water depth can
be calculated as;
Symons’s gauge is the most commonly used non-recording gauge. The figure below shows a Symons
gauge.
The gauge essentially consists of a circular collecting area of 12.7cm (5.0 inch) diameter connected to a
funnel. The rim of the collector is set in a horizontal plane at a height of 30.5 cm above the ground level.
The funnel discharges rainfall catch into receiving vessel. The funnel and the receiving vessel are housed
in a metallic container. Water contained in the receiving vessel is measured by suitably graduated
measuring glass with an accuracy up to 0.1mm
Apart from the Symons gauge the standard gauge may also be used as shown below.
RECORDING GAUGES
Recording gauges produce a continuous plot of rainfall against time and provide valuable data of
intensity and duration of rainfall for hydrological analysis of storms. The following are the most
commonly used recording gauges.
This is a 30.5cm size gauge adopted for measurement of rainfall. The catch from the funnel falls onto
one of a pair of small buckets. These buckets are so balanced that when 0.25mm rainfall collects on one
bucket, it tips and brings the other one in position as shown in the diagram below.
The water from the tipped bucket is collected in a storage can. The tipping actuates an electrically driven
pen to trace a record on clock driven chart. The water collected in storage can is collected and is
measured at regular intervals to provide the total rainfall and also serve as a check. It may be noted that
the record from the tipping buckets gives data on intensity of rainfall (amount of rainfall per unit time).
Further, the instrument is ideally suited for digitalizing of output signal.
In this rain gauge the catch from the funnel empties into a bucket mounted on a weighing scale. the
weight of the bucket and its content are recorded on a clock- driven chart. This instrument gives a plot
of the accumulated rainfall against time elapsed (mass curve of rainfall). The intensity of rainfall at any
particular time is given by the gradient of the mass curve at that point.
This type of recording gauge is also known as floating type. Here the rainfall collected by a funnel-
shaped collector is led into a float chamber causing a float to rise. As the float rises, a pen attached to
the float through a lever system records the elevation of the flat on a rotating drum driven by a clock
work mechanism. A syphon arrangement empties the float chamber when the float has reached a pre-
set maximum level. Below is a typical chart of this type of rain gauge. The chart shows a rainfall of
53.8mm in 30h from an equipment with pre-set maximum level of 10mm. it should be noted from the
chart that when the level of water reaches the pre-set maximum level there is a sudden emptying of the
float chamber by syphon action which resets the pen trace to zero. The emptying is denoted by vertical
lines.
MEASUREMENT OF SNOW
Various aspects considered in measurement of snow fall are the depth of snowfall and the water
equivalent of snow.
To measure the depth of snowfall, a graduated stick or staff is used at a selected place. Average of
several measurement in an area is taken as the depth in a snowfall event and as hence the snow stakes
are graduated to measure the total depth of accumulated snow at a place.
Water equivalent of snow is a depth of water that would result in melting of a unit of snow. This
parameter is important in assessing the seasonal water resources of a catchment as in estimates of
streamflow and flood due to melting of snow.
2. The quantity of water available: The quantity of water available at the source must be sufficient
to meet the various demands during the entire design period of the scheme. Sometimes the
water sources may be mobilized for the present-day demand and extra units added with the
passage of time. If sufficient quantity of water is not available in the vicinity area the planner may
opt bringing in water from distant sources.
3. The quality of water available: The water available at the source must not be toxic, poisonous or
any other injuries to heath. Impurities in the water should be as less as possible and should such
that they can be remove easily with minimal cost with normal treatment methods.
4. Distance of the source of supply: The source of water must be situated as near to the city as
possible. When the distance of the city from the source is less, lesser lengths of pipes, conduits
and fewer number of associated appurtenances are required thereby reducing the cost.
5. General topography of the intervening area: The area of land between the source and the city
should not be highly uneven. It should not contain deep valleys or high mountains and ridges. In
such uneven topographies, the cost of vessels for carrying water pipes and that for constructing
tunnels in mountains are enormous.
6. Elevation of the source of supply: The source of water must be on a high contour, lying
sufficiently higher than the city or town to be supplied with water, so as to make gravity flow
possible. When the water is available at lower levels than the average city levels pumping results,
which involves huge operational cost and frequent possible breakdowns.
1. surface
2. sub- surface sources.
Surface water sources Sub- surface water sources
The surface sources further divided into The surface sources further divided into
i. Streams i. Springs
ii. Rivers ii. Infiltration galleries
iii. Ponds iii. Infiltration wells
iv. Lakes iv. Wells and tube well
v. storage reservoirs
vi. Stored rain water cistern
vii. Sea/ocean-water (generally not used
for water supplies at present)
Surface water sources are sources of water in which the water flows over the surface of the earth and it
is directly available for water supplies they include: Streams, Rivers, Ponds, Lakes, storage reservoirs,
Stored rain water cistern and Sea/ocean-water (generally not used for water supplies at present)
1.STREAMS
Most streams are formed by surface runoff. Discharge in streams is quite ample in rainy seasons but
very small during dry seasons and sometimes streams go dry. They are the main source of water for
villages. However, since the quantity of water available in streams is small, they cannot be adopted as a
source of supply for very large cities.
Large and perennial streams may however be used as a source of water for supplies by providing
reservoir or barrage across them. When water in the stream channels flow over long distances, sand, silt
and mineral impurities get dissolved thereby making it harmful and therefore requires treatment before
supplying.
2. RIVERS
Large rivers form the principal source of water supply scheme for large cities. Some rivers are snow
fed(perennial) and have water throughout the year and therefore they do not require any arrangements
to hold the water. Non-perennial flow only in rain seasons. In dry seasons the flows become too low and
could even stop completely. Such rivers they require special arrangements, such as construction of
dams, to meet the water demand during hot weather. Mostly all the cities are situated near the rivers
discharge their used water of sewage in the rivers, therefore much care should be taken while drawing
water from the river.
The quality of water obtained from rivers is generally not reliable as it contains large amounts of silt,
sand and a lot of suspended matter. The disposal of untreated sewage in the river is further liable to
contaminate the river water. The water must therefore be analyzed properly and treated well before
supplying to the public.
A natural large sized depression formed within the surface of the earth when filled up with water is
known as a pond or lake. The difference between a pond and lake is only the size. If the size of the
depression is comparatively small it may be termed as a pond and when the size is larger it may be
termed as a lake. Generally, water from surface runoff enter the lake through small channels.
Sometimes underground water through some springs gets collected in ponds and spring. The quantity of
water in the natural ponds and lakes depends upon the basin’s capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall,
porosity of ground etc. Depending on the catchment area, rainfall and annual precipitation the quantity
of water may be small and cannot be considered for water supply for large cities. However large lakes
become a principal source of water supply in large town e.g., Lake Victoria.
The quality of water in lakes is generally good and does not require much purification. But lakes and
ponds situated at higher altitudes contain almost pure water which can be used without any treatment.
Larger and older lakes provide purer water as compared to newer and smaller lakes. On the other hand,
in still waters of lakes and ponds growth of algae, weed and vegetable take place imparting on the
watercolor and odor of the water.
Ponds formed due to construction of houses, road, railways contain large number of impurities and
therefore cannot be used for water supply purposes.
The daily discharge of a stream or a river at intended site of the water suppl intake point are determined
and recorded over a period of number of years. These discharge measurements can be carried out by
various methods such as;
4.IMPOUNDING RESERVOIRS
A water supply scheme drawing water directly from a river or stream may fail to satisfy the consumers
demand during extremely low flows (e.g., in hot weather) while at high flows it may become difficult to
carry out its operations due to devastating floods. A barrier in form of a dam is therefore constructed
across the river to form a pool on the upstream side of the barrier. The pool or artificial lake formed on
the upstream side of the dam is known as storage reservoir. The quality of this reservoir water is not
very much different from that of natural lakes as in lakes and reservoirs, suspended impurities settle
down in the bottom, but in their bed’s algae, weeds, vegetable and organic growth takes place which
produce bad smell, taste and color in water. Therefore, this water should be used after purification.
When water is stored for long time in reservoirs it should be aerated and chlorinated to kill the
microscopic organisms which are born in water.
The water stored in the reservoir can be used easily not only for water supplies but also for other
purposes e.g., agriculture. Generally, multipurpose reservoirs are planned and operated so as to get
optimum benefit.
The selection of a site for constructing dams should be governed by the following factor:
upstream to provide a large basin for a reservoir. A general contour for a suitable site of a dam is
shown below.
i. Earth dams
ii. Rock filled dams
iii. Solid masonry gravity dams
iv. Hollow masonry gravity dams
v. Steel dams
vi. Timber dams
vii. Arch dams
Earth dam
Earth dams are made of soil that is pounded down solidly. They are built an area where the foundations
are not strong enough to bear the weight of concrete dams, and where the earth is more easily available
as building material compared to stone or concrete or rock.
Rock fill dams are formed of loose rocks and boulders pilled in the river bed. A slab of concrete is often
laid across the upstream face of the rock fill dam to make it water tight.
Solid-masonry gravity dams are made of stone masonry or concrete. These big dams are expensive to
build but are more durable and solid than earth dams and rock dams. They can be constructed on any
dam site, where there exists a natural foundation strong enough to bear the great weight of the dam.
Hollow masonry gravity dams are essentially designed on the same lines on which the solid masonry
gravity dams are designed but they contain less concrete or masonry. They are difficult to build and
adopted only if very skilled labor is available, otherwise the labor cost is too high to build its complex
structure.
Steel dams
Steel dams are not used for major works. Today steel dams are used as temporary coffer dams needed
for construction of larger permanent dams. Steel coffer dams are usually reinforced with timber or earth
fill.
Timber dams
Timber dams are short lived, since in a few years timber rotting sets in. Their life is not more than 30 to
40 years and must have regular maintenance during that time.
Arch dams
These are very complex and complicated in design and construction. They make use of horizontal arch
action in place of weight to hold back the water. They are very suitable where the dam must be
constructed in a site that is extremely high and narrow, with availability of very strong side walls of this
canyon.
Whether the size or use of reservoir, the main function of a reservoir is to store water and thus stabilize
the flow of water. Therefore, the most important physical characteristic of a reservoir is nothing but its
storage capacity. The capacity of a reservoir on dam site is determined from the contour map of the
area. A topographic survey of the dam site is carried out and a contour map is drawn. The area enclosed
within each contour within the reservoir is measured with a planimeter. The contour elevation and area
enclosed at respective elevations is plotted on elevation- area curve. The elevation storage or elevation
capacity curve is given by the integration of the elevation- area curve. The volume of water that can be
stored by the reservoir at a certain water surface elevation is computed after determining the increment
in storage between the two elevation.
The various storage zones of a reservoir are described in the diagram below.
Normal pool level or maximum conservation level is the maximum elevation which the reservoir water
surface will rise during normal operating conditions. It is equivalent to the elevation of the spillway crest
or the top of the spillway gates for most of the cases.
Minimum pool level. The lowest water surface elevation which has to be kept under normal operating
conditions in a reservoir, is called minimum pool level. This level may be fixed by the elevation of the
lowest outlet in the dam or may be guided by the minimum head required for efficient functioning of
turbines.
Useful and dead storage. The volume of water stored in the reservoir between minimum pool level and
normal pool level is called the useful storage. Water stored in the reservoir below the minimum pool
level is known as dead storage. In multipurpose reservoirs, the useful storage may be divided into
conservation storage and flood mitigation storage.
Maximum pool level. During high floods, water is discharged over the spillway, but will cause the water
level to rise in the reservoir above the normal pool level. The maximum level of water to which the
water rises during the worst design flood is known as maximum pool level.
Surcharge storage. The volume of water stored between the normal pool level and the maximum pool
level is called surcharge storage. Surcharge storage is an uncontrolled storage, in the sense that it exists
only till the flood is in progress and cannot be retained for later use.
Bank storage. When the reservoir is filled up, certain amount of water seeps in the permeable reservoir
banks. This water comes out as soon as the reservoir gets depleted. This volume of water is known as
bank storage and may amount to several percent of reservoir depending on the geological formation. It
increases the capacity of the reservoir above the one indicated by the elevation capacity curve.
Valley storage. Even before the dam is constructed, a certain variable amount of water is stored in the
stream channel called valley storage. After the reservoir is formed, the storage increases and the actual
net in increase in the storage is equal to the storage capacity of the reservoir minus the natural valley
storage. it is not of importance to the conservation reservoir but in flood mitigation reservoir the b
valley storage reduces the capacity of the reservoir.
Reservoir yield is the amount of water that can be drawn from the reservoir at a certain time interval.
The yield depends on the inflow and varies from time to time.
The design yield of a reservoir in practice is taken as the period of the lowest natural flow on record for
the river. However, for city water supplies, a comparatively low design yield is taken so as to reduce the
risk of a period with yield below the nominal design value.
The capacity and yield (i.e., outflow) are generally governed by the equation
In practice other forms of inflows and outflows such as precipitation and evaporation from the reservoir
are considered.
Every river carries certain amount of sediment load. The sediment particles try to settle down to the
river bottom due to the gravitational force but may be kept in suspension due to the upward current in
the turbulent flow which may overcome the gravity force. Due to these reasons, the river carries fine
sediments in suspension as suspended load, and large solids along the river bed as bed load. When this
water particle laden water reaches a reservoir in the vicinity of a dam, the velocity and turbulence are
considerably reduced. The bigger suspended particles and most of the bed load, therefore, gets
deposited in the as the water reaches the reservoir. Finer particles may travel some more distance and
may finally deposit farther down in the reservoir as shown in the diagram below.
Some very fine particles may remain in suspension for much longer periods, and may finally escape
from the dam along with the water discharged through the sluiceway (withdrawal conduits), turbines,
spillway, etc.
The deposition of sediment in the reservoir is known as ‘reservoir silting’ or ‘reservoir sedimentation’.
The deposition of sediment automatically reduces the water storage of the reservoir, and if this process
of deposition continues longer, a stage reaches when the whole reservoir is silted up and it becomes
useless. The capacity of the reservoir goes on reducing. Thus, if at the time of construction, the reservoir
can store 10,000 cubic meters then after 5 year it may by able to store only 8,000 cubic meters. As
hence, in order to see that the capacity does not fall short of requirement during its design period, the
silting must be taken into account. The total volume of silt likely to be deposited during the design
period of the dam is estimated and approximately that volume is left unused to allow for silting. The
volume is known as dead storage. the remainder is known as effective storage or live storage. the dead
storage of dams is usually more than ¼ the total capacity. The importance of silting can be understood in
the following example.
Let the total capacity of a reservoir be 30 million cubic meters and the provision of dead storage be 6
million cubic meters. The average volume of sediment deposit is 0.15 million cubic meters per year.
6
Then it is evident that the dead storage will be filled up in = 40𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 and the total storage is about
0.15
30
= 200𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
0.15
Hence, the usefulness of the reservoir will start reducing after 40 years and after 200 years, it will be
nothing but a collection of sand and sediment with no water.
The density currents separate the turbid water from clearer water and make turbid water flow along the
river bank in the vicinity of the dam. The rate of reservoir silting can be reduced by venting density
currents properly locating and operating the outlets and sluice way.
The rate of sedimentation in reservoirs is estimated by the trap efficiency which is the percentage of
sediment deposited in the reservoir even in spite of making precautions and measures to control its
deposit.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(ⴄ) =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
The trap efficiency of a reservoir is a function of the ratio of capacity of reservoir to inflow as shown in
the following diagram.
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Where; 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(ⴄ) = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜(𝑓) =
𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
From the above graph it is evident that silting rate in a reservoir is more in the beginning and as its
capacity reduces, the silting rate reduces. Therefore, the complete reservoir silting would take a very
long time.
Most reservoir trap 95 to 100% of the sedimentation load flowing in them. Even if feasible silt control
measures are adopted, it has not been possible to reduce the trap efficiency below 90% or so.
In order to increase the life of a reservoir, it is necessary to control the deposition of sediment. Various
measures are undertaken in order to achieve this aim. The various methods which are adopted can be
divided into two parts;
Post- constructing measure are those measures which are adopted before and during the execution of
the project. They are enumerated below.
a) Selection of dam site: the silting depends upon the amount of erosion from the catchment. If
the catchment is less erodible the silting will be less. Hence, the silting can be reduced by
choosing the reservoir site in such a way as to exclude the run-off from the easily erodible.
b) Construction of dams in stages. The design capacity plays an important role in the silting of the
reservoir. When the storage capacity is much less than the average annual run-off entering the
reservoir, a large amount of water will get out of the reservoir, thereby, reducing the silting rate
compared to what it would have been if the entire water would have been stored. Therefore,
life of the reservoir can be prolonged by constructing the dam in stages. In other words, the dam
built is lower, and raised subsequently when some of its capacity has been silted up.
c) Construction of check dams. The sediment inflow can be controlled by building check dams
across the river stream contributing major sediment load. These are smaller dams and trap large
amount of courser sediment load. They are quite expensive.
d) Vegetation screens. This is based on the principle that vegetation traps large amounts of
sediments. The vegetation growth is therefore promoted at the entrance of the reservoir as well
as in the catchment. These vegetative covers, through which flood water have to pass before
entering the reservoir are known as vegetation screens, and provide a cheap and good method
of silt control.
e) Construction of under-sluices in the dam. The dam is provided with openings in its base, so as to
remove more silted water on the downstream side. The sediment concentration will be more at
some levels than at others. Therefore, sluices are located at the level of higher sediment
concentration. This method, in itself, is not sufficient, because the water digs out a channel
behind the sluice for its movement and leaves most of the sediment undisturbed. Therefore,
this is simultaneously supplemented by mechanical loosening and scouring of the neighboring
sediment in order to increase its effectiveness. But to provide large sluices near the bottom of
the dam is again a structural problem. The use of this method is therefore limited.
Post-construction measures are undertaken during the operation of the project. They are given below.
a) Removal of post flood water. The sediment content increases just after the foods; therefore,
attempts are generally made not to collect this water. Hence provision should be made to
remove the water entering the reservoir at this time.
b) Mechanical Stirling of the sediment. The deposited sediment is scoured and disturbed by
mechanical means so as to keep it in moving state and thus pushing it towards the sluices.
c) Erosion control and soil conservation. This includes all those general methods which are
adopted to reduce soil erosion and make it more stable. It is the most effective method as it
focuses on controlling the mother problem. However, treating the entire catchment may be
very costly as the size of the catchment may be extremely large.
RESERVOIR LOSES
i. Evaporation loses
ii. Absorption loses
iii. Percolation loses or reservoir leakages.
Evaporation loses. These loses mainly depend upon the surface area of the reservoir. The other factors
influencing the loses are temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity etc. Standard pan evaporation is
determined and multiplied by pan coefficient to give the evaporation loses.
Absorption loses. These loses depends upon the type of soil forming the reservoir. They do not play an
important role in planning as the rate of absorption decreases drastically as the soil becomes saturated.
Percolation loses or reservoir leakage. In certain cases, the walls of the reservoir are made of badly
fractured rocks which have porous strata causing serious leaking. Sometimes grouting may be used to
repair the fractures.
The term seepage refers to the process in to which at the upstream side of a dam comes out the
downstream side through the embarkment or below the foundation or base. Seepage should keep at
minimal by ensuring proper structural integrity of the dam gradation and degree of compaction. In earth
dams, seepage depends on properties of soil such as plasticity, Drainage filters are also used to prevent
seepage. Seepage is a common problem in earth dams and failure to prevent it can lead to slide and
failure of the dam.
RESERVOIR CLEARANCE
The removal of trees, bushes and other vegetation from the reservoir area is known as reservoir
clearance. It is an expensive operation and difficult to be justified on cost-benefit consideration. Non-
clearance of such vegetation may lead to;
i) Decay of organic material may create undesirable odors and taste, and hence important for
water supply reservoirs.
ii) Trees projecting above the water surface may create undesirable appearance when the
reservoir is to be used for recreation and tourist purposes.
iii) Bushes, trees e.tc will float and create debris problem at the dam.
It is almost impossible to select a perfect ideal reservoir site but its selection is guided by the following
factors;
i. A suitable dam site should be available. The cost of the dam is generally a controlling factor in
the selection of a reservoir site.
ii. The geological formation of the reservoir bank, walls, etc. should be such as to entail minimum
leakage.
iii. The geology of the catchment area should be such as to entail minimum loses by absorption and
percolation.
iv. The site of the reservoir should be selected such that a deep reservoir is created. A deep reservoir
is preferred to a shallow one because of lower land cost per unit of capacity, less evaporation
loses and less possibility of weed growth.
v. The site must have adequate capacity.
vi. Too much silt laden tributaries should be avoided as much as possible.
vii. The reservoir basin should have deep narrow opening of valley so that the length of the dam is
minimized.
After determining the gross useful storage capacity required for fulfilling the demand, the height of the
dam is fixed by providing this much of storage between the minimum pool level and normal pool level
(or dead storage). with the help of elevation-storage curve.
The water surface elevation or F.S.L or normal pool level of the reservoir is thus fixed. The maximum
pool level or H.F.L of the reservoir is determined by using flood routing method. A suitable is then added
for fixing the top of the dam. The provision for depth of foundation is made in deciding the overall
height of the dam as shown in the diagram below.
At places where neither ground water is easy to get nor surface water, the rain water during rain
seasons is stored in cisterns. Since the quantity of water stored is very limited, it can be one’s own
arrangement and cannot be used as a source of public water scheme.
Sewage water of a community can be utilized for non-domestic purposes if the water available from the
source is not available. The supply from such sources to residents is prohibited because of the
possibilities of cross connection with portable water supply systems.
7. SEA WATER
This source is plentiful, but it’s difficult to extract economically water of portable quality as it contains
3.5% of salt in solution and involves costly treatment. The process of desalting water sea water is can
only adopted where sea water is the only source of water available and is currently not being used for
water supplies at the present.
UNDERGROUND SOURCES
The water which gets stored in the ground water reservoir through infiltration, percolation e.tc is known
as underground water. This water is generally pure because it undergoes natural filtration during the
process of percolation through soil pores. Moreover, these waters are less likely to be contaminated by
bacteria. However, they are generally rich in dissolved salts, minerals, gases etc. The extent of salt and
minerals present in ground water depends upon the type and extent of zoological formation through
which the water passes before joining the water table. Sometimes the ground water is brought to the
surface by some natural processes like springs, and sometimes these waters are tapped by artificial
means such as wells, infiltration galleries and tube wells. The replenishment (i.e., filling up) and drainage
(i.e., tapping out) of ground water involves the hydrologic process of ground water, the possible yields,
construction details of tube wells galleries etc.
The rainfall that percolates below the ground surface, passes through the voids of the rocks and joins
the water table. These joints are generally interconnected, permitting the movement of the
groundwater. But in some rocks, they may be isolated and thus preventing the movement of water
between the inter-sites. Hence it is evident that the mode of occurrence of ground water depends
largely upon the formation, and hence upon the geology of the area.
In fact, all the materials of variable porosity (or inter-sites) near the upper portion of the earth’s crust
can be considered as a potential storage place for ground water and hence might be called ground
water reservoir. The volume of water contained in ground water reservoir in any localized area may (i.e.
water storage capacity of ground water) is dependent upon;
The following are important terms in the discussion of ground water sources.
Infiltration- This is the process of soaking rain water by the ground and movement of water in the soil is
known as percolation
Water bearing stratum- This is a natural storage reservoir of water under the ground which can be
withdrawn.
Aquifer-These are the formations which permits appreciable, quantity of water to move through them.
They are layers in which water occurs.
Aquiclude- these are underground formations which contains water but do not transmit its significant
quantity. They are usually clay layers which hold water but do not allow water to get drained off.
POROSITY
The porosity of the rock, which is the major geological criteria for occurrence of ground water, is a
quantities measurement of the inter-sites or voids present in the rock. It is general defined as the
percentage of voids present in a given volume of aggregates. Mathematically it is expressed as
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑖.𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒(𝑉𝑒 )
𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 (𝑉)
It is denoted by ⴄ
𝑉𝑒
There ⴄ =
𝑉
Porosity depends upon the shape, packing and sorting of grains in a given material. As water gets stored
in the pore(voids) the porosity therefore represents the maximum amount of water that can be stored
in the rock.
Water can enter into a rock (with any amount of porosity) only if the rock permits the flow of water
through i.e., it depends on whether the rock is permeable or not. Note that a rock which is porous may
not be permeable. For example, shale is a porous rock, but its pores are so minute that the rock reck
remains impermeable. The size of pores is thus quite an important factor and hence, the pore size
should be sufficiently large to make the rock permeable.
The permeability is therefore defined as the ability of a rock or unconsolidated sediment, to transmit or
pass water through itself. Transmissibility represents the same physical meaning but differently
mathematically explained.
The capacity of the entire soil of full width and depth, (i.e. area 𝑏 × 𝑑) is represented by permeability
while that of full depth and unit width (i.e., b=1 and d=d, A=d) is known as transmissibility.
The coefficient of permeability(K) is defined as the rate of flow of water through a unit cross section
area of the water bearing material under a unit hydraulic gradient, and at temperature of 20˚. The table
below shows values of permeability coefficient for different types of soils.
The relationship between the coefficient of permeability(K) and the coefficient of transmissibility(T) is
given by:
𝑇 = 𝐾×𝑑
The inter-sites in the given formation get filled up with water during the process of ground water
replenishment. If all the voids are filled with water, the it is known as saturated formation. When the
voids are completely drained by gravity, it is found that the volume of water drained is less than the
volume of voids space indicated by porosity since some water is retained in the inter-sites by their
molecular attraction.
Yield refers to the volume of ground water extracted by gravity drainage from a saturated water bearing
material. When it is expressed as a ratio of the volume of the total material drained, then it is known as
specific yield.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
The specific retention or field capacity on the other hand is the quantity of water retained by the
material against pull of gravity. It is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of material drained.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒
specific retention or field capacity = × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
It is evident that the sum of the specific yield and specific retention equals to its porosity.
To determine the specific yield of a formation, field observations are made through a medium of
pumping tests at the site as shall be discussed later.
When an aquifer is overlaid by confined bed of impervious material, then the confined bed of
overburden is called an aquiclude.
The amount of water yielded by a well excavated through an aquifer depends on many factors, some of
which, such as diameter of the well, is inherent on the well itself. But other things being equal, the
permeability and the thickness of the aquifer are the most important.
Types of aquifers
Aquifers vary in depth, lateral extent and thickness but in general all aquifers may be categorized into
two;
The topmost water bearing stratum having no confined impermeable overburden (i.e., aquiclude) lying
over it is known as an unconfined aquifer or non-artesian aquifer.
The ordinary gravity wells of 2 to 5 meters diameter, which are constructed to tap water from the
topmost water bearing strata i.e., from unconfined aquifer are known as unconfined or non-artesian
wells or gravity wells. The water levels in these wells will be equal to the level of the water table.
When an aquifer is confined on its upper and upper surface, by impervious rock formation (i.e.,
aquiclude) and is also broadly inclined to expose the aquifer somewhere to the catchment at a higher
level (called an outcrop) for the creation of sufficient hydraulic head, it is called a confined aquifer or an
artesian aquifer. A well excavated through such an aquifer yields water that often flows out
automatically, under hydraulic pressure and may thus, even rise or gush out of the surface for a
reasonable height. However, where the ground profile is high, the water may remain well below the
ground level. In the case where water flows out automatically the artesian well is called a flowing well.
The level to which water will rise in the well is determined by the highest point on which the aquifer,
from where it is fed (i.e., out crop) from rain falling in the catchment (i.e., by recharge).
However, the water will not rise to the full height because the friction of water moving through the
aquifer uses up some energy. Whether the well will be a flowing artesian well or a non-flowing artesian
well will depend upon the topography of the area and is not the inherent property of the aquifer. If the
pressure surface lies above the surface the well will be an artesian flowing well whereas if the pressure
surface is below the surface the well will be an artesian but non-flowing and hence pumping will be
required to bring the water to the surface.
Perched aquifer
Perched aquifer is a special case which is sometimes found to occur within an unconfined aquifer. If
within the zone of saturation (i.e., space above the water table and below the surface), an impervious
deposit below a pervious deposit supports a body of saturated material which is kind of aquifer is known
as perched aquifer. The top surface of the water held in the perched aquifer is known as perched water
table.
i. Infiltration galleries
ii. Infiltration wells
iii. Springs
iv. Wells
1.INFILTRATION GALLERIES
Infiltration galleries are horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel which are constructed at a shallow depth
(3 to 5 meters) along water bank through water bearing strata for tapping underground water near
rivers, lakes or streams. They are also called horizontal wells. The diagram below shows a diagram of a
typical infiltration gallery
These galleries are generally constructed of masonry walls with roof slab, and derive their water from
the aquifer by porous drain pipes. These pipes are generally covered with gravel, so as to prevent entry
of fine sand particles into the pipe. These tunnels or galleries are generally laid at a slope, and water is
collected in them is taken to a sump well from where it is pumped to the treatment and then distributed
to the consumers. These infiltration galleries are quite useful when water is available in sufficient
quantity just below the ground level or so.
Sometimes, horizontal pipes are laid in place of rectangular tunnels, and their perforations are covered
with gravel so as to prevent entry of sand. These pipes may be called infiltration pipes and are useful
when the available ground water is small in quantity.
The yield from the galleries may be as much as 1.5 x 104 lit/day/meter length of infiltration gallery. For
maximum yield the galleries may be placed at full depth of the aquifer.
2.INFILTRATION WELLS
In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the blanks of river.
Infiltration wells are shallow wells constructed in serries along the banks of the river, in order to collect
river water seeping through their bottom as shown in the diagram below.
The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed by brick masonry with open joints.
For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The water filtrates
through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed, it gets purified to some extent.
The infiltration well in turn are connected by porous pipes to collecting sump well called jack well and
from there water is pumped to purification plant for treatment. The diagram below shows the
connection of various infiltration the jack well.
A Ranney well is a new technique that has recently where a vertical well of diameter 3 to 6 meters is
constructed with horizontal radial collectors and is also called radial well. Horizontal perforated steel
pipes are then driven just at the level of the aquifer in the well by powerful hydraulic jacks. About 10
radial collectors can be installed at the one level. Some other set or sets of such radial collectors can be
installed at other levels, if possible, so as to increase the yield. The inner end of each collector pipe with
a sluice valve which can be operated from the pump house above. The inflow of water into the well is
thus controlled. The water from the well can be pumped directly into the mains as water obtained by
this method is generally clean and, fresh and free from bacteria contamination. These wells are, very
useful for drawing water from polluted streams.
3.SPRINGS
Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs. A spring is a natural
outflow of ground water at the earth’s surface. Springs generally supply small quantity of water and
hence generally not regarded as source of water supplies for large towns. Some springs discharge hot
water due to presence of Sulphur and useful only for the curve of certain skin disease patients.
TYPES OF SPRINGS
Based on their formation and the general geological formation springs may be classified as follows.
4. WELLS
A water well is a hole usually vertical, excavated for bringing ground water to the surface.
Important terms:
Specific capacity: specific capacity of a well is the rate of flow from a well per unit drawdown. The
specific capacity is usually different for different drawdowns.
Coefficient of storage: The storage coefficient for an artesian aquifer is equal to the volume of the
water released from the aquifer of unit cross sectional-area and of full height of the aquifer when the
piezometric surface declines uniformly. It may be defined the volume of water that an artesian aquifer
releases or stores per unit surface area of aquifer per unit change in the component head normal to the
surface.
Open wells are generally in diameter between 2 to 9 meters and they are generally less than 20m in
depth. They are suitable for low discharge of the order 18cubic meters per hour. The yield of a open well
is limited because such wells is limited because such wells can only be excavated to a limited depth
where ground water storage are limited. Depending upon the availability of such a provision, open wells
may be classified as:
a. Shallow wells
b. Deep wells
The diagram below shows a typical example of the difference between a shallow and a deep well
a) SHALLOW WELLS
Shallow wells are dug wells that are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earth’s surface and lie on
and pervious stratum drawing water from the surrounding material. Shallow wells may be lined or
unlined from inside.
Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is uppermost layer of
earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence, they are not suitable for public water
supply schemes. The quantity of water obtained from shallow wells is better than the river water but
requires purification. The shallow wells should be constructed away from septic tanks, soak pits etc.
because of the contamination of effluent. The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply for
small villages, undeveloped municipal towns, isolated buildings etc. because of limited supply and bad
quality of water.
b) DEEP WELL
A deep well is one that rest on an impervious ‘mota’ layer and get their water from water bearing strata
lying below impervious stratum through a bore hole made on the impervious layer as shown in the
figure above. The theory of deep wells is based on the percolation of water through the outcrop to the
site of the deep well. An outcrop as shown in the diagram below is the area of the pervious layer which
lies below impervious layer where rain water gets into the impervious layer.
The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is not very near to
the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric pressure, therefore deep wells
are also referred to as a pressure well.
The yield of an open well is given by the following formula formulated from the Darcy’s law.
𝐶′
𝑄 = ( ) 𝐴. 𝑠
𝐴
Where;
The specific yield is dependent on the type of soil in the water bearing stratum. The following are rough
𝐶′
values of the specific yield ( ) for different soils.
𝐴
Type of soil 𝐶′
( )(specific yield) in cubic meters per hour per
𝐴
square area under unit drawdown
Clay 0.25
Fine sand 0.50
Coarse sand 1.00
EXAMPLE
Design an open well in coarse sand for a yield of 0.004 cubic meter per second when operated under a
depression head of 3 meters.
Solution
= 0.004cumec
= 14.4 m3/hr.
𝐶′
From the table above the value of ( )= 1.00 m3/hr./m2/m
𝐴
14.4 = 1 × A × 3
14.4
A= = 4.8 m2
3
4.8×4
𝑑𝑤 = √ = 2.48m
𝜋
Say 2.5 m
In a pumping test a pump is first of all installed so as to draw sufficient supplies of water from the open
well and to cause heavy draw down in its water level. The pumping is then changed and so adjusted that
the water level in the well becomes constant. In this condition of equilibrium, the rate of pumping is
equal to the rate of yield and hence the rate of pumping will directly give us the yield at a particular
draw down
Although the pumping test gives accurate values of safe yield, it sometimes becomes very difficult to
adjust the rate of pumping, so as to keep the well water level constant. Ins such cases, reciprocating
pumping test is adopted.
In this method water is first drained from the well at a fast rate so as to cause sufficient draw down. The
pumping is then stopped. The water level in the well will start to rise. The time taken by the water to
come back to its normal level or some other measured level is then noted as shown in the diagram
below.
Where:
EF= water level in the well at the noted time T after the pumping is stopped.
S2= depression head in the well at time T after the pumping is stopped.
2.3 𝑠 𝐶′
The value ( 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 ) = ( ) as can be seen from the above formula.
𝑇 𝑠1 𝐴
EXAMPLE
During a reciprocating test, the water level in an open well was depressed by pumping by 2.5 meters
and is recuperated by an amount 1.6 m in 70 minutes.
a) Determine the yield from a well of 3m diameter under depression head of 3.5 meters
b) Also determine the diameter of a well to yield 10 liters/second under a depression head of 2.5
meters.
SOLUTION
𝐶′ 2.3 𝑠
From the equation( ) = ( 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 )
𝐴 𝑇 𝑠1
= 0.244 × 10-3
a) Yield of a well 3 m diameter under a normal depression head of 3.5 meters is given as;
𝐶′
Q = ( ) 𝐴. 𝑠
𝐴
2
𝜋 𝑑𝑤
=0.244 × 10−3 × ( ) × 3.5
4
𝜋×32
=0.244 × 10−3 × ( ) × 3.5
4
=6.02 litres/sec
b) If = 10 liters per second
S= 2.5 m
𝐶′
Q = ( ) 𝐴. 𝑠
𝐴
2
𝜋 𝑑𝑤
= 16.4
4
The Thiem’s formula as shall be discussed below in tube wells can also be used for determining the yield
of an open well.
2) TUBE WELLS
Tube well is a long pipe or a tube which is bored or drilled deep into ground intercepting one or more
water bearing stratum. As discharge from an open well is small(usually limited to 3 to 6 litres pes
second), the mechanical pumping of small discharge from open wells is not economical. To obtain a
large discharge tube wells are drilled deep into the ground to intercept one ore more water bearing
strata. Perforated hollow steel pipes are put against the water bearing pervious layer while a blind
hollow steel is placed against the impervious layers. The perforated pipes are also called strainer pipes.
Tube wells have a diameter of 5cm and 20cm. however the diameter of the bore drilled is kept larger
than that of tube well.
a. Strainer wells
b. Cavity wells
c. Slotted wells
d. Perforated pipe wells
Strainer type of tube well: The strainer type of tube well is the most commonly referred type of tube
well. In this type of well, strainer or screen is placed against the water bearing stratum. The strainer is
generally constructed of a wire wrapped round a slotted or perforated pipe with a small annular space
between the two. The wire screen prevents sand particles from entering the tube well. The water
therefore enters the well pipe through the fine mesh (i.e., the screen) and the sand particles larger than
the size of the mesh are kept away from entering the pipe. This reduces the danger of sand removal and
hence larger flow velocities can be permitted. Moreover, the strainer penetrates into a number of
waters bearing strata for the well supplies. The strainer type of tube well is generally unsuitable for very
fine sandy strata, because in that case, the size of screen opening will have to be considerably reduced,
which may result to chocking of the strainer and if the screen openings are kept bigger, the well will
start discharging sand. The figure below shows a typical example of a strainer type of tube well.
The boring of such well is generally carried out by a casing pipe of about 5 to 10 cm larger than the
diameter of the well pipe. Thus, for a 15cm diameter well, a borehole of 20 to 25 cm diameter is drilled.
After boring the hole, the well pipe assembly which is partly in ordinary plain pipe (called blind pipe) and
partly of strainer pipe are lowered is lowered into the borehole. The length of the blind pipe and strainer
pipe are so adjusted that the blind pipe rests on the aquicludes while the strainers rests against the
aquifer as shown in the diagram above. At the bottom, a short blind pipe is provided so as to permit
settlement of sand particles if passed through the strainer. The well is generally plugged at the bottom
by a cement concrete.
Cavity type of tube well: These are those which do not utilize strainers and draw their supplies from the
bottom and not from the sides. Since the water is drawn from the bottom, only one particular aquifer
can be tapped. Thus, the principle behind cavity type of tube well is similar to that of an open deep well
with the only difference that whereas the open deep well taps the first aquifer below the impervious
layer, a cavity tube-well need not to do so and may even tap the lower stratum as shown below.
A cavity type of tube well essentially consists of a tube bored through soil and resting on the bottom of
a strong clay layer. A cavity is formed at the bottom and water from the aquifer enters the well pipe
through this cavity as shown in the diagram above. In the initial pumping, fine sand comes out with
water and consequently a hollow cavity is formed. The flow in the beginning is usually sandy but with
the passage of time the water becomes clearer. The cavity with a certain discharge increases in size if an
increased discharge is pumped out. The essential difference in the flow pattern in strainer well and
cavity well is that whereas in strainer wells the flow is radial, the flow in a cavity well is spherical.
Slotted type of tube well: if sufficient depth of water bearing strata is not available at deep depths of
75 to 100m, so as to obtain the required discharge from a strainer well, and if a suitable strong clay roof
is not available for a cavity well, a slotted well is adopted, provided at least one good stratum having
sufficient amount of water is available. A slotted well essentially consist of a slotted wrought iron pipe
penetrating a highly pervious confined aquifer as shown in the figure below.
The size of slot may be 25mm× 3mm at 10 to 12 mm spacing. In order to prevent the entry of fine sand
particles is surrounded by a mixture of gravel which is poured from the top into the annular space
between the strainer and the casing pipe before withdrawal of the casing pipe. The tube well is
developed by pumping water with air with an air compressor or with a bigger capacity pump set. In the
process of developing such a tube well, water is drawn at a high rate, causing a high flow velocities and
consequent continuously fed through the annular space, so as to fill the space of removed sand
particles. The process is continued till the sand free water is obtained. The diameter of borehole or
casing pipe is generally kept more than that of strainer type of tube well. For example, a pipe of 40cm
diameter is required for a well of 15cm.
The essential difference between a strainer well and a slotted tube well are:
a. A strainer well uses strainers for preventing sand entry in the water, whereas a slotted water well
uses gravel shroud for this purpose.
b. A strainer well can tap one or more strata, whereas a slotted well can only tap one stratum.
Deep and high-capacity wells are constructed by drilling. Various techniques are employed in drilling the
well hole. Different techniques have different comparative advantages and disadvantages over each
other depending upon the type of formation to be drilled. Commonly used methods of drilling are:
This method is also called percussion drilling because in this method the well hole is made by percussion
(i.e., hammering and cutting.). This method is useful for cutting consolidated rock of clay to hardest rock
and may not be very effective in loose formation on unconsolidated sand and gravel as the materials
tend to cave around the drilling bit. The drilling bit has a chisel sharp edge, which breaks rocks by impact
when alternatively lifted and dropped as shown in the diagram below
The drilling bit is connected at the lowest end of the entire falling and rising string arrangement as seen
above.
This is the fastest method of drilling and is especially useful in unconsolidated formation. The method
involves a continuous rotating of a hollow bit through which a mixture of clay and water or mad is
forced. The bit cuttings are carried up in the hole by the rising mud as shown in the diagram below.
No casing is required during the drilling because the mud itself makes a lining on the wall of the hole,
which prevents caving. Drilling bits are connected to a hollow steel rod (drilling stem) which is in turn
connected to a square rod called a Kelly. The drill is rotated by a rotating which allows the drilling rod to
slide down as the hole progresses. After the drilling is completed, the casing is lowered into the hole.
The clay deposits in the well during mud pumping is removed by washing it with water.
This method is a modification of the hydraulic rotary method and is useful for making large wells of
diameter up to 1.2 m. The tool consists of a hollow drill, a drill pipe and water swivel. Cuttings are
removed by water through a suction pipe called drill pipe. The hole is drilled by pumping water under
pressure through the drill bit as shown.
The walls of the hole are supported by hydraulic pressure acting against a film of fine-grained materials
deposited on the wall side by drilling water. Cuttings are removed by water and after the mixture (water
and cuttings) come out to the surface where it is passed through a settling tank.
After the bore hole has been constructed or drilled, the well must be completed so as to provide clear
water into the well. Completion methods include;
a) Casing and screens: In unconsolidated formation, a casing is necessary which supports the outside
material and helps in freely admitting water into the well. For entry of water the casing should
either contain perforations or its lower part may be replaced by a screen or a strainer. They are
made from various corrosion resistant metals and sometimes plastic screens may be used.
b) Gravel packing: At many times, a layer of gravel surrounding the screen casing, is provided so as to
increase the effective well diameter and keep the fine materials out of the well. Such a well will
have greater specific capacity than the well of the same diameter not surrounded by gravel. A
section of gravel packed well is shown below.
The following a re general methods of reducing corrosion and thereby increasing the life of a tube well.
When a non-artesian well is driven and water is pumped heavily so as to cause sufficient drawdown, the
water level in the well decreases as well as water in the neighborhood forming an inverted cone of
depression as shown in the diagram below.
The base of the cone is a circle of radius R known as circle of influence and the inclined side is known as
the drawdown curve.
In Thiem’s method, two observation wells within the circle of influence of the main pumping well are
driven at distances r1 and r2. The pumping is started in the main well at a sufficient rate to cause heavy
drawdown. The pumps are then adjusted so that the equilibrium condition are reached (i.e. the
pumping rate becomes equal to the rate of yield causing water level to attain a constant value). With s1
and s2 being the draw downs in observation wells 1 and 2 then the height of water in the observation
wells is given as h1 and h2 a as shown in the diagram below
Where:
EXAMPLE
A pumping test was made in a medium of sand and gravel to a depth of 15m where a bed of clay was
encountered. The normal water level was at the surface. Observation wells were located at distances
3m and 7.5 m from the pumping well. At a discharge of 3.6 liters/sec, from the pumping well a steady
state was attained at 24 hours. The drawdown at 3m was 1.65 and at 7.5 was 0.36. compute the
permeability of the soil.
SOLUTION
Q= 3.6 liters/sec
By Thiem’s equation;
𝜋𝐾(ℎ 2 )
2−ℎ21
Q= 𝑟2
2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑟1
2.3×0.398 3.6
𝐾= × m/sec
𝜋×36.107 1000
2.3×0.398 3.6
𝐾= × × 100 m/sec
𝜋×36.107 1000
= 0.00289cm/sec
The following are the limitations in the derivation of the Thiem’s formula.
i. The aquifer is homogenous, isotropic and infinite in extent, so that its coefficient of transmissibility
or permeability is constant everywhere
ii. The well has been sunk through full depth of the aquifer, and it receives water from entire thickness
of the aquifer.
iii. Pumping has been continued for a sufficient time at a uniform rate so that the equilibrium stage or
steady flow conditions have been achieved.
iv. Flow lines are radial and horizontal and flow is laminar.
𝑟
2.3𝑄 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2
𝑟1
T=
2𝜋(𝑆1−𝑆2 )
In Dupit’s formula, no observation wells (as in the Thiem’s) are constructed. The main well is pumped
out so as to get sufficient drawdown, and then the rate of pumping is adjusted to establish the
equilibrium conditions (i.e., the rate of inflow equals the rate of outflow and the water level in the well
becomes constant).
Considering R as the radius of influence (taken as about 300m) , 𝑟𝑤 as the radius of the well, ℎ𝑤 as the
height of the well after draw down and d as the thickness of the aquifer then the discharge of an
unconfined aquifer is given by the Dupit’s formula as
𝜋𝐾(𝑑 2 −ℎ𝑤
2)
Q= 𝑅
2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑟𝑤
EXAMPLE
A well penetrates into an unconfined aquifer having saturated depth of 100 meters. The discharge is
250 liters per minute at 12 meters drawdown. Assuming equilibrium flow conditions and a homogenous
aquifer, estimate the discharge at 18 meters draw down. Assume the radius of influence to be the
same.
Solution
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 250 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑑 = 100 𝑠1 = 12𝑚 𝑠2 = 18𝑚 𝑄1 = 250 = = 4.1667 × 10−3 𝑄2 =?
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 60×1000 𝑠 𝑠
𝜋𝐾(𝑑 2 −ℎ𝑤
2)
Q= 𝑅
2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑟𝑤
In the first case; draw down= 12m therefore ℎ𝑤1 = 100𝑚 − 12𝑚 = 88𝑚
For both cases R and 𝑟𝑤 will be the same as well as the value for K
𝜋𝐾(𝑑 2 −ℎ𝑤
2) 𝜋𝐾 𝜋𝐾
𝑄1 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 × (𝑑 2 − ℎ𝑤
2) =
𝑅 × (1002 − 882 )
2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑟𝑤 𝑟𝑤 𝑟𝑤
𝜋𝐾
4.1667 × 10−3 = 𝑅 × (1002 − 882 )
2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑟𝑤
𝜋𝐾 4.1667×10−3
𝑅 =
2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1002 −882
𝑟𝑤
Case 2
𝜋𝐾
note that the value 𝑅 will be the same for both cases
2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑟𝑤
4.1667×10−3 𝑚 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑄2 = × (1002 − 822 ) = 6.05 × 10−3 = 𝟑𝟔𝟑
1002 −882 𝑠 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆
This is a type of well where water flows out of the well automatically under pressure. As hence there is
no need of installation of pump in this pump. Artesian conditions develop at a place where a water
bearing strata is enclosed between two impervious layers such that hydraulic gradient is above the
ground. Pumping is not required normally but as pressure drops pumping may be necessary.
An intake structure constructed at the entrance of the of the conduit thereby helping in protecting the
conduit from being damaged or clogged by ice, debris etc. can vary from simple concrete block
supporting the end of the conduit pipe to huge concrete towers housing intake gates, screens pumps
etc. and even sometimes living quarters and shops for operating personnel.
1. As per as possible the intake should be near the treatment plant so that conveyance cost is
reduced from source to the water works
2. The intake must be located in the purer zones of the source so that the best possible quality
of water is withdrawn from the source thereby reducing the load on the treatment plant and
the cost of treatment.
3. The intake must never be located on the downstream or in the vicinity of the point of disposal
of waste water. When it becomes necessary to locate the intake in the close proximity of the
disposal of a drain etc. it is advisable to construct a barrage upstream of the disposal point
and install the intake on the upstream of the barrage.
4. The site should not be located near navigation channels as otherwise there are chances of the
intake water getting polluted due to the discharge of refuse from ships and boats.
5. The intake should be located such that it can draw sufficient quantity of water even in the
worst condition, when the discharge of the source is minimum. Otherwise during dry seasons
when the water level goes down and the water recedes inside, the intake may be left dry
without any water to be drawn around it. The construction of diversion weirs ensures supplies
in cases where major variations of water levels are incurred.
6. The site should permit greater withdrawals of water at future dates. Thus, there should be
sufficient scope for future additions and expansions.
7. The site of the work should be easily accessible during floods and should not get flooded.
Moreover, the floods water should not be concentrated in the vicinity of the intake.
8. At site there should not be heavy current of water, which may damage the intake structure.
9. In meandering rivers, the intake should not be located on sharp curves. If they have to be
located on curves, it will be better to locate them on concave bank rather than on the convex
bank. Although scoring tendencies will be more on the concave side; yet at least water will
remain available on this side. On the convex side water may not remain available due to
silting and could consequently lead to blocking.
1. The intake should be sufficiently heavy, so that it may not float due to upthrust of water, and
neither should it be washed away by the heavy currents of water.
2. All forces which are expected to work on the intake should be carefully analyzed and the intake
should be designed to withstand all of them.
3. The construction should be away from navigation channels and if so then it should be protected
by cluster of piles to act against caused by navigation vessels.
4. The foundation should be taken sufficiently deep to avoid undermining and overturning of the
structure.
5. Strainers e.g., in form of wire mesh should be provided to avoid entry of large floating objects
and fish.
6. Inlet should be located in such a way that sufficient amounts of water will be availed to the
intake.
i. EXPOSED INTAKES
These are in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of a river, or in some cases even
away from the banks. Exposed intakes are more common due to ease of operation. However the may
form a barrier to navigation.
Exposed intake
These intake structures are entirely constructed under water. They are commonly used to obtain water
from a lake. They may be either
Simple concrete block intake – where a simple concrete block supports the starting end of the
withdrawal pipe as shown in the diagram below.
Or a
Rock filled timber crib- where a rock filled timber supports the starting end of the withdrawal pipe as
shown in the diagram below.
The withdrawal pipe is taken up to the sump well at shore from where water is lifted up by pump. The
intake opening is generally covered by screens so as to prevent entry of debris ice, etc. into the
withdrawal conduit. Incase of lake where silt tends to settle down, the intake opening is generally kept
about 2 to 2.5 m above the bottom of the lake and thus to avoid the entry of large amounts of silt and
sediments. Such intake structures should be placed in lakes in streams or in lakes at a place where they
may not get buried under sediment and where there are deep waters (note that in lakes deep waters
are generally available at the bottom).
These submerged intakes are cheap and generally do not abstract navigation. They are therefore widely
used for small water projects drawing water from streams or lakes having relatively change in water
surface elevation throughout the year. These intakes are not used on bigger projects on rivers a
reservoir as their main disadvantage is the fact that they are not easily accessible for cleaning and
repair.
INTAKE TOWERS
Intake towers are generally used on large projects and on rivers or reservoirs where there are
fluctuations of water level. Gate controlled opening at various levels called ports, are generally provided
in these concrete towers, which may help in regulating the flow through the tower and permit some
selection of the quality of water to be withdrawn. Access to this tower is generally provided for
operating the gates, etc. by means of foot bridge from the tower up to the dam or up to the shore.
If the entry ports are submerged at levels, then there is no problem of any clogging or damage by ice,
debris etc. However, the level of the lowest port should be high enough above the reservoir bed so that
the sediment is not drawn into them. There are two major types of intake towers.
It may consist of a concrete circular shell filled with water up to the reservoir level and has vertical inside
shaft which is connected to the withdrawal pipe. The withdrawal may be taken directly to the treatment
plant incase no lift is required (such as reservoir) or to the sump well in case a low lift is required (such
as in case of a river). The withdrawal conduit may lie over the bed of the of the river or may be in the
form of tunnel below the river bed. Openings are made into the outer concrete shell, as well as into the
inside shaft so as to control the of water into the shaft and the withdrawal conduit. The water coming
out of the withdrawal conduit may be taken to pump house for lift if the city’s water treatment plant is
located at high elevation; or may be taken directly to the treatment plant if it is situated at a lower
elevation.
The essential difference between a dry and a wet intake tower is that, whereas in a wet intake tower,
the water enters from the entry port into the tower and then it enters into the conduit pipe through
separate controlled opening; in a dry intake tower, the water is drawn into the withdrawal conduit
through a gated port as shown in the diagram below.
A dry intake tower will therefore have no water inside the tower if its gates are closed, whereas the wet
intake to the wet intake tower will be full of water even when the gates are closed.
When the entry ports are closed, a dry tower will be subjected to the additional buoyancy forces and
hence must be heavier construction than the wet towers. However, the dry intake towers are useful and
beneficial in the sense that water can be drawn from any selected level of the reservoir by opening the
port at that level.
Intake structures are huge structures of various design standing in the river, and hence should be
located so as not to interfere with navigation. They must be properly designed so as not to interfere
with navigation. They must be properly designed so as to withstand the worst possible combination of
various forces such as hydrostatic pressure, wind and earthquake forces, forces caused by waves, ice,
debris, etc.
Depending upon the source of water the intake works are classified as following
1. River Intake
2. Canal Intake
3. Reservoir Intake
4. Lake Intake
Medium sized intake wells are generally adopted for withdrawing water from rivers, or canals and are
via media between submerged intakes and intake towers.
RIVER INTAKE
The figure below shows a medium sized river intake which is generally adopted when the fluctuation of
water level and the meandering tendencies are either less or have been nullified by a diversion weir.
Fig. Medium river intake (supplying water to a city at a higher elevation than the intake)
In its simplest form it consists of a chamber, circular or rectangular made of brick work, R.C.C or stone
masonry. It is located either inside the river in deep waters, or in under sluice pocket near the bund if
the river is provided with a diversion weir. The water enters the chamber through an opening which is
covered by bar screens so as to prevent the entry of debris etc. The water from the intake chamber is
taken through a withdrawal conduit (also called intake conduit) to a sump well from where it is lifted
and taken to the treatment plant. The intake chamber is connected to the sump well or jack well
(situated at the shore) by a bridge arrangement. This facilitates the inspection, repairs etc. in the intake
chamber.
Sometimes when the river is provided with the diversion weir, the water may not be separately
collected into the intake chamber inside the river but may be taken out through the ‘off take channel’
up to the sump well at the shore. Similarly, sometimes when fluctuations and meandering are less a
small pick-up weir may be constructed across river instead of constructing a full-fledged diversion
scheme. For such a case a cross approach channel is excavated in the river bed, which leads the water
up to the sump well as shown in the diagram below
Fig. River intake arrangement when an approach channel leads water to the sump well
HFL denotes high flood level: LWL denotes low water level
Such an intake will therefore consist a circular masonry tower of 4 to 7 m in diameter constructed
along the bank of the river at such place from where required quantity of water can be obtained even in
the dry periods. It is provided with penstock with screen covers to draw water at different levels to the
intake. The screens prevent floating objects from entering the intake. All the penstocks are provided
with valves closing and opening. A stage is provided in the intake and pump installed to pump water to
the treatment.
It is located in the river that even during the minimum water level, water remains available in the intake
in sufficient quantities.
Incase the elevation of the city where the treatment plant is lower than the lowest water level in the
river, water may not be taken to the sump well and is taken directly to the city either by channel or
pressure pipe laid either on the surface or below the surface
For both case intake is always located on the upstream side of the town for which water is being
obtained from the intake.
EXAMPLE
Design a sump well of a pumping station pumping raw water for 80,000 people assuming a per capita
demand of 135 liters.
SOLUTION
135 × 80000
Average demand = = 7.5 𝑚 3 / 𝑚𝑖𝑛
24 × 60 × 1000
= 150 𝑚 3
𝜋 𝑑2
37.5 =
4
D= 6.9 m
CANAL INTAKE
The intake well is generally located in the bank of the canal. The intake consists of a brick masonry
chamber constructed partly in the canal bank. Since the flow area in the canal is obstructed by the
construction of the intake well, the flow velocity in the canal increases due to reduction in the water
way and hence pitching is generally provided on the upstream as well as on the downstream portion of
the canal near the intake. The water enters the chamber through the course screen which is generally
provided at minimum water level in the canal, and at the bottom is about 0.15m above the canal bed to
avoid entry of bed load. The water gets out of the chamber through the outlet pipe provided with a bell
mouth and is covered with a hemispherical fine screen. The outlet valve is provided with a valve, which
can be operated from the top and controls the entry of water into the outlet pipe. From the outlet pipe
water is led to the treatment plant.
The flow velocity through the outlet conduit (withdrawal conduit) is generally kept as about 1.5 m/sec
and this help with determining the area and diameter of the withdrawal conduit. The area of course
screen is determined by limiting the flow velocity to as low as 0.15m/s. The velocity through the bell
mouth inlet is about 0.3 m/sec or so. The head loss in the intake conduit up to the treatment plant is
determined by Hazen William formula to be discussed later.
EXAMPLE
Design a bell mouth canal intake for a city of population 75000 persons, drawing water from a canal
which runs only for 10 hours a day with a depth of 1.5m. Also calculate the head loss in the intake
conduit if the treatment works are ¼ km away. Draw a neat sketch of the canal intake. Given average
consumption per person as 150l/d. Assume velocity through the screens and bell mouth to be less than
16cm/s and 32cm/s respectively.
SOLUTION
Since the canal runs only for 10 hours a day, the whole daily flow is required to be drawn in 10 hours.
11.25 ×106
= = 1.125 m3 per hour.
103
1.125 × 103
= m3 per sec.
60 ×60
= 0.3125 m3/sec
Area of course screen which (may be made as vertical iron bars of 20mm diameter at a spacing of 3 to 5
cm center to center)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
=
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛.
Assuming the minimum water level in the canal to be 0.3 m below the full supply level and that the
screen is located 0.15 m above the canal bed, the height of the screen will be given by
= 1.05 m
0⋅98×4
𝑑=√
𝜋
Hence use a 1.2 diameter bell mouth provided with perforations for fine screens.
0.3125
= m2 = 0.208 m2
1.5
0.208×4
𝑑=√
𝜋
Head loss through the conduit up to treatment works is calculated by the Hazen’s equation
0.5
= = 0.125 m
4
= 1.59 m/sec
0.54
𝑆= √0.0533 = 4.41 × 10−3
𝐻𝐿 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑆= =
𝐿 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
1
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐿 × 𝑆 = ( × 1000) × (4.41 × 10−3 )
4
= 1.1025m
A detailed sketch of the canal intake will be as shown in the diagram below.
3.RESERVOIR INTAKE
The intake of an EARTH DAM is constructed on the dam side of the reservoir as shown in the diagram
below.
Fig. valve tower intake situated on the upstream toe of the earth dam
The depth of the water is always the maximum and water remains available at the intake even during
driest season. The intake consists of an intake well, which is placed near the dam and connected to the
top of dam by foot bridge. The inlet pipes are located at different levels with common vertical pipe. The
inlet pipes are with valves which may be opened or closed when required to withdraw water from any
permissible desired level. The valves of intake pipes are operated from the top and they are installed in
a valve room. Each intake pipe is provided with bell mouth entry with perforations of fine screen on its
surface. The outlet pipe is taken out through the body of dam. The outlet pipe should be suitably
supported. The location of intake pipes at different levels ensures supply of water from a level lower
than the surface level of water.
When the valve of an intake pipe is opened the water is drawn off from the reservoir to the outlet pipe
(also called withdrawal conduit or sluice way) through the common vertical pipe. The sluice way passes
through the body of the dam and delivers the water through to the city where the treatment plant is
located. To reach up to the bottom of intake from the floor of valve room, the steps should be provided
in Zigzag manner.
Sometimes when earth dams are provided with central impervious core, the intake wells (so called
valve towers) may be located within the body of the dam as shown in the diagram below.
The intake well of a MASONRY DAM is located inside the body of the dam for withdrawing the water as
shown in the diagram below.
The arrangement of these intake well in all these intake wells is similar to the dry intake towers earlier
described with the only difference with the only difference that the dry tower intake is surrounded by
water on all sides and stands in the river whereas the valve tower is fed through conduits and stands
either in the dam or very near to the dam.
4. LAKE INTAKE
For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. These intakes are constructed in
the bed of the lake below the water level; so as to draw water in dry season also. These intakes have so
many advantages such as no obstruction to the navigation, no danger from the floating bodies and no
trouble due to ice. As these intakes draw small quantity of water, these are not used in big water supply
schemes or on rivers or reservoirs. The main reason being that they are not easily approachable for
maintenance.
For crib t intake consist of a pipe of a pipe laid in the bed of the lake. One end of the pipe with bell
mouth opening is kept in the middle of the lake covered with screens and protected with timber planks
or concrete crib. The water enters the pipe through the bell mouth and flows through gravity to the
bank where it is collected and pumped to the treatment works where necessary. See the above
diagrams of crib and submerged intake
INTAKE CONDUITS
Intakes located at a long distance from the pump usually deliver their water to a sump well at the bank
of the source. This requires large pipes and conduits having velocities which are slow but not too slow to
allow sedimentation. The conduit may be a submerged pipe or a tunnel. Tunnels are expensive but less
likely to be damaged than pipes. A submerged pipe should be protected by burying it in a trench or by
surrounding it with a rock or holding it in place by pilling.
PORTABLE INTAKES
In emergent cases, the portable or movable intake may be used. In such circumstances, pumping plant
fitted on a truck and the suction pipe is thrown into the water source where sometimes temporary
arrangements of some sorts are made. The trolly which the pump is fitted is brought to the bank and set
in such a position that the suction pipe of the pump may be put into the water. At the end of the suction
pipe a strainer piece is also attached to prevent entrance of suspended solids. While lowering the
suction pipe such an arrangement should be made that the end of the suction remains lifted up in water
and silt from bed is not sucked in during pumping.
In case of underground water sources such as wells and tube wells (where no separate intake is required
but lift bed is required), the problem of conveying water from the source to the city does not normally
arise as these sources are generally located within the cities. However, in case of infiltration wells and
Ranney wells situated near the river bank and the water has to be transported as in the case of surface
water.
Further if the city is situated at an elevation higher than the elevation of the lowest level of the source,
the water has to be pumped through pressure pipes. A low lift is generally required when the water is
withdrawn from the river. On the other hand, if the source is available at higher elevation than the city,
the water can be conveyed without lifting through open or closed conduits either by simple gravity or
under pressure. This is generally possible in case the water is withdrawn from storage reservoirs or
lakes.
Depending upon the condition and characteristic of flow, the conduits may be divided into:
i. Gravity conduits
ii. Pressure conduits
Gravity conduits
Gravity conduits are those in which water flows under the mere action of gravity. In such a conduit the
hydraulic gradient line will coincide with the water surface and will be parallel to the bed of the conduit
as shown in the diagram below.
This is so, because in such a flow, the water is all along at atmospheric pressure and thus there is no
pressure term in Bernoulli’s equation.
Since the bed of such a conduit has to follow the gradient slope of the hydraulic gradient line (which
govern the flow velocities, etc.), the gravity or grade of conduits have to follow this small gradual slope
and cannot follow the available natural slope.
These conduits cannot, therefore go up and down hills and valleys as desired by the existing topography
of the area. Hence, the gravity conduits will have to be taken above the NSL on trestles e.tc on valleys
and depressions, or will have to be taken below the NSL through tunnels or through canals in a deep
cutting. Alternatively, they may be carried along zigzag paths like roads, highways, etc. thus requiring
enormous lengths of conduits and increased costs. Gravity conduits can be in the form of canals, flumes
or aqueducts as given below.
CANALS
Canals are open channels which are constructed by cutting high grounds and constructing banks on low
grounds. They are generally constructed in balanced cut and fill and are cheap to build in suitable soils.
They may be lined or unlined depending upon the nature of the ground, available slopes, design
velocities, quality of water required, loses of water, etc. However, they are generally not used for water
supplies but often for irrigation. When used for water supplies, they have to be lined to obtain better
quality of water.
FLUMES
Open channels supported above the ground over trestles etc. are called flumes. They are used to
convey water across a valley and minor depressions or over drains and other obstructions in their path.
They may be made of masonry, R.C.C, metal or wood and are usually circular or rectangular in cross
section.
GRADE AQUEDUCTS
Grade aqueducts are closed, rectangular or circular or horse shoe section, built of masonry or R.C.C.
they wind their way through landscape, with gradual slopes, like roads, rail ways and high ways.
Although they are covered or closed, yet water does not flow under pressure as they are not allowed to
run full. They are generally designed as ½ or ¾ full. The aqueducts which have which have been designed
as grade aqueducts should not run full under pressure because the tension developed under such
circumstances may open out the joints of developed under such circumstances may open out the joints
of masonry work endangering the structural stability, thus causing serious leakage of water. In spite of
being closed, their waters are susceptible to contamination as the pollution can seep into their water
through cracks and leaky joints. The shape of the section may be circular, rectangular or horse shoe. A
circular section provides the maximum hydraulic mean depth or maximum area per unit of wetted
𝐴
perimeter (i.e., 𝑅 = ). And is therefore the most efficient.
𝑃
Moreover, since the perimeter per unit cross section is least, the construction cost of materials is also
least. But circular sections can not be easily supported on ground and, therefore they are seldom used.
A rectangular shape is hydraulically inefficient and requires more materials for construction but is more
stable to support on ground. Rectangular sections are therefore widely used. Horse shoe shape as
shown in the diagram below, comprise between the circular and rectangular shapes and may be used
with greater advantage.
PRESSURE CONDUITS
In pressure conduits, which are closed conduits and as such no air can enter into them, the water flows
under pressure above the atmospheric pressure. The hydraulic gradient line for such a conduit can be
obtained by joining the water surface elevation in the piezometer installed in the conduits at various
places as shown.
The bed or the invert of the conduit in pressure flows is thus independent of the grade of the hydraulic
gradient line which really governs the velocity of flow. The pressure pipes can, therefore follow the
natural available ground surface and freely go up and down hills or dip beneath valleys or mountains,
sometimes rising above the hydraulic gradient lines and thus requiring less lengths of pipes. In such
cases however, there is a limit to allowable negative pressure due to cavitation etc., encroachment up to
a maximum of 8.3 meters is generally permitted.
The pressure aqueducts may be in the form of closed pipes or closed aqueducts and tunnels called
pressure aqueducts or pressure tunnels designed for pressure likely to come on them and for various
other forces. The aqueducts as well as tunnel sections are generally kept circular for hydraulics as well as
structural reasons. Due to their circular shapes, every pressure is conduit generally termed as pressure
pipes. When a pressure pipe drops beneath a valley, stream, or some other depressions, it is called a
sag, depressed pipe or inverted siphon. The pressure pipe proves economical than canals or flumes
because they can generally flow shorter routes. However, their biggest advantage is water moving
through such a conduit is not exposed anywhere and hence there are no or very less chances of it
getting polluted. Pressure pipes are therefore used universally for water supplies, whereas gravity
conduits are generally used for carrying sewage and drainage. Since water is wasted in canal through
percolation and evaporation, pressure conduits are preferred where water is scarce.
Although the pressure pipes can be laid at any depth below the hydraulic gradient line, yet for
economic considerations should generally hug the hydraulic gradient line in profile and the straight line
in plan. If the pipe goes much below the hydraulic gradient line, the natural pressure developed in the
pipes may too high to be borne by an ordinary pipe material and will necessitate the construction of
thicker and stronger pipes which may necessitate enormous construction difficulties and increased
costs. It therefore follows that possible shortest routes which may create too high pressures in the pipes
may not prove to be the cheapest. As hence the size and shape of supply pipes must be determined by
hydraulic, structural and economic considerations.
Further the hydraulic gradient should be such that the velocities generated are neither too small so as to
require large diameter pipes nor too large to cause excessive loss of pressure heads. The velocity also
should be non-silting and non- scouring. Therefore, the velocities are therefore kept between 0.9m/sec
and 1.5m/s. However, commonly available pipe materials can handle a higher velocity of up to 3m/s to
6m/s.
It is normal practice to design the pipes in such a way that the available pressure heads between the
source and the city is just lost in overcoming the frictional resistance offered to the flow by the pipe
interior. Minor loses caused by abrupt change in the flow geometry as a result of change in pipe size,
bends, valves and fittings of all types may contribute a minor value which may sometimes be neglected
in long pipes such as used for conveying water from the source to the city. The head loss caused by pipe
friction can be found by the following formulae:
i. Darcy-Weisbach formula
ii. Manning’s formula
iii. Hazen William’s formula.
Darcy-Weisbach formula
4𝑓𝑙𝑣2 𝑓𝑙𝑄2
𝐻𝐿 = = where:
2𝑔𝑑 3𝑑 5
At some cases the friction factor is multiplied by 4 such that a single f’ is obtained
𝑓′𝑙𝑣2 𝑓′𝑙𝑄2
If f’ = 4f then = 𝐻𝐿 = =
2𝑔𝑑 12𝑑 5
The friction factor (f’) is a dimensionless factor and depends on the type of the material and the internal
roughness of the pipe. It generally varies between 0.02 (for new pipes) to 0.075 (for old pipes) and
𝑉𝑠 × 𝑑 2𝑒
depends on Reynold number 𝑅𝑒 = and the relative roughness of the pipe (i.e. 𝛿 = ). The
µ 𝑑
relative roughness depends on the absolute roughness(e) of the inside surface and the diameter of the
pipe d. The approximate values of (f’) are given by the following empirical relations.
1
f’ = 0.04[1 + ] for old pipes and
35𝑑
1
f’ = 0.02[1 + ] for new pipes
35𝑑
MANNING’S FORMULA
Manning’s formula though generally used for gravity conduits, is also applicable to turbulent flow in
pressure conduits and yield good results provided the roughness coefficient n is accurately estimated.
Head loss according to Manning’s equation is given by:
𝑛2 ×𝑉 2 ×𝐿
𝐻𝐿 = 4
𝑅3
Where:
𝜋 ⅆ2
𝐴 4 𝑑
R= = =
P 𝜋𝑑 4
This formula is widely used for pipe flow and states that
Where:
𝐶𝐻 = coefficient of hydraulic capacity. The soother the pipe the greater the value
𝑑
𝑅 = hydraulic mean depth of pipes in meters = for circular pipes flowing full.
4
The values of (𝐶𝐻 ) for different pipe materials are given in the table below.
The carrying capacity of pipes decreases with time because with the passing of time the internal surface
of the pipes go on becoming more and more rough. Hence a larger value of friction factor and a lower
value of (𝐶𝐻 ) are adopted for old pipes than new pipes.
EXAMPLE 1
Estimate roughly the size of supply conduit leading to an adequate service reservoir, serving
Also find the hydraulic gradient which the pipe lines at which the pipe lines are proposed to be laid.
Assume any suitable data required.
SOLUTION
For town of population 15,000 population per capita demand= 200 liters/capita/day
For city with industrial establishment having a population of 500,000, per capita demand= 270
liters/capita/day
Assuming maximum daily demand as 1.8 times the average, the maximum quantity of water required:
5.4×106
a) for town = 1.8 × 3 million liters/day= 5.4 million liters/day = 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐for
103 ×24 ×60×60
= 0.063𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐
243×106
b) for town = 1.8 × 135 million liters/day = 243 million liters/day = 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐for
103 ×24 ×60×60
= 2.81𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐
Assuming a flow velocity of 1.2 m/sec through the circular conduit, we get.
𝑄 = 𝐴×𝑉
1.2
𝑆 0.54 = ⅆ
0.85×110×( )0.63
4
1.2 1
a) For town 𝑆 0.54 = 0.25 0.63 =
0.85×110×( ) 13.54
4
1
𝐻𝐿 1 0.54 1
𝑆= =( ) =
𝐿 13.54 128
𝟏
Thus, the hydraulic gradient is i.e., 1 m fall in 128 m length
𝟏𝟐𝟖
1.2 1
b) For town 𝑆 0.54 = 1.8 0.63 =
0.85×110×( ) 47.2
4
1
𝐻𝐿 1 0.54 1
𝑆= =( ) =
𝐿 47.2 1300
𝟏
Thus, the hydraulic gradient is i.e., 1 m fall in 1300 m length
𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎
Note. It proves that in smaller pipes at equal velocities, the head loss is more. Hence, the cost of
pumping will be increased by using smaller pipes, although the cost of the pipe itself will be reduced.
Example 2
Estimate the hydraulic gradient in a 2 m diameter smooth concrete carrying a discharge of 3cumec by a)
Darcy-weisbach formula b) by Manning’s formula c) by Hazen William’s formula. Assume f=0.00275 and
n= 0.13
Solution
a) Darcy-weisbach
4𝑓𝐿𝑣2 𝑓𝐿𝑄2
𝐻𝐿 = =
2𝑔𝑑 3𝑑 5
0.955 0.955 1
𝑆 0.54 = 2 = =
0.85×130×( )0.63 0.85×130 ×0.646 74.8
4
1
𝐻𝐿 1 0.54 1
𝑆= =( ) =
𝐿 74.8 2900
𝟏
Thus, the hydraulic gradient is i.e., 1 m fall in 2900 m length
𝟐𝟗𝟎𝟎
Example 3
A water supply scheme is to be designed serving a population of 400,000, the storage reservoir is situated
8km from the city and loss of head from the source to the city is 16 m. Calculate the size of supply main
by Darcy Weisbach equation as well as Hazen’s formula assuming a maximum daily demand of 200 liters
per day per person and half of the daily supply to be pumped in 8 hours. Assume coefficient of friction of
the pipe material as f=0.003 in Weisbach formula and 𝐶𝐻 = 130 in Hazen’s formula.
SOLUTION
Population = 400,000
=400,000 × 200
120×106
= cubic meters /day
103
120×103
= cubic meters /sec
24×60×60
= 1.39 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐
𝑄 = 1.39 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐
𝐿 = 8𝑘𝑚 = 8000𝑚
𝐻𝐿 = 16𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑑 =?
a) Using Darcy Weisbach formula
4𝑓𝐿𝑣2 𝑓𝐿𝑄2
𝐻𝐿 = =
2𝑔𝑑 3𝑑 5
𝑓𝑙𝑄2 (0.003)×(8000)(1.39)2
𝐻𝐿 = =
3𝑑 5 3(𝑑) 5
(0.012)×(8000)(1.39)2
16 =
12(𝑑)5
(0.012)×(8000)×(1.39)2
(𝑑)5 = = 0.96605
12×16
𝑑= (0.96605)1/5 =
0.993 𝑚
Use the nearest standard available diameter pipe of 1m
𝑄
The velocity of flow will be given by: 𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 and 𝑉 =
A
𝑄 1.39
𝑉= 𝝅ⅆ𝟐
= 𝝅(𝟏)𝟐
= 1.77𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝟒 𝟒
b) Using Hazen’s formula
𝐻𝐿
and 𝑆 =
𝐿
4×1.39 𝑑 𝐻 𝑑 16 𝑑
= 0.85 × 130 × ( )0.63 × ( 𝐿 )0.54 = 0.85 × 130 × ( )0.63 × ( )0.54 = 3.854 ( )0.63
𝝅 ⅆ𝟐 4 𝐿 4 8000 4
4×1.39 𝑑 𝑑 0.63
= 3.854 ( )0.63 = 3.854 = 1.609 𝑑 0.63
𝝅 ⅆ𝟐 4 40.63
4×1.39 1.609×𝝅
𝑑 2 × 𝑑 0.63 = 𝑑 2.63 = = = 1.01
1.609×𝝅 4×1.39
1
𝑑 = (1.01)2.63 = 1.037 𝑚 𝑚
When two pipes are laid in parallel as shown in figure below the head loss through each pipe will be the
same.
Hence, if the characteristics of pipes are known, the distribution of flow in the two pipes can be calculated
by the head losses and applying the equation of continuity i.e., (𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 ). The necessity of laying
the pipes in parallel arises due to the following reason:
i. In order to increase the capacity of the line, additional pipes are sometimes laid in parallel to the earlier
ones.
ii. Two or more pipes are sometimes preferred because when one pipe is under repair, the water can be
supplied through the other. It, thus gives better control and management on water supplies.
iii. Sometimes, one single large size diameter pipe is not available in the market, and two or three smaller
pipes are required to be laid in parallel.
Similarly, many at many times, pipes are connected in series. In such a case the total head loss is equal
to the summation of individual head loss in different pipes. The minor loses in bends, expansions,
contractions, valves, gates etc. also come into play when the pipe sizes vary at various places and is
taken much up and down. Sometimes, this minor loses may be high in comparison to friction losses
(especially when the pipe is small in length) and may to have to be taken into account. These loses are
𝑣2
generally represented in terms of and their common values are given in the table below.
2𝑔
If there are several pipes in parallel, or in series, or in combination of both, it is generally convenient to
express the head loss in the pipe system by an expression.
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑄 𝑥
Where K depends upon the arrangement of length, dimeter and roughness of pipe, and x is the factor
such as 1.85 in Hazen Williams formular, and 2 in Darcy- Weisbach equation and Manning’s formulae.
However, such complicated problem, normally arise in the distribution network and not in transporting
water source to the city, and hence details shall be discussed in distribution system.
S. N ITEM 𝑣2
Loss represented as 𝐻𝐿 = (𝐾𝐿
2𝑔
Value of(𝐾𝐿 )
1 Loss in entrance
i. Bell mouth entry 0.04
ii. Square edged entry 0.5
2 Loss at exit 1.0
3 Loss in sudden contraction 0 to 0.5(varying with diameter ratio)
4 Loss in sudden enlargement 0.17 to 1.0(varying angle between the sides
of the tapering sections)
5 Loss of head in fittings and valves
i. Standard 90˚ elbow 0.9
ii. Standard tee 1.8
iii. Return bend 2.2
iv. Gate valve (half open) 5.6
v. Gate valve (wide open) 0.2
vi. Swing check valve (wide open) 2.5
vii. Glove valve (wide open) 10.0
viii. Angle valve 5.0
ix. Meter venturi 0.3
x. Orifice 1.0
EXAMPLE 1
The lowest level of an impounding reservoir, situated in hills and being used as a source of supply, is higher
than the level of the service reservoir by 150 meters and the distance between them is 50km. The storage
reservoir and the service reservoir were originally connected by a single pipe line designed to carry a
maximum daily demand of 24 million liters per day. However, it was later therefore decided to lay another
pipe of the same diameter along the first in a certain required length and cross-connected. Calculate the
diameter of the pipe to be laid. Make use of William Hazen’s equation. Also derive an expression,
expressing 𝐻𝐿 in terms of L and d from original William Hazen’s equation. Assume 𝐶𝐻 = 120.
SOLUTION
Initial discharge
24×106
= cubic meters per day.
103
24×103
= cubic meters per second = 0.278𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐
24×60×60
Now, the total available head between storage reservoir and service reservoir (i.e., 150 meters) is
assumed to have been dissipated in frictional resistance offered by the pipe to flow, so by Hazen’s formula
we have;
𝑄 𝑄 4𝑄 4×0.278
𝑉= = 𝝅ⅆ𝟐
= =
A 𝝅 ⅆ𝟐 𝝅 ⅆ𝟐
𝟒
With 𝐶𝐻 = 120
4×0.278 𝑑 0.63
= 0.85 × 120 × × (0.003)0.54
𝝅 ⅆ𝟐 2.4
4×0.278×2.4
𝑑 2.63 = = 0.191
𝝅×0.85×120×(0.003)0.54
1
𝑑 = (0.191)2.63 = 0.53𝑚
35×106
= cubic meters per day.
103
35×103
= cubic meters per second = 0.406𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐
24×60×60
Now, let a pipe of length 𝑙 𝑘𝑚 be added and laid alongside the already existing pipe of total length
50km as shown.
The total discharge (i.e., 0.406cumecs) flows through the original pipe for a length equal to (50-l) km,
and then half of the discharge(0.203cumecs) will flow through each, as both the pipes are equal in
diameter. Equating the total head loss in the pipe system to the available head we get,
𝐻 𝐻𝐿 0.54
𝑆 0.54 = ( 𝐿 )0.54 = =
𝐿 𝐿0.54
𝑄 𝑄 4𝑄
𝑉= = 𝝅ⅆ𝟐
=
A 𝝅 ⅆ𝟐
𝟒
4𝑄 𝑑 0.63 𝐻𝐿 0.54
= 0.85 × 𝐶𝐻 × ×
𝝅 ⅆ𝟐 2.4 𝐿0.54
4×2.4×𝑄×𝐿0.54 𝑄×𝐿0.54
𝐻𝐿 0.54 = = 3.595
0.85×𝐶𝐻 ×𝑑 0.63 ×𝝅×ⅆ𝟐 𝐶𝐻 ×𝑑 0.63
1
𝑄×𝐿0.54 0.54 𝑄 1.85 𝐿
𝐻𝐿 = (3.595 0.63)
= 10.69 ( ) ×
𝐶𝐻 ×𝑑 𝐶𝐻 𝑑 4.87
𝑸 𝟏.𝟖𝟓 𝑳
𝑯𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟗 ( ) ×
𝑪𝑯 ⅆ𝟒.𝟖𝟕
Hence an additional pipe of the same diameter in length of 35.9 km will be required.
Example 2
A pipe line 0.6 m diameter is 1.5 km long. To augment the discharge, another pipe line of the same
diameter is introduced parallel to the first in the second half of its length. Find the increase in discharge if
f= 0.01 and the head at the inlet is 30m.
SOLUTION
The question is to be solved similarly to the first one but using Darcy’s Weisbach equation instead of
Hazen-William’s equation for discharge.
4𝑓𝐿𝑣2 𝑓𝐿𝑄2
𝐻𝐿 = =
2𝑔𝑑 3𝑑 5
In the first case, when a single pipe is laid, if the discharge is 𝑄1 , then
𝐻𝐿 = 30 𝑚(𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝑑 = 0.6 𝑚 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝑓 = 0.01 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
𝑓𝑙𝑄2 (0.01)×1500×(𝑄1 )2
𝐻𝐿 = = = 30
3𝑑 5 3(0.6)5
𝑄1 = 0.683 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐
In the second case, when additional pipe is laid in the second half length of the pipe, let us assume that
the discharge is 𝑄2 , then the discharge 𝑄2 flows through the original pipe for a length equal to
1 𝑄2
× 1500 𝑚 = 750𝑚, and then half the discharge (𝑖. 𝑒 )flows through the each of both pipes as they
2 2
are equal in diameter. The total head loss(30m) will be;
𝑄2
30 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 750 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑄2 discharge + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 750 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
2
discharge
𝑄 𝑄
𝑓𝑙(𝑄2 )2 𝑓𝑙( 2 )2 0.01×750×(𝑄2 )2 0.01×750×( 2)2 32.15
30 = + 2
= + 2
= 32.15(𝑄2 )2 + (𝑄2 )2 = 4.0188(𝑄2 )2
3𝑑 5 3𝑑 5 3(0.6)5 12(0.6)5 4
30
(𝑄2 )2 = = 0.7464 𝑄2 = 0.864 𝑚 3/𝑠
40.188
𝑚3 𝑚3
Hence the increase in discharge = 𝑄2 − 𝑄1 = 0.864 − 0.683 = 0.181 𝑚 3 /𝑠 answer.
𝑠 𝑠
The structural design of pressure pipes should be carried out, so that to enable the m withstand the
varying forces likely to come on them. The following forces generally come into play in the pressure pipes.
1. Internal pressure of water including water hammer pressure (usually resisted by use of pipes
with greater tension strength).
2. Pressure due to external loads in the form of back fill, traffic loads etc. (usually resisted by use
of pipes with greater compression strength).
3. Longitudinal temperature stresses created when pipes are laid above the ground (resisted by
providing expansion joints).
4. Longitudinal stresses created due to unbalanced pressure at bends or on point of changes of
cross section (resisted by holding firmly the pipe by anchoring it in a massive concrete or stone
masonry block).
5. Flexural stresses produced when pipes are supported over trestles etc.
1. Internal pressure of water
The internal pressure within a pipe is caused by the water head to which the conduits can be subjected,
𝑝
and by the additional transient pressures. When a pipe is running full, the pressure in the pipe is
𝑤
equal to the virtual ordinate between the H.G line and the center line of the pipe. But when the water is
𝑝
at rest, the pressure in the main pipe is equal to the full static head of water ( 𝑠 ) i.e., the ordinate
𝑤
between the reservoir water level and the center and the center of the center of the pipe) as shown in
the figure below.
In addition to this static water head, increased transient pressure is caused momentarily, when the
gates valves, pumps etc. are closed or opened. The additional pressure created by such a transient
phenomenon is known as water hammer pressure(𝑝ℎ ).
The maximum internal likely to come under worst circumstances is usually taken equal to the sum of full
static pressure and the water hammer pressure. Hence, if the static pressure is represented by (𝑝𝑠 ) and
the water hammer pressure represented by (𝑝ℎ ) then the total internal maximum pressure that occurs
in the pipe will be 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑠 + 𝑝ℎ . The internal pressure creates transverse stresses or circumferential
tension called hoop tension in the pipe walls.
WATER HAMMER
Water hammer may be defined as series of positive and negative pressure waves are produced by
closure of valve or a similar cause, which travel back and forth in the pipe, till they are damped out by
friction. When a liquid flowing in a pipe is suddenly stopped by closing of a valve, etc., the velocity of the
water column behind is retarded, and its momentum gets dissipated due to the conversion of kinetic
energy into elastic energy. A series of positive and negative pressure waves are produced, which travel
back and forth in the pipe, till they are damped out by friction. This phenomenon is known as water
hammer. The figure below explains what happens when a valve etc., is suddenly closed.
When the valve is closed suddenly, an element (say 𝑋1 as shown above) of water just upstream of the
valve, comes to rest, whereas the water upstream of this element continues to move with full velocity V,
therefore strikes the element 𝑋1 and compresses it. A part of this compression is resisted by the
compression of water and the remaining leads to stretching or extension of the pipe wall surrounding
the element 𝑋1. Subsequent elements such as X2(just upstream of 𝑋1) are stopped and it too, is
compressed by the water upstream of which still possess the forward motion. The process is repeated
on successive elements until in a relatively short time, the pressure wave has travelled back to the
reservoir and all the water in the pipe is brought to rest. This leads to an excess pressure at the reservoir
end A, which is not possible since the pressure at surface B cannot remains more than the hydrostatic
pressure (depth AB). Hence, the pressure at A drops down to the normal value (i.e., depth AB).
However, since the pressure at in the pipe is more than the pressure at A, water starts flowing back to
the reservoir and a wave of pressure unloading travels along the pipe from A to C. At the instant the
unloading pressure wave reaches point C, the entire water is under the static head equal to AB.
However, the water continues flowing back to the reservoir until it stops instantly. At the time the water
stops flowing the pressure in the pipe has dropped below the static head resulting to a negative
pressure (−𝑝ℎ ), and a negative pressure wave (called refraction wave) sets towards the reservoir from
point C. Due to the reduction in pressure in the pipe, water starts flowing from the reservoir to the pipe
creating an increase in pressure at point C (𝑖. 𝑒 + 𝑝ℎ ),). The process is repeated forming a full cycle of
positive and negative pressures generated due to the instant closure of the valve as shown in the
diagram below. This phenomenon is termed as Water hammer. The figure below shows the various
pressure wave at different points in the pipe where H0 represent the static pressure head and CV0/g the
pressure hammer head.
In case the valve is opened, expansion of water upstream the valve occurs and a water wave of negative
pressure travels back to the reservoir. The wave is reflected back up to the valve, again producing a
wave of positive pressure which finally gets reflected.
The rise in head due to gradual closure of valve is given by the formula:
𝐿∆𝑉
𝐻= where ∆𝑉i. e. , V − Vf is the change in velocity and pressure resulting from the water hammer
𝑔𝑇
𝜌𝐿∆𝑉
is therefore given by; 𝑝 = . When the flow is stopped completely stopped the final velocity= 0 and
𝑇
𝐿𝑉 𝜌𝐿𝑉
the resultant head and pressure are given by 𝐻 = and 𝑝 = respectively
𝑔𝑇 𝑇
The rise in head due to instantaneous closure of valve is given by the formula:
𝐶∆𝑉
𝐻= where V is the initial velocity. The pressure resulting from the water hammer is therefore
𝑔
𝐶𝑉
given by; 𝑝 = 𝜌 × ∆𝑉 × 𝐶. When the flow is completely stopped then the equations become 𝐻 =
𝑔
and 𝑝 = 𝜌 × 𝑉 × 𝐶
The velocity of flow of pressure wave depends on the modulus of elasticity of water for rigid materials.
𝑘
Given by 𝐶 = √ where the k = modulus of elasticity of water = 2.05 × 109 𝑁/𝑚 2
𝜌
2.05×109
Therefore, for rigid pipe materials by 𝐶 = √ = 1432 𝑚/𝑠 taken as approximately 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
1000
which is the velocity of sound in water.
For elastic materials it depends on the modulus of elasticity of water and the modulus of elasticity of
𝑘 1 1433
pipe material. Given by: 𝐶 = √ × = where E is modulus of elasticity of pipe material,
𝜌 𝑘𝐷 𝑘𝐷
√1+ √1+
𝐸𝑡 𝐸𝑡
For steel and iron pipes, the value of C is assumed as 1300 m/s.
The maximum head rise at the gate is given by the summation of the water hammer head and the static
head. This head gives the total internal pressure of the pipe at that point.
EXAMPLE 1
The water flowing is flowing with a velocity of 1.5 m/s in a pipe of length 2500 m of diameter 500 mm.
at the end. At the end of the pipe, a valve is provided. Find the rise in pressure and the resultant head
rise if the pipe is closed in:
I) 25 seconds
II) 2 seconds
SOLUTION
2𝐿
I) For T= 25 seconds, 𝑇 > hence the valve is closed gradually
𝐶
𝜌𝐿𝑉 1000×2500×1.5
Therefore; 𝑝 = = = 150,000 𝑁/𝑚 2
𝑇 25
𝑝 150000
The resultant head rise= = = 15.3 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1000×9.81
2𝐿
II) For T= 2 seconds, 𝑇 < hence the valve is closed suddenly
𝐶
Therefore; 𝑝 = 𝜌 × 𝑉 × 𝐶 = 1000 × 1.5 × 1433 = 2149500 𝑁/𝑚 2
𝑝 21495000
The resultant head rise= = = 219.1 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1000×9.81
EXAMPLE 2
In the example above, find the pressure and head rise if the pipe is considered elastic. Assume the
thickness of pipe as 10 mm and that the valve is suddenly closed. Also determine the circumferential
stress and longitudinal stress developed in the pipe wall. Take the modulus of elasticity of pipe material
and water as 1.962 × 1011 𝑁/𝑚 2 and 2.05 × 109 𝑁/𝑚 2 respectively.
SOLUTION
𝑝×𝐷
Circumferential stress is given by 𝑓𝑐 = where fc is the circumferential stress, p= internal
2×𝑡
developed, D is the diameter of pipe(m) and t is the pipe thickness(m)
1747560×0.5
𝑓𝑐 = = 43,689,000 𝑁/𝑚2
2×0.01
𝑝×𝐷 1747560×0.5
Longitudinal stress is given by 𝑓𝑐 = = = 21,844,500 𝑁/𝑚 2
4×𝑡 4×0.01
EXAMPLE 3
A gate valve is located 60 m below the surface of a reservoir along a pipe length 750 m to control the
flow. The diameter of the pipe is 2.5 m. Flow through the pipe was initially 25 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. Determine
the total head at the gate if:
SOLUTION
2𝐿 2×750
= = 1.05 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐶 1433
2𝐿
For T= 10 seconds, 𝑇 > hence the valve is closed gradually
𝐶
𝜌𝐿𝑉 1000×750×5.1
Therefore; 𝑝 = = = 382,500 𝑁/𝑚 2
𝑇 10
𝑝 382,500
The resultant head rise= = = 38.99 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1000×9.81
Total head at gate= static head + water hammer head = 60m + 38.99 m=98.99 m say 99 m
𝑝
ii. In the second case the total head at the gate= pressure in the pipe is equal to the virtual
𝑤
ordinate between the H.G line and the center line of the pipe + water hammer pressure
𝑝 𝑝𝑠 𝑣2
= − ℎ𝑓 −
𝑤 𝑤 2𝑔
𝑄 25−10
Therefore, resultant velocity of flow= 𝑉 = = 𝜋×2.52
= 3.1 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴
4
𝜌𝐿𝑉 1000×750×3.1
And the water hammer heads, 𝑝 = = = 232,500 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑇 10
𝑝 232,500
The resultant head rise= = = 23.7 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1000×9.81
𝑝
Total head at the gate= + water hammer head = 58m + 23.7 m=81.7 m
𝑤
Thickness of metal pipe for safe design against internal pressure of water
The thickness of steel or cast iron which will be safe for bearing internal pressure, may be calculated
using the formula.
1 𝑝𝑑
𝑡= ×
ⴄ 2𝑓
Where:
ⴄ = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡. 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 0.9 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑, 0.75 𝑓𝑜𝑟
The least thickness for a steel pipe is 5mm. The thickness obtained by the above formula is increased by
2 to 3 mm, so as to make allowance for corrosion.
Example 4
Water is being brought from an impounding reservoir to the city by means of a 1-meter diameter steel
pipe across an undulating ground. The water level in the reservoir is 390m whereas the lowest level of
the pipe in its L- section is 280 m. Determine the thickness of the pipe required with respect to the
maximum pressure, if the allowable hammer head is made for 88 m over static head. The steel pipe may
be taken to be riveted with efficiency of joint as 70 %. The allowable working stress in steel may be
taken as 12500 m.
Solution
𝑝 = 110 + 88 = 198 𝑚
𝑓𝑐 = 12500 𝑚
1 𝑝𝑑 1 198×1
Thickness of pipe 𝑡 = × = × 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 0.0113 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑠 = 1.12 𝑐𝑚
ⴄ 2𝑓 0.7 2×12500
The flowing are ways that may be adopted to control water hammer:
i. Is
ii. S
iii. S
iv.
Pipes are often buried under the ground and placed in trenches which are back filled. The weight of the
pipe, the weight of the backfill and superimposed load traffic loads if any, will then be transferred to the
pipe. This produces compressive stresses in the pipe material (when the pipe is empty and there is no
internal pressure to counteract these loads) and the material may fail in compression if it exceeds the
allowable compressive stress of the pipe material. The pipe should therefore be checked for this
possible failure. However, in water pipe lines, it is not a big problem, because such pipes are generally
not laid very deep. Moreover, the steel pipes, the reinforced concrete pipes, and the cast iron pipes
which are commonly used for transporting water, are quite good in compression.
3) Temperature stresses
When pipes are laid above the ground, they are exposed to the atmosphere and are therefore subjected
to temperature changes. They expand during day time and contract at night. If this expansion or
contraction is prevented due to fixation or friction over the support, longitudinal stresses are produced
in the pipe material. Special types of expansion joints at suitable intervals (say 20 m to 30 meters or so)
must be provided to counteract these stresses.
Whenever the velocity of a flow changes (whether in magnitude or direction) there is a change in
momentum and there is a force excreted which is proportional to the change of momentum. The force
required to bring this change in momentum comes from the pressure variation within the fluid and from
forces transmitted to the fluid from the pipe walls. The forces acting on the water contained in a
horizontal bend with the resultant force are shown in the figure below.
These impressed stresses try to throw away the pipe in the direction of the resultant force and an equal
opposite force must therefore must therefore be developed in the form of stresses in the pipe walls. The
stresses may be eliminated or reduced by holding the pipe firmly by anchoring it firmly in a massive
block of concrete.
5) Flexural stresses
At many times pipes are carried supported between trestles, or piers or bridge hangers like beams.
Similarly, sometimes the rain water, etc. may wash off the ground, thus exposing them like beams
supported between two supports. Under all such circumstances, bending stresses get produced in the
pipe, since the pipe act like a beam with loads resulting from the weight of the pipe, weight of water in
the pipe and any other super imposed loads. These stresses caused by this beam action may be
determined by usual method of structural analysis applied to beams. However, in normal circumstances,
the stresses produced are small for smaller span, and hence often neglected except for long span where
there are huge super imposed loads.
2. Working pressure: working pressure may be defined as the actual maximum pressure (including
abnormal conditions such as water hammer) to which the pipe is subjected during the operation.
3. Design pressure: Design pressure may be defined as the maximum pressure for which the pipe
has been designed. This is equal to the product of the working pressure and suitable factor of
safety to cover abnormal increase in pressure due to unforeseen circumstances.
4. Test pressure: Test pressure may be defined as the maximum pressure which the pipe can
withstand without any leakage when tested for hydrostatic pressure in accordance with the
standard of testing
Depending on the construction material, the pressure pipes are of the following types:
The selection of a particular type of pipe material for a pipe depends mainly upon the relative economy,
the pressures likely to come and the working pressure, maximum permissible sizes and capacities,
availability of materials and labor for their construction etc. The following are the requirements of a
pipe material;
4. It should be durable
Cast Iron (C.I) pipes: Cast iron pipes are widely used city water supplies. They are sufficiently resistant
to corrosion and may last as long as 100 years or so. They are generally manufactured up to 6m or so on
special orders. Cast iron pipes can be manufactured by two methods. One is the ordinary sand
mounding and other is the centrifugal process. They could be horizontally cast by sand molding or
vertically cast. Horizontal cast iron is 100% strong in tension and 50% stronger in rapture than vertically
cast-iron pipes. Centrifugally cast-iron pipes are made either in sand or metallic molds. They are
available in 3 classes.
i. Moderate in cost
ii. Easy to join
iii. Strong and durable
iv. Corrosion resistant
v. Long life up to 100 years or so.
vi. Service connection can be easily made
i. Water carrying capacity decreases with time, as the value of friction factor increases due to
tuberculation in certain waters.
𝑘𝑔
ii. They cannot be used for high pressures. Generally, not used for pressures above 75
𝑐𝑚2
iii. When large, they are very heavy and uneconomical.
iv. They are likely to break, during transportation or when making connections.
The following types of joints are generally used in cast iron pipes:
This joint is also called spigot joint. Cast iron to be joined by the socket and spigot joint are made in
such a way that one end is enlarged, whereas the other end is normal. The enlarged end is called socket
or bell while the normal end is called spigot. The socket is fitted into the socket as shown below.
A few strands of jute are wrapped around the spigot before inserting it into the socket (or bell) and
then more jute is packed into the joint. The remaining space between the spigot and socket is finally
filled with molten lead, which gets solidified and tightly calked into the joint after cooling and thus
making the joint water tight. The quantity of lead required per joint varies from 3.5 to 4 kg for 15 cm
diameter pipe to about 45 to 50 kg for 1.2 diameter pipe.
This type of joint is somewhat flexible and allow the pipes to be laid on flat curves without use of any
specials. However skilled labor is required for this type of joint. For economy, sometimes certain
patented compounds of Sulphur and other materials and neat cement mortar are also used in place of
lead. These materials, though cheaper than lead do not provide as much flexible joint as provided by
lead.
Flanged joint
Flanged joints are used in pumping stations, filter plants and other locations where it may be necessary
to occasionally disjoint the pipe. Cast iron pipe lengths to be joined by this joint are cast in such a way as
to have flanges at both ends. In case of steel pipes to be joined by such joint, flanges are separately cast
and then screwed down or welded at both the ends of the respective pipe length. Two flanges are
brought together keeping a rubber (called gasket) in between them so as to make them water tight.
They are fixed by means of nuts and bolts as shown.
These joints are strong but rigid, and hence cannot be used where deflection or vibration are expected.
They are expensive and mostly used for indoor works (such as pumping stations, filter plants etc.)
This type of joint is used when it’s required to join the plan ends of cast iron pipes.
A special type of metallic collar is fitted and tightened over the abutting end, thus forming a mechanical
joint. One of the most commonly used type of mechanical joint is the dresser coupling. In this joint, an
iron ring and gasket are slipped over each other abutting ends of the pipes, and an iron sleeve is
inserted between the gasket. The iron rings are then tightened by means of bolts. These joints are
strong and rigid and can withstand vibrations, therefore useful for pipes to be carried over bridges or
below bridges in hangers.
Flexible joint
Flexible joints are used where large-scale flexibilities are required, say for example when pipes are laid
in rivers with uneven beds and large-scale settlements may break the ordinary type of joint. Similarly,
when laying pipes on curves, the provided joints must be flexible, otherwise they may break. In all such
circumstances, flexible joints are used.
The pipes provided with such a joint are cast with special type of ends. The socket is spherical and
spigot, though plain has a bead at the end. A retainer ring is placed over the bead which keeps the
special rubber gasket (rubber gasket lined with a special kind of fabric called duck) in position. A split
cast iron gland ring is then placed over it. They are tightened by means of nuts and bolts as shown.
The spigot-end can be moved to give away the desired deflection and nuts are tightened over the gland
ring
Expansion joint
Expansion joints are provided at suitable intervals in the pipe lines so as to counteract the thermal
stresses produced due to temperature variations. For providing expansion joints in cast iron pipes, the
socket end is cast flanged and the spigot end is plain. The socket end is connected rigidly to an annular
ring which can slide freely over the spigot end. While making this joint, a small space is kept between
the face of the spigot and the inner face of the socket, and the spigot filled up by means of rubber
gasket. The flanges are then tightened by means of nuts and bolts as shown.
When the pipe expands, the socket end moves forward and the gap left just gets closed. Similarly, when
the pipes contract the socket moves backwards creating a gap. All the time, the annular ring follows the
movement of the socket and maintain the gasket in position, thus keeping the joint watertight.
STEEL PIPES
Steel plates of varying thickness for withstanding different pressures are generally bent and welded
(sometimes rivetted) so as to manufacture steel pipes. Welded pipes are smoother and stronger than
riveted joints and are therefore generally used. Since steel is strong in tension even large size diameter
pipes (up to 6 m or so) can be designed for withstanding high internal pressures.
Galvanized steel pipes with circumferential corrugation are much stronger than ordinary steel pipes.
They are therefore generally used where large size diameter pipes of smaller wall thickness are required.
Such pipes are usually manufactured in various sizes from 20cm to 2m diameter and are lighter and can
be more easily transported over distances.
Since these pipes are not cast but made by riveting or welding steel plates, they may therefore vary in
diameter and length. The various pipe lengths are connected by rivetted or welded joints. Expansion
joints are generally not required for steel pipes which are buried underground, because they are not
subjected to large atmospheric changes. However, pipes which are exposed to the atmosphere may
require expansion joints so as to minimize temperature stresses. A typical example of an expansion joint
used in steel pipes is shown below.
Steel pipes are rusted quickly which reduces their life as well as carrying capacities. They are therefore
protected in the inside as well as outside by protective coating. Under ordinary conditions steel pipes
may last as long as 40 years or so.
The greatest disadvantage of steel pipes is that they cannot withstand high negative pressure or vacuum
that may be created in them, especially the combined effect of vacuum and external loads of backfill
and traffic under such conditions. They may therefore collapse if not designed properly. They are also
easily affected by acidic and alkaline waters and even atmospheric agencies may produce adverse
effects on them. This makes the use of plain steel pipes rare.
When water flows through a metal pipe (such as cast iron or steel pipe), it attacks and disintegrates the
surface of the pipe. The material of the pipe thus gets dissolved and rusted, thereby reducing the life
and carrying capacity of the pipe. This phenomenon which leads to progressive disintegration of the
pipe known as corrosion or strictly chemical corrosion. The corrosion of pipes not only reduces their
lives and carrying capacities, but also imparts color and odor to the flowing water and make it
dangerous for drinking. In general, corrosion of metal pipes may occur if iron enters solution as positive
ions (i.e., 𝐹𝑒 ++ ) and combines with the negative ions of water (i.e., 𝑂𝐻 ions), thus forming ferrous
hydroxide ( 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2
𝐹𝑒 ++ + 2(𝑂𝐻)− → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2
The ferrous hydroxide reacts with dissolved oxygen to form ferric hydroxide [𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3 ]. This ferric
hydroxide is in the form of insoluble red precipitate and gets deposited on the pipe surface. The process
leads to formation of tubercles of ferric hydroxide on the inside surface of the pipe. The initial film of
rust coat adheres to the pipe interior and tries to protect the pipe from further corrosion. But this
costing is not impermeable and some corrosion continues. This deposit of ferric hydroxide formed on
the interior surface of the pipe is known as tuberculation and it increases the roughness of the pipe and
thereby reducing the carrying capacity. The decrease in carrying capacity is generally so much large that
a cast iron of smaller diameter can have its capacity reduced to 50% in 5 years or so. Such pipe will have
to be reconditioned by cleaning and lining their interior by centrifugally cast cement lining. The following
are factors contributing to pipe corrosion.
1. ACIDITY: The water having low PH value due to the presence of carbonic acid or other acids may cause
corrosion
2. ALKANITY: The water possessing sufficient calcium bicarbonate alkalinity is anti-corrosive in nature
3. BIOLOGICAL ACTION: The growth of iron-bacteria, and Sulphur bacteria may develop aerobic and
anaerobic corrosion respectively.
4. CHLORINATION: The presence of free chlorine or chloramines makes the water corrosive
5. ELECTRICAL CURRENTS: Corrosion canals also be developed by the union of dissimilar metals or by the
earthing of electrical system to water pipes.
6. MINERAL AND ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS: The presence of high total solids in water accelerates the
process of corrosion
7. OXYGEN: the presence of oxygen is found in both the corrosive and non-corrosive waters. The
aeration in fact is employed in some cases for prevention of corrosion.
1. Pipe corrosion may lead to the tuberculation (formation of small projections on the inside surface of
pipe) which decreases carrying capacity of water
2. The pipe corrosion leads to the disintegration of pipeline and it demands heavy repairs
3. The pipe corrosion imparts color, taste and odor to the flowing water
5. The pipe corrosion may make the water dangerous for drinking and other purposes.
CORROSION CONTROL
i. Protective coating. The pipe surfaces are coated with coating of paint, galvanizing, bituminous
compounds, cement lining, etc. so as to protect the pipe metal from corrosion. Red lead paint and
zinc pigment offer some degree of protection and are often used for painting exteriors of the pipes.
Small sized pipes are often galvanized by dipping them in molten zinc. This is quite effective but is a
costly process. Large sized pipes are often protected by bituminous coating or cement lining.
Sometimes, 1:2 cement motor is used as a protective coating material.
ii. Selection of proper pipe material. The pipe material may be so chosen as to be more resistant to
corrosion. Certain alloys of iron or steel with chromium, copper, or nickel have been found to be
better than pure iron or steel. Moreover, if steel or iron are to be used, then they should be used as
pure as possible.
iii. Quality of water: The water passing through the pipe should be made as less corrosive as possible.
This is accomplished by raising the pH of water (by adding alkalinity in the form of lime or powdered
chalk), by reducing the dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, by adding certain chemical compounds
which reduces tuberculation (such as sodium hexa-metaphosphate in small doses of the order of 0.5
to 2ppm).
iv. Cathodic protection: Electrolytic corrosion can be prevented by connecting the pipe with the
negative terminal of DC generator and connecting positive terminal with blocks of zinc or
magnesium buried in the ground near the pipe. This ensures the flow of a current from the buried
block(anode) towards the pipe(cathode) which is in opposition to the corrosion process of
electrolysis. These retards the migration of metallic ions from the pipe (as the current flow towards
the pipe and not away from the pipe)
Plain concrete pipes are manufactured is small sizes (up to a maximum of about 0.6 m diameter) while
they are reinforced with steel for large diameter pipes. They are easily available in sizes up to diameter
say about 1.8 meters and may be manufactured for large diameters say up to 6 meters on special
orders. They may be either prepared at site by transporting various ingredients (i.e., cement, steel,
aggregates, water etc.) and are known as cast in situ, or may be pre-cast and brought to site. Cast in situ
pipes are useful when the site conditions are difficult and where it may be difficult to carry the pipes.
But since pipes are cast at site, lesser supervision and check is possible as compared to the case of
precast pipes which are cast in factories and thus subjected to greater quality control.
a. Pipes having bar and mesh reinforcement, and concrete poured by usual ordinary methods of
concrete-pouring and tamped.
b. Pipes made by rotating the mold (or the form) rapidly about an axis. The mold contains concrete
and fabricated reinforcement. The centrifugal force throws off the concrete which then spreads
in a uniform layer over the internal surface of the mold and embeds the reinforcement, thus
providing a high density watertight concrete surface. This is known as centrifugal type.
c. Pipes are made by lining thin cylindrical steel shells both internally and externally with rich
cement concrete. These are stronger and more water tight than the first two and are used for
larger pressures. They are known as cylinder type.
R.C.C pipes are generally made from 1:2:2 cement concrete with maximum size of aggregate as 6
mm. They are provided with circumferential reinforcement to carry hoop tension and a normal
longitudinal reinforcement equal to 0.25% of the gross cross-sectional area of concrete. The
thickness of the reinforcement varies between 2.5cm to 6.5 cm for pipe of diameter varying from 0.1
to 1.2 m. Such R.C.C pipe lengths are joined by placing protruding ends of bars of various
reinforcement of different lengths butting against one another and welding them and finally filling
the gap with cement concrete so as to provide a watertight joint.
Plain cement concrete pipes are used for low heads (order of 1.5 kg/cm2); the reinforced cement
pipes are used for medium heads up to 7.5 kg/cm2 and prestressed concrete pipes are used for lager
heads.
i. They can resist external compressive loads and do not collapse under normal vacuums and traffic
loads.
ii. They are not corroded from inside by normal portable water and from outside by ordinary soils.
iii. They are quite strong and their useful life is of order of 75 years or so.
iv. They are easy to construct either in site and in factories and with local ingredients.
v. The coefficient of expansion being low, expansion joints may not be necessary when laid above
the ground.
vi. If laid under water, the empty pipes do not float because of their heavy weight.
i. They are likely to corrode by ground water due to the presence of acid, alkalis or Sulphur
compounds.
ii. They are difficult to make repairs
iii. They cannot withstand high pressures.
iv. They are heavy and bulky, and hence difficult to transport.
v. Making of connection in them is difficult.
vi. They tend to leak due to shrinkage cracks and porosity.
Prestressed concrete
With advancement of prestressed concrete, the prestressed concrete pipes have also come to the
market. In these pipes the permanent internal stresses up to desired extent are deliberately introduced
in the steel reinforcement, so as to counteract the stresses that are likely to come by external loads
when such pipes are subjected to loading.
4. No danger of rusting
3. The pipes are likely to crack during transport and handling operations
Hume steel pipes are R.C.C spun pipes patented under this name. They consist of steel shell coated from
inside with cement mortar by centrifugal process. The thickness of the inside coating varies from 1.25 to
3.75 cm depending upon the size of the pipe. They are coated from the outside to protect the steel from
external weather or sol=il action. The thickness of external coating is 2.5 cm for pipes up to 1 meter in
diameter and is 3.75 for pipes of larger diameters. The thickness of the steel shell depends upon the size
of the pipe and also upon the pressure to be borne by the pipe. Like all R.C.C pipes, they are heavy ad
difficult to handle. The commonly used type of expansion joint in Hume pipes is shown below.
A hemp or jute rope is inserted between the pipe and collared to maintain the alignment of pipe. The
remaining gap is then filled up by rich cement mortar as shown above.
They are generally not used as pressure pipes for carrying water but are extensively used for carrying
sewage and drainage at partial depth. These pipes are free from corrosion and provide smooth hydraulic
efficient surface. They are not used for pressure pipes because clay is very weak in tension and
formation of water tight joints becomes difficult in them. The clay pipes are commonly made in lengths
of about 0.6 to 1.2 m or so.
Asbestos, silica and cement are converted under pressure to dense homogenous material possessing
high strength, called asbestos cement. This material is used for casting these pipes. The asbestos fiber
which is thoroughly mixed with cement serves as reinforcement. These pipes are generally available in
different sizes say from 10 to 90 cm in diameter in about 4 meters length. They are made in 4 different
grades to withstand pressures of 3.5 kg/cm2 to 14 kg/cm2. They are joined by a special type of coupling
called simplex joint which consist of a sleeve and two rubber rings which are compressed between the
pipe and the interior of the of the sleeve as shown in the figure(a) and in a photographic view in fig.(b).
Various other materials which may be used for manufacturing pipe conduit include: copper, wrought
iron, plastics, galvanized iron etc.
Copper pipes are very costly although they are highly resistant to acid as well as alkaline water. They can
be bent easily and do not sag due to heat. They may therefore be effective for carrying water hot water
in buildings. The following are some of the advantages of the advantages and disadvantages of copper
pipes
Wrought iron pipes are lighter than cast iron pipes and can be more easily cut, threaded and worked.
They are more costly and but neat in appearance. They are generally manufactured in small sizes and
are very useful for indoor works. However, their corrosion resistance is very low and are less durable.
Galvanized iron (G.I): As the corrosion resistance of wrought iron pipes is very low, they are generally
protected by galvanizing them with zinc coating and are then known as galvanized iron. The following
are some of the advantages and disadvantages of galvanized iron.
Plastic pipes: Plastic pipes are lighter and free from corrosion. But they are of low strength and less
durable. Moreover, they cannot withstand high temperatures exceeding 60 ˚or so. They may however
be used for minor works and sometimes in house connections, etc. Common plastic pipes include the
polythene and PVC pipes. They can withstand pressures up to 10 kg/cm2 (100 m head of water).
6. The pipes are light in weight and it can easy to mold any shape
Pipes are laid either above ground or below ground. Generally, the pipes bringing water from the source
to the city, are laid on ground, whereas distribution mains taking the water to the localities, are laid
below the roads or streets. The pipe lines, in general should follow the profile of the of the ground, and
the location is chosen which is most favorable with respect to the resulting construction cost and
pressures. When pipes are laid on ground or above ground., they must be laid on well compacted
formation of suitable width so as to avoid future settlement. They may be laid directly over the
compacted soil formation or may be laid over small masonry or cement concrete support at 6 to 12
meters apart. This arrangement though costly facilitate inspection and maintenance, repairs etc. and is
generally adopted.
When pipes are buried under the ground, they are laid in trenches excavated up to the required depth.
The top of the pipe is generally kept about 1 meter below the road surface so as to minimize the impact
and traffic loads transmitted to the pipes. The width of the trench is generally kept 30 to 50 cm more
than the outside diameter of the pipe, subjected to minimum of about 75 cm, which is required for
conveniently laying the pipe. Pipelines carrying water are laid 0.6m to 1m below the ground surface.
PIPE APPURTANCES
In order to isolate and drain the pipe line sections for tests, inspections, cleaning and repairs; a number
of devices such as gates, valves, manholes, insulation joints, anchorage, etc., are provided at various
suitable places along the pipe line. These devices fixed along the water distribution system are known as
appetences. The necessity of the various appurtenances in distribution system are as follows;
n water works practice, to control the flow of water, to regulate pressure, to release or to admit air,
prevent flow of water in opposite direction valves are required.
The following are the various types of valves named to suit their function;
2.Air valves
For proper functioning of the pipe line, the valves are located as described in the diagram below.
Fig. Profile of the pressure pipe showing the location of gates and valves.
Gate or sluice valves are used to regulate the flow of water through the pipes. They are similar to gate
valves used in dams but are not so large. In large pipe lines, bringing water from the source to the city,
they are generally located along the pipe line at different intervals of about 3 to 5 kilometers so as to
divide the pipe line into different sections. Thus, during repair, only one section can be cut off at a time,
by closing the gate at both ends of the section. The gate valves are usually placed at the summit of the
pressure conduits; because when so placed at these points of low pressure, they can be of cheaper and
less stronger materials and also then be operated easily with less force. For, economy in larger diameter
pipes, valves of smaller diameter than the pipe itself are generally used. However, saving in the valve
cost must be balanced against the increased head loss through the valve including the extra loss in
contraction and re-expansion. It should be noted that head loss through the valve increases with
reduction in the size of its opening because of higher velocity of flow. Most common used type of a gate
valve or sluice valve is shown in the diagram below.
The valve is made of cast iron with brass, bronze or stainless-steel mounting. The ends of the valve are
properly jointed on both sides of the pipe lengths, by suitable standard joint as described earlier. In its
simplest form, the valve consists of a wedge-shaped circular disc fitted closely in a recess against the
opening in the valve (sometimes even two discs are provided). This is connected to a wheel (or handle)
by means of a threaded spindle as shown above. The valve can be raised or lowered by raising the wheel
from the top either manually or mechanically.
Air valves
Air valves are the special kind of valve which are generally placed along the pipe lines at summits on
both sides of the sluice valves as (shown in figure below) and also on the downstream sides of all sluice
valve. When placed on the summit which is sometimes on the H.G.L line or sometimes above the H.G.L
line (especially during negative water hammers) they ensure the safety of the pipe against collapse.
Similarly, when placed below the ordinary sluice valve they protect the pipe against negative pressure
which may be developed, when during steady flow valve A is suddenly closed.
Note that when valve A is closed, water continues to flow and a vacuum gets created downstream of
valve A). A negative pressure is therefore developed and an air inlet valve opens automatically as soon
as the pressure falls below some certain fixed predetermined value thus allowing air into the pipe to
balance the pressure.
i. AIR INLET VALVES: These valves open automatically and allow air to enter into the pipeline so
that the development of negative pressure can be avoided in the pipelines. The vacuum
pressure created in the down streamside in pipelines due to sudden closure of sluice valves.
This situation can be avoided by using the air inlet valves.
ii. AIR RELIEF VALVES: Just as air is require to be admitted to a pipe, similarly sometimes air gets
accumulated at high points when the supply is restored and the pipe is refilled after repairs. The
accumulated air obstructs the free flow of water and the pipe may get air locked (where air
accumulated at the summit of pipelines and blocks the flow of water). Air relief valves are
therefore required to be provided at all summits to remove the accumulated air under such
circumstances.
Special designed air valves which can function both ways (i.e., admit air when negative pressures get
developed in the pipe and remove the displaced air when the line is filled up with water after
completion of repairs, etc.) are therefore generally provided on both sides of the summit.
The most commonly used type of single orifice air valve acting as air-inlet as well as air-relief valve is
shown in the figure below.
It consists of a cast iron chamber (circular or rectangular), a lever and a poppet floating valve as shown
above. The chamber is fitted to the pipe top, and the weighted float and the lever in it are so adjusted
that when the chamber is filled with water under pressure from the pipe line below, the float and the
lever remains in a raised position and the valve closed. But when air goes on accumulating at the top
and builds up some pressure, the water level gets depressed, the float sinks down along with the water
level and thus opens the valve. The air then escapes out but only to the extent that no water escapes
with the air. The water level in the chamber, therefore, rises again; the float is lifted and the valve is
closed.
In similar manner, these automatic valves help in admitting outside atmospheric air into the pipe when
negative pressures get created in the pipe. As the pressure decreases, the float drops and uncovers the
opening and thereby admitting air in the pipe so as to counterbalance the negative pressure.
These poppet type of air valves are automatic and are very useful as they can function automatically
both ways.
A double acting orifice air valve is also sometimes provided. It is made up of two cast iron chambers
interconnected and provided with separate balls of different composition and orifice designed to
operate for different conditions of high pressure and low pressure of flow in the pipe.
In order to remove the entire water from within a pipe (after closing the supply), small gated off-takes
are provided at low points (refer to the figure above for location of blow off valve). This valve is known
as blow off valves or drain valves or scour valves. These valves are necessary at low point for completely
emptying the pipe for inspection, repairs etc. When completely open, water comes out of these valves
quickly under gravity and they are made to discharge their water into natural drainage channels or
empty into a sump from which the water can be pumped to waste. However, there should be no direct
connection between the valves and the sewers or drains, so as to avoid the possibility of pollution
travelling into the water pipe. For safety two drain valves are generally placed in series, so as to reduce
the chances of such pollution reaching the water in the conduit.
Even if not provided specifically for water hammer, such valves are often placed along the pipe line at
suitable intervals (especially at low points where the pressures are high), so as to function during
emergencies when pressure rises in the pipe above the design value, and thus to help in protecting the
pipe joint from getting loosened or the pipes from getting burst.
Check valves are sometimes called non-return valves because they prevent water to flow back in the
opposite direction. They may be installed on the delivery side of the pumping set, so as to prevent the
backflow when the pump is stopped (and thus to keep the downstream of the pump always filled to
avoid priming). The figure below shows atypical sketch of a check valve
The check valve consists of a disc, supported on a pivot and covering the inside area of the pipe which
opens only in one direction. When the water tends to flow in the opposite direction, the disc closes the
opening, and the flow is prevented. The simplest type of a check valve is the flap shutter which opens
out in the direction of the flow due to the pressure of flowing water, but closes due to its own weight
when the flow in the permissible direction ceases, and cannot open in the opposite direction. Check
valves are also required at interconnection between polluted water system and portable water system
so as to prevent entry of polluted water into the pure water.
MANHOLES
Manholes are provided at suitable intervals along the pipelines, so as to help construction, and serve for
inspections and repairs. They are generally provided on large pipe lines bringing water from the source
to the city at intervals of about 300 to 600 meters or so. They are usually provided in case of steel, Hume
steel, or R.C.C pipes (which are commonly used for conveyance of water from the source to the city) and
are less common on cast iron pipes.
INSULATION JOINTS
Insulation joints are provided along the pipe lines at suitable intervals, so as to make the pipe an
insulator against the flow of stray electric current, and thus to check electrolysis. Rubber gaskets or rings
can be provided as insulators, in between the pipe lengths, so as to prevent the flow of electric current
between them. Similarly, sometimes sufficient lengths of pipes is covered with rubber covering, so as to
provide appreciable resistance to the flow of current.
ANCHORAGES.
Pipes try to pull apart and get out of the alignment at bends, and other points of unbalanced pressures.
At such places, the force exerted on the joint due to longitudinal shearing stresses caused by these
unbalanced pressures are enormous, and the joints may get loosened and ultimately leading to
excessive leakage or failure of the pipe. In all such circumstances, in order to prevent the pipes from
pulling apart, the pipes are anchored by firmly embedding these portions in massive blocks of concrete
or masonry, which absorbs the thrust.
Similarly, when the pipes are laid on steep slopes, they try to slip and thereby pull apart; and the
resistance of their joints may be insufficient to balance the longitudinal shearing stress. Pipes are
therefore, anchored under such circumstances also. In the same way, when pipes are rigidly joined
without or with inadequate provision of expansion, they are anchored, so as to control the loosening of
the joints because of increased longitudinal stresses caused by expansion and contractions due to
temperature changes. The anchors consisting of cement concrete or masonry blocks are generally used.
The pipes are well bonded to these anchors; for example, by angle iron pipes welded on the pipes., the
anchors may take the form of lugs, cast on such pipes and their fittings to hold tie rods that prevent
movement of the pipe lines.
After the pipe has been laid, fitted with all the appearances and accessories, painted both from the
inside and outside by means of protective paint, etc., before covering the trench with earth, the pipe has
to be tested for soundness in its construction. Joints are inspected visually during the test and re-laid
wherever required. The step-by-step procedure for testing pipes is describe below;
i. The pipe line is tested from section to section, thus at a time, only one particular section lying
between the two sluice valves is taken for testing.
ii. The downstream sluice valve is closed and water is admitted into the pipe through the upstream
sluice valve. The air valves are properly operated during the filling up of the pipe.
iii. The upstream valve, through which the water the water was admitted is closed so as to completely
isolate the pipe section from the rest of the pipe.
iv. Pressure gauges are often fitted along the length of the pipe sections at suitable intervals (say 1 km
or so) on the crown, through holes left for this purpose.
v. The pipe section is then connected to the delivery side of a pump through a small by-pass valve, and
the pump is started so as to develop pressure in the pipe. The operation is continued till the pressure
inside the pipe reaches the designed value, which can be read from the pressure gauge fixed on the
pipe.
vi. The by-pass valve is then closed and the pump discontinued.
vii. The pipe is then kept under pressure for 24 hours, and inspections for possible defects, leakage at
joints etc. done. This completes the pressure test.
The pipe is then emptied through drain valves, and the observed defects (in the test) are rectified, so as
to make the line fit for use. The pipe is again tested by repeating the test, so as to ensure the proper
rectifications of defects already done.
After the pipe line has been tested and corrected for defects, it is ready for transporting untreated
water from the source to the city. However, when the pipes are to carry treated water, they must be
disinfected before use. These pipes are disinfected by keeping them full with water and adding chlorine
in amounts, as to maintain the residue of 50 mg/l (50 ppm). This residue is maintained for 12 hours and
the pipe is emptied and flushed with fresh treated water, thus making the pipe ready for use in carrying
portable water to the consumers or to storage tanks.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PUMPS
Pumps are classified on the basis of operation, type of power required and type of service called for.
Under this classification, the pumps are divided into four groups as follows:
a) centrifugal pump
d) miscellaneous pumps.
The most common sources of power used for driving pumps are electricity and diesel oil.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
In a centrifugal pump works by the rotation of the impeller. The impeller of a series of back curved
vanes and is mounted on a shaft that connects it to the driver (usually a motor). The rotation of the
impeller creates a reduction of pressure at the eye of the impellor, which sucks water through the
suction pipe. The rotation sets a centrifugal force that forces the water outwards against the casing and
converts the velocity into pressure energy that moves water in the delivery pipe and overcome the
delivery head. The casing of the pump therefore needs to be airtight to ensure the all the pressure
created goes to overcome the required head. The suction pipe is fitted with a strainer at the bottom
that prevents entrance of large solid objects in to the pump. A foot valve fitted on the lower end of the
suction pipe allows water to flow only in the upward direction.
Closed impeller is covered by plates on both sides of the impeller. This type of impeller is used for
pumping clean water with no solids. Open impellers are better suited for pumping liquids which carry
solids, such as sewage or muddy water. However, efficiency of closed impeller is usually higher than that
of open impellers. Based on the type of casing in radial flow pumps, they may be classified into volute
type and vortex type casing.
Priming is the process of filling up the area in the suction and casing completely with water before
pumping
Some pumps require priming to be able to generate the required pressure at the beginning of the
pumping process. Pumps which do not require priming are termed as self-priming.
I. Initial cost and a maintenance cost of this pump is relatively less than other types of pumps
II. It is compact in design and does not require much of space for installation.
III. The pump can run at high speed and at varying speeds also
IV. There is a constant and uniform flow from this pump when run at some specific speed
V. The pump can be used to pump water having silt, sand and even for pumping of sewage
VI. There are very few moving parts in the pump making the pump more durable and reliable.
DISADVANTAGES
i. If water is to be lifted against high head, its efficiency drops to about 50% to 80%
ii. Before starting the pump has to be primed. To avoid the process, avoid process of priming,
the pump may be located in submerged position. Fitting the pump with a foot valve also
helps to ensure the water does not flow back to the well.
iii. If the pump is suddenly stopped with discharge valve open, the pump may work in the
reverse direction.
iv. The discharge capacity of the pump varies with the head. Hence when uniform discharge is
required under variable heads, a variable speed drive becomes necessary.
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS.
This pump is a centrifugal pump with the driving motor in the well, which is fitted just below the
impeller. The electric current is led to the motor through a water proof cable. This pump has several
advantages. It eliminates the line of shaft and bearing and thus reduces the initial cost, maintenance
costs and power loss. It is noiseless and can be installed in poorly aligned wells. In locations near
streams, there is no danger of flood damage to the motor. Submersible pumps are also used in the river
intakes, as absence of bearing eliminates damage due to silty water. They may also be used for booster
service in distribution systems.
DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
In displacement pump, there is a piston which in the first action draws water into a closed chamber and
then in the second action expels the water against pressure. Displacement pumps are of two types
a) Reciprocating pump
b) Rotary pump
RECIPROCATING PUMP
This pump consists of delivery valve, suction valve, suction pipe, delivery pipe, piston and piston rod
and a closed cylinder or chamber.
The pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by sucking the liquid into a cylinder in
which a piston is reciprocating (moving backwards and forward), which exerts the thrust on the liquid
and increases its hydraulic energy. The movement of the piston is achieved by connecting the piston rod
to a crank by means of a connecting rod. The crank is rotate by an electric motor. The suction and
delivery valves are non-return valves which only allow flow in one direction.
During the intake stroke a partial vacuum is created in the cylinder. Delivery valve closes while the
suction stroke opens. Water is forced from the sump into the cylinder. In the discharge stroke, the
movement of the piston increases the pressure inside the cylinder. The suction valve closes while the
delivery valve is opened. This pushes water into the delivery pipe through the delivery valve to the
designated height.
The pumps can be single acting or double acting as shown tin the diagram below.
Double acting pump discharge on backward and forward stroke while a single acting pump discharge
only on one stroke.
Because of their many disadvantages, reciprocating pumps may be used only when the heads are very
high and the capacity required is large enough to justify their use.
ROTARY PUMP
In rotary type of displacement pumps, the rotary motion is used instead of reciprocating motion as in
reciprocating pumps. The rotary motion is obtained by use of two cams or gears which mesh together
Fig a. rotary pump with cams. Fig b. rotary pump with gears.
The rotating elements fit the casing closely. The water enters through the suction pipe and is trapped
between the cam (or teeth of gears) and casing. It is then forced out through the discharge pipe, as the
cam or the gears rotate. A definite quantity of water depending on the size and shape of gears (or the
cam) is thus raised with each revolution.
i. Their biggest advantage is that they do not require any priming and are often used to prime large
centrifugal pumps.
ii. The flow from such a pump is nearly free prom pulsations
iii. Since they have no valves, they are simple to construct and easy to repair as compared to
reciprocating pumps.
iv. They are often used for protection systems for buildings and for small domestic water systems.
v. Their efficiency is high at low to moderate heads for smaller discharges of about 2000 liters per
day.
QUESTION
SOLUTION
Fig. working principle of air lift pump Fig air lift pump in a well
The principle of operation of this pump is that a mixture of water and air bubble weighs less than a
column of water of the same height and therefore, air-water mixture will rise in the pipe. The
compressed air is introduced through one nozzle at the foot of the delivery pipe. These pumps are used
mainly in well pumping but can also be used for handling thin sludges in sewage treatment units.
i. Efficiency of air lift pump is very low and it may never exceed more than 40%. It varies
between 20% and 40%.
ii. It is not possible to maintain continuous and constant flow. This is because small air bubbles
have a tendency coalesce and form large bubbles, which rise more rapidly than water.
iii. Requires construction of deeper wells in well construction.
HAND PUMPS
These pumps are installed to lift water from shallow wells in small quantities required by household
uses. Some of the common hand pumps include the pitcher and force pump as shown in the figure
below.
Pitcher pump
This pump can be used to raise water to the ground surface with a lift limited to about 6 meters. In
operation, the valve in the piston is closed on the upward stroke.
On the downward stroke, the piston valve is open and the valve at the top of the suction pipe is closed.
During the downward stroke water sucked into the cylinder gets on the upper side of the piston because
piston valve remains open. Now the piston is again ready for upward stroke and the same cycle is
repeated again. Since water is delivered only on the upstroke the pump is single acting.
Force pump
This pump just like pitcher can also work with suction lift limited to 6m. But in this water is also forced
up through a pipe on the discharge side. The strokes action is similar to the pitcher pump.
MISCELLANEOUS PUMPS
There are so many other types of pumps which can be employed to lift water. The most employed
under this category are:
i. Hydraulic ram
ii. Jet pump.
HYDRAULIC RAM
The hydraulic ram is a pump which raises water without any external power for operation. When large
quantity of water is available at small height, a small quantity of water can be raised to a greater height
with the help of hydraulic ram. It works on the principle of water hammer.
Valve B is called waste valve while valve C is called the delivery valve. The delivery valve is fitted to the
air vessel. Water enters through the inlet pipe. At this stage the delivery valve remains closed while the
waste valve remains open. As water is coming from the supply tank, the level of water rises in the
chamber and the waste valve B starts moving upwards. A stage comes when the waste valve closes
rapidly and creating high pressure in the chamber. The high pressures cause the delivery valve to open
and water is forced through the delivery valve into the air vessel and compresses air in this vessel. The
compressed air exerts force on the water and a small quantity of water is raised to a greater height.
When the pressure reduces in the waste chamber the waste valve opens again and the process is
repeated. The efficiency of the ram is about 50% and it can lift up to about 30m.
i. There is plenty of wastage of water through waste valves. They can only be used where
wastage of water can be tolerated.
ii. It makes a lot of noise while working
iii. It can only be installed where natural falls from inlets is available.
JET PUMPS
Jet pumps are often used for pumping water from small wells. They are portable and sometimes used
for construction works for dewatering trenches etc. A typical arrangement of a jet pump is shown in the
diagram below.
In this pump, compressed air or steam is made to enter the pipe A which has a nozzle at the discharging
end and thus forcing out through the nozzle. The jet of compressed air (or steam) thus comes out of the
nozzle at a high velocity and discharges into the throat of another pipe B. The velocity of the jet creates
a low pressure which causes a suction to draw water up the pipe B and finally discharges through the
discharge end. The efficiency of this pump is generally low up to (as low as 15 to 30%). However, they
are compact and light in weight thus making them portable and easy to handle. They can also handle
sedimented water without trouble. These pumps may be used for pumping water from deep wells. It
has a capacity of about 50 to 60 liters per second.
POWER OF A PUMP
The term power is used to refer to the rate of doing work (work done per second)
Let H be the total height against which water is to be lifted by a pump, and W be the weight of water to
be lifted by the pump per second. The work done in lifting the water is per second is given by:
Work done per second = (weight water of water lifted per second) × (total height the water is lifted
water)
The weight of water lifted by the pump per second is given by:
W= ρ× g × Q
Considering friction head that has to be overcome within the pump, then the total head the pump has
to overcome is given by:
H= h + hf
Where h is the total static head which is the difference between the lowest water level in a well and full
supply level of the tank. It’s usually the summation of the suction lift/head and the discharge lift/head.
The suction lift that is adopted for pump installation is 7.5m but for centrifugal pumps it may be 4.5 at
most.
4𝑓𝑙𝑣2 𝑓𝑙𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = = where, f= friction coefficient, l= total length of the pipe in meters, v=velocity of flow,
2𝑔𝑑 3𝑑 5
g=gravitational acceleration, d= diameter of pipe and Q= flow rate
At some cases the friction factor is multiplied by 4 such that a single f’ is obtained
𝑓′𝑙𝑣2 𝑓′𝑙𝑄2
If f’ = 4f then = ℎ𝑓 = =
2𝑔𝑑 12𝑑 5
Note that that in calculation of the total head, only the friction head is considered as all the other heads
are negligible.
Not all the power supply supplied by the electric motor of a pump is supplied to water. The power
decreases from the motor to the shaft and to the water and only a proportion of this energy is
transmitted to water.
The ratio of power transmitted to water to the power supplied by the electric motor is referred to as
efficiency. It is usually expressed as a percentage
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency(ⴄ) = = and therefore,
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
The overall efficiency of the is obtained by the product of the efficiency of the motor and the pump.
A kilowatt-hour (named as a unit) is the most commonly used measure of electricity energy. It is the
measure of the amount of energy used in one hour by an equipment or machine.
To determine electrical energy used by a pump in kilowatt -hour the pump power is multiplied by the
number of hours the pump has worked.
Electrical energy (in kilowatt hour) = pump power capacity × number of hours it has worked.
Given the cost of a kilowatt- hour the total cost of energy used is given by:
Total cost = Electrical energy (in kilowatt hour) × cost per kilowatt-hour
EXAMPLE 1
Find the power required to drive a centrifugal pump which delivers 0.04 m 3/s, of water to a height of
20m through 20m through a diameter pipe of 100m long. The overall efficiency of the pump is 70% and
the coefficient of friction f = 0.015. Determine the total monthly cost of running this pump if the power
costs 20 KES per kilowatt hour if the pump is to run for 10 hours in a day.
SOLUTION
Alternatively
𝜌× 𝑄 𝐻 1000× 0.04 × 30.5
The brake horse power of the pump = = = 23bhp
75ⴄ 75 ×0.7
Cost of electricity
= 30 × 10 = 300 hours
= 5130 kilowatt-hours
= 5130 × 20 KES
= 102600 KES
EXAMPLE 2
Design a pumping station to lift water from a well to treatment plant given the following data.
Coefficient = 0.01
The pump works in two shifts each shift being of 8 hours duration
SOLUTION
287.82
The brake horse power of the pump = = 391 bhp
0.735
Alternatively
𝜌× 𝑄 × 𝐻 1000× 0.7 × 29.34
The brake horse power of the pump = = = 390 bhp
75ⴄ 75 ×0.7
EXAMPLE 3
Population of a city is 120000 and rate of water supply per head per day is 200 liters. Calculate brake
horse power (BHP) of motor to raise the water to an overhead tank 50 m high. Length and diameter of
rising main is 200 m and 40 cm respectively.
Assume motor efficiency of 90% and that of pump 60%. assume f= 0.01 and peak hourly demand as
1.5times the average demand.
SOLUTION
Average demand
24000
=120000 × 200 = 24 × 106 liters per day = 24000 m3/day = m3/sec =0.28 m3/sec
24 × 60 × 60
EXAMPLE 4
Water to be lifted from a tube well to an overhead storage tank. Work out the brake horse power and
number of pumps given the following data:
SOLUTION
Q= AV
𝜋 𝑑2
Q= × V…………., Q= 0.4𝑚 3 /𝑠
4
𝜋 𝑑2
0.4 = ×2
4
Total head H =suction head + delivery head + depression head + friction head
(note that the depression head is the maximum constant drawdown head that would result in a
pumping test)
Number of pumps
In this case it would be advisable to adopt three units with 12 BHP and one unit as stand by unit.
EXAMPLE 2
For pumping raw water for 100,000 people at rate of supply of 135 liters, work out:
iii. Sump well dimensions ii. Rate of pumping iii. Diameter of rising main iiv. Total pumping well v.
water power (watts) vi. Brake power vii. Number of pumps required with their powers
SOLUTION
From the above question the design is of a river intake and pumps.
The figure below shows a sump well and pump in the intake
SUMP WELL
135 × 100000
Average demand = = 9.4 𝑚 3 / 𝑚𝑖𝑛 Capacity = = 188 𝑚 3
24 × 60 × 1000
= 188 𝑚 3
Taking a depth of 4.0 m
Depth = 4.0 m
188
Section area of sump well = = 47𝑚 2
4
DIAMETER OF MAIN
Q= AV
𝜋 𝑑2 33.75
Q= × V…………., Q=33.75 𝑚 3 / 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚 3 / 𝑚𝑖
4 60
V= 0.5625𝑚 3 / 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜋 𝑑2
0.5625= ×2
4
d= 0. 6 m or 60cm
d= 0. 6 m or 60cm
= 37m
204.17
POWER ON BRAKES = = 255.213 kilo watts
0.8
1. Capacity and efficiency - The pump should have the capacity required and optimum
efficiency.
2. Lift - Suction head from the water level to the pump level.
3. Head – It is also called delivery head. Generally, the total head (suction and delivery head)
should meet all possible situations with respect to the head.
4. Reliability – A reputed manufacture or similar make pump already in use may give the
failure rate and types of troubles.
5. Initial cost: The cost of the pump and its installation cost should be minimum.
6. Power – Power requirements should be less for operation.
7. Maintenance – Maintenance cost should be minimum. Availability of spares and cost of
spares are to be ascertained.
QUESTIONS
i. centrifugal pump ii. reciprocating pump iii. Air lift pump iv. Hand pump v. Rotary pump
i. suction lift/head ii. Priming iii. Rising main iv. Efficiency of a pump
2. A storage reservoir is situated 6km from a town of population 300,000. The total loss of head from the
source to the town is not to exceed 20 m. taking daily demand of 200l/h/d, and pumping to be done for
12 hours.
3. Design raw water a sump well and raw water pumping set for water supply of a town from the
following data.
The surface sources generally contain large amount of impurities therefore they requires sedimentation,
filtration and chlorination as treatment. If the water contains algae or other microorganisms, pre
chlorination has to be done.
Ground water which are usually clear may require only disinfection and chemical treatment for the
removal of pathogens, Iron removal, Softening etc.
Water treatment includes many operations like Aeration, Flocculation, Sedimentation, Filtration,
Softening, Chlorination and demineralization. Depending upon the quality of raw water and the quality
of water desired, several combinations of the above processes may be adopted
Objective of treatment
TREATMENT PROCESS
SCREENING: This is the process adopted to exclude large and floating matter. At is accomplished at the
intake. Screens are fixed in the intake works or at the entrance of treatment plant so as to remove the
floating matters as leaves, dead animals etc.
AERATION: This is the process where elements causing odor and taste are removed.
PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: In this process suspended solids like silt clay and sand are removed by allowing
them to settle in a tank.
SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULANT: in this process fine suspended particles and some bacteria are
removed by adding a coagulant which enables several particles to unite together to form large
settleable particles which may settle in a tank.
FILTRATION: This is the process which small very fine particles, colloidal matter, and bacteria which
escapes sedimentation process are removed by passing it through filters.
DISINFECTION: this is done to render water safe against disease producing bacteria
OTHER PROCESSES: There are some processes which are used in specific cases only to:
Note that the turbidity levels of ground water may be very low and may not require treatment to
remove solid impurities. Plain sedimentation may however be adopted before chlorination if the water
contains some solids
For surface water with high turbidity levels, e.g., river water plain sedimentation precedes
sedimentation with coagulants.
Incase the raw water contains dissolved CO 2 and odorless gases aeration is necessary
Convectional treatment including pre- chlorinating, aeration, flocculation and sedimentation, rapid
filtration and post- chlorination are adopted for highly polluted surface water, laden with algae or
microscopic animals as shown in the diagram below
Note that for lake and reservoir water, plain sedimentation process may not be required
The figure below shows the flow diagram of water treatment process of various types of raw water.
Where processes
A and B represent treatment process for surface water which are well protected and turbidity is less
than 10 JTU and water is free from odor and color, therefore only plain disinfection may be necessary.
Process C is applied incase ground water contains excessive iron, dissolved carbon dioxide and odorless
gasses. Process D could be applied for surface water with turbidity not more than 50 JTU and where
surface area is available, such that plain sedimentation followed by slow sand filtration and disinfection
process are adopted.
The process E is applicable in highly polluted surface water laden with algae and microscopic
microorganisms.
The water treatment plant should be located as near to the town so as to avoid the contamination. All
the units of plant should be located in order of sequence and flow from one unit to other by gravity and
are arranged in such a way that minimum area is required so as to reduce the cost of construction.
Sufficient area should be reserved for the future expansion. Staff quarters and office should be provided
near the treatment plants so that the operators can watch the plants easily. The site of treatment plant
should be very neat and give very good aesthetic appearance.
POINTS TO CONSIDER WHILE GIVING A LAYOUT AND LOCATION OF THE TREATMENT PLANT
I. All the processes should be located in such a sequence that water be flowing from one
process to the other automatically.
II. Elevation of different processes should be such that no pumping is required and water
keeps on flowing from one plant to another.
III. All the plant should be located such that minimum area is covered by it and adequate place
should be provided for future expansion.
IV. Residual colony should be located by the side of the water works. This facility better and
control on the working of different units.
V. A well-established laboratory should be located at the site so that the quality of water may
be checked before and after treatment. Turbidity, hardness, PH values, chlorides, biological
tests etc. are some among the many tests that can be carried out in the laboratory. Even
research work may also be undertaken in order to suitably modify any process.
SCREENING
COURSE AND FINE SCREENS
Screens are provided Infront of the pump or the intake works, so as to exclude large sized particles, such
as debris, animals, trees, branches, bushes, ice, etc. Course screens (Generally called trash racks) are
sometimes placed in front of fine screens. Course screens consist of a parallel iron rods placed vertically
or at a slight slope at about 2 to 10 cm center to center. The fine screens are made of fine wire or
perforated metal with openings less than 1cm wide. The course screens first remove the bigger floating
bodies and organic solids, and the fine screen then remove the fine suspended solids. The fine screens
normally get clogged and have to be cleaned frequently. Sometimes, fine screens may be avoided and
fine particles separated in sedimentation rather than screening. The course screens may be inclined at
about 45˚ to 60˚ to the horizontal so as to increase the opening area to reduce the flow velocity, and
thus, making the screening more effective. When designing the screens, clear openings, should have
sufficient total area, so that the velocity through them is not more than 0.8 to 1 m/s. The material which
is collected on the upstream side of the screens is removed either manually or mechanically. In
mechanical cleaned screens, a rake traverses the front of the screen either continuously or
intermittently. In mechanically cleaned screens, the cross bars obstruct raking and should, therefore, be
avoided as far as possible. A fixed bar type of screen is shown below.
Movable bar type screens also do exist and are useful in deep pit in front of pump. A commonly used
type of such screens consists of a three-sided cage with a bottom of perforated plates.
SEDIMENTATION
The process of sedimentation may be divided into two:
2. Plain sedimentation
3. Sedimentation with coagulant
Plain sedimentation is applied to economically when If water contains large amounts of suspended
impurities of large size. By removal of courser suspended impurities, impurity load on the proceeding
process is reduced. However, if the water contains very fine and colloidal particles sedimentation with
coagulant is applied. Addition of coagulant enhances the process of flocculation as particles change in
shape, size and weight while settling. Because of agglomeration, flocculant particles go on becoming
larger and heavier as they settle down hence the velocity of settlement does not remain constant
1. Discrete particles: Discrete particles are those which do not change in shape, size and weight while
settling. Particles of particular all inorganic nature like sand, bazari etc. are the discrete particles.
These particles are large, heavy (S.G about 2.65) and thus settle very fast when condition conducive
to their settlement are created. In water supply, plain sedimentation removes only the discrete
particles. These particles settle with uniform velocity
2. Flocculant particles: These are particles that change in shape, size and weight while settling. Very
fine and colloidal particles do not settle readily in suspension. These particles are generally
inorganic. They occur mostly in sewage but they may be present in raw water also. Addition of
coagulant causes these particles to agglomerate making larger and heavier particles which settle
faster.
PLAIN SEDIMENTATION
Plain sedimentation is applied mostly for removal of discrete particles.
In plain process of sedimentation plain sedimentation process, the raw water is required to be retained
quiescent in large tanks for some time. During the retention period courser type of suspended matter
settles down at the bottom. The water is kept flowing with very small velocity in the tank. If water is
allowed to stand for some time in the sedimentation tank the sedimentation tank is called draw or fill
type. On the other hand, if water remains flowing continuously during the process of sedimentation, it is
called a flow type sedimentation tank. Sedimentation tanks are also called settling tank.
Plain sedimentation is resorted only if there is a large amount of settleable suspended solids. River
water requires sedimentation but surface water obtained from lakes, impounded reservoir etc. does not
require it.
In these, tanks, water is filled and allowed to rest for some time. During rest period, the heavy
suspended particles settle down at the bottom of the tank. The clear water is drawn off and clean water
is then drawn off and the tank is cleaned of silt and again filled with water and the cycle is repeated.
These tanks are also called intermittent type or quiescent type tank. The detention period of these tanks
is about 2hours. The tanks are not used in water works as they do not give continuous supply and
secondly a large number of units are required to be installed which necessitate a large area of land.
In these types of tanks, the velocity of flow in the tank is reduced as the water flows through the tank.
By reducing the velocity of flow, a large amount of suspended impurities can be removed from water. In
these tanks water continuously keeps on flowing but with a very small uniform velocity. Water enters
slowly from inlet located at one end and travels slowly outlet located to the other end. To prolong the
travel path of the flow, baffle walls are provided in the tank. The velocity of flow is so adjusted that time
taken by a particle of water move from one end to the other is slightly more than that required for the
suspended settling particle in water to settle down. The tank is designed to meet the flowing
requirements:
i. The amount of water flowing out from the tank in 24 hours should at least be equal to the daily
demand.
ii. Velocity of flow should be so adjusted that suspended impurities of courser nature are removed.
The settlement which takes place at the bottom is known as sludge. Sludge deposit is maximum near the
inlet and minimum near the outlet.
a) Rectangular tank
b) Circular tank
c) Hopper bottom type of tank
These tanks are rectangular in plan. They are provided with a number of baffle walls. Baffle walls are
provided to prolong the path of travel for flowing water to obtain more detention period in
comparatively smaller tanks. They also prevent short circuiting
These tanks are normally provided with channel type inlet and outlet which extend for the full width of
the tank. The floor between the baffle wall is made sloping in such a way that sludge keeps on
accumulating at the point which is located at mid-width of the tank. The sludge is drained off from time
to time through sludge valve under hydrostatic pressure.
When quantity of water to be handled is quite large and it is not possible to cater such amount by one
unit only a number of units of rectangular tanks having common inlet pipe and outlet can be provided as
shown below.
These types of tanks are not commonly used in plain sedimentation. They are used in sedimentation
with coagulant.
In this type of tanks water enters through the central inlet pipe which is enclosed in a deflector box. This
box deflects the flow downwards and it goes out through the holes provided at the bottom of the
deflector box. After coming out from the deflector box, water flows radially towards the circumference
of the tank and flows out of the tank through the outlet which is provided on the full periphery of the
tank. During the radial flow in the tank, all the settleable particles settle down on the sloping floor and
sludge is removed by raking arm which keeps on moving around the floor with a very small velocity. The
maximum velocity of movement of raking arms should not exceed 4 to 5 meters/hour.
In this type of tank water enters through two or three vertical slits of the inlet channel. A rotating arm is
provided that makes water in the tank to flow circumferentially
If the density of a particle is more than the density of water, it settles down vertically in still water.
Discrete particles are those that that do not change their shape, size and weight while settling or rising.
All particles in the settling principle are considered discrete. The velocity of settling particles in still
water, goes increasing until the frictional resistance of the water approaches the impelling force. After
this the velocity of settling remains constant. The velocity of settlement is called the settling velocity.
𝜌𝜔 𝑉𝑠2
𝐹𝑑 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴
2
𝐶𝑑 = coefficient of drag which depends on the inertia of the particle and the viscosity of water.
𝑉𝑠 = settling velocity of the spherical sphere or relative velocity between the particle and the fluid.
For the particle to obtain a constant velocity (terminal velocity) a balance of forces must be obtained.
Buoyancy (weight of volume of fluid equal to the volume of particle) = density of water × volume of
particle × gravitational acceleration = 𝜌𝜔 × 𝑉𝑝 × g
Therefore
𝜌𝜔 𝑉𝑠2
𝜌𝑝 × 𝑉𝑝 × g = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 + 𝜌𝜔 × 𝑉𝑝 × g
2
𝜌𝜔 𝑉𝑠2
𝜌𝑝 × 𝑉𝑝 × g - 𝜌𝜔 × 𝑉𝑝 × g = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴
2
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 2
But the volume of the sphere = and the projected area =
6 4
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜌𝜔 𝑉𝑠2 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
(𝐶𝑑 × × ) = (𝜌𝑝 × × g) - (𝜌𝜔 × × g)
4 2 6 6
4𝑔( 𝑆𝑝 −1) 𝑑
=
3×𝑐ⅆ
24𝑣
Therefore, drag coefficient of drag for the small particle 𝐶𝑑 =
𝑉𝑠 × 𝑑
1 𝑔
𝑉𝑠 = × × (𝑆𝐺𝑝 − 1 )𝑑 2
18 𝑣
𝟏 𝒈
The equation 𝑽𝒔 = × × (𝑺𝒑 − 𝟏 )ⅆ𝟐 is the Stokes’s equation for laminar settling and is used for
𝟏𝟖 𝒗
determining the settling velocity of spherical particle and it applies for particles less than 0.1mm
Where:
1𝑚𝑚2 1 𝑐𝑚2
𝑣= viscosity of water in centi-stoke (1𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 = = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠, 1 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠 = 1 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 100 𝑠
The viscosity of liquid depends on the temperature of the liquid. The following are values of viscosity
against different temperature.
Temp ֯ C `0 5 10 15 20 25
VISCOSITY IN 1.8 1.51 1.30 1.14 1.01 0.9
CENTISTOKE
It should be noted that the viscosities at various temperature can be estimated as:
100
× 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 10֯ C = 1.30
3𝑇+70
Value of g =9800mm/sec2
𝟑𝑻+𝟕𝟎
𝑽𝒔 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖(𝑺𝑮𝒑 − 𝟏)ⅆ𝟐 . equation 2 ---------- STOKES’S EQUATION FOR LAMINAR SETTLING
𝟏𝟎𝟎
The above formula which is considered as the stokes law for settling of particles in water at a particular
temperature. The stokes law in equation 1 and equation 2 above is applicable for particles up to 0.1mm
when the settling is laminar and Reynold number less than 0.5. For particles larger than that, the settling
velocity becomes transitional.
Hazen’s modified the formula for particles with transitional settling. The Hazen’s equation relates the
settling of particles with respect to the d rather than 𝑑 2 as follows.
𝟑𝑻+𝟕𝟎
𝑽𝒔 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟔(𝑺𝑮𝒑 − 𝟏)ⅆ . equation 3---------- HAZEN’S EQUATION FOR TRANSITIONAL SETTLING
𝟏𝟎𝟎
For particles greater than 1.0 mm the settling becomes totally turbulent and only the newtons law
describes the settling such that. (Cd=0.4)
The above formulae represent the theoretical settling velocities of discrete spherical particles. The
actual settling velocities in the sedimentation basin are much less than the ones calculated by formula
because of non-sphericalness of the particles, the upward displacement of the caused by the settling of
other particles and convection currents.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the terminal velocity of a particle 0.1 mm diameter and specific gravity 2.65 for water at 20 ˚ given
that at that temperature the viscosity = 1.0105 centistoke. Assume stokes law to apply
SOLUTION
1 𝑔
𝑉𝑠 = × × (𝑆𝐺𝑝 − 1 )𝑑 2
18 𝑣
1 9810
𝑉𝑠 = × × (2.65 − 1 )0.12
18 1.0105
= 8.975 mm/sec
[Note that since diameter d is in mm, kinematic viscosity will be in mm2/s (i.e., centistoke) and gravity
will be in 9810mm/s2. The velocity will therefore be in mm/s]
EXAMPLE 2
Find the settling velocity of a discrete particle in water under condition when the Reynold’s number is
less than 0.5. The diameter and specific gravity of the particle is 5 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚 and 2.65 respectively.
Water temperature is 20˚C (kinematic viscosity of water at 20˚C, 𝑣 = 1.01 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚 2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐).
SOLUTION
𝑆𝐺𝑝 = 2.65, 𝑑 = 5 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚 = 0.05 𝑚𝑚(𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0.1𝑚𝑚) , 𝑣 = 1.01 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚 2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑔 = 981 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2
1 981
𝑉𝑠 = × × (2.65 − 1 ) × (5 × 10−3 )2 = 0.22 cm/sec
18 1.01×10−2
Alternatively
3𝑇+70
𝑉𝑠 = 418(𝑆𝐺𝑝 − 1)𝑑 2 .
100
where T= 20˚C
3×20+70
𝑉𝑠 = 418(2.65 − 1) × (5 × 10−3 )2 × ( )= 0.224 cm/s
100
[Note that since diameter d is in cm, kinematic viscosity will be in cm2/s (i.e., stoke) and gravity will be in
981cm/s2. The velocity will therefore be in cm/s]
EXAMPLE 3
Applying Hazen’s equation of selling particles determine the velocity of settling of a particle of S.G 1.20
with a diameter of 0.8mm. assume the S.G of water =1 and the temperature of water = 26
SOLUTION
3𝑇+70
v = 60.6(𝑆𝐺𝑝 − 1)𝑑 .
100
From the above formulae it can be understood that the velocity of settlement of heavier discrete
particles through still bodies of water depend on:
1. Specific gravity of the settling particle- the larger the specific gravity the higher will be the velocity
of settlement.
2. Specific gravity of the settling water- the higher the S.G of the liquid the lower will be the settling
velocity of the particle.
3. Size and shape of particles- The larger the size and spherical the particle is the higher the settling
velocity.
4. Viscosity and temperature- viscosity depends upon the temperature. At higher temperature the
viscosity of the liquid is reduced and the settling velocity of the particle increases.
5. Velocity of flow- The velocity of flow also hinders the settling rate.
The specific gravities of fluid and the particle are generally constant and cannot be changed. Viscosity
cannot also be changed as be changed as it depends on the temperature of water and the temperature
of large volumes of water cannot be controlled. Therefore, two elements can be controlled;
1. Size and shape of particle: This is attained by addition of a chemical known as coagulant that
enables particles to come together to form large flocs.
2. Velocity of flow- The velocity of flow can be reduced by increasing the time of travel and thus a
particle is allowed is allowed to stay for a longer period in the sedimentation tank. During this,
particles get maximum opportunity to come down and settle at the bottom of the tank.
Note that lighter and smaller particles are removed by coagulation and filtration as shall be discussed on
another topic.
Before design work of the tank, of the tank is started, the following assumption may be made:
a) Within the settling zone of the tank, water remains quiescent and sedimentation takes place takes
place in similar manner as in quiescent container of the same depth.
b) The water flow remains steady and all the suspended particles are uniformly distributed on the full
cross section of the tank at right angles to the flow for the full length of the settling tank.
c) Any particle which once enters the sludge zone is assume to be removed.
1. Velocity of flow
2. Capacity of tank
4. Shapes of tanks
5. Miscellaneous considerations.
Before entering the outlet zone, if the particle reaches the sludge zone it is considered removed. If the
particle does not reach the sludge zone but enters the outlet zone the it goes along with the effluent.
Therefore, the time condition for a particle entering the sludge zone before it traverses through the inlet
zone should be such that the time taken for the particle for the particle to traverse through the settling
tank is equal or greater than the time taken for the particle to settle at down to the sludge zone.
Let:
L= Length of the settling zone
The time taken by the particle to traverse through the settling zone of the sedimentation tank is given
𝐿
by
𝑉𝑐
And 𝑉𝑐
𝐻
The time taken by the particle reach the sludge zone of the sedimentation tank is given by
𝑣𝑠
In that case the flowing water should take such a time in traversing the settling zone that all the
suspended particles reach the sludge zone and get removed.
The time taken by the particle to traverse through the settling zone of the sedimentation tank is taken
as the time of traverse by slowly flowing water. This time is referred to as the detention period.
By definition:
Detention period
This is the theoretical time taken by a particle of water to traverse the settling zone of the
sedimentation tank. In simple the design period is the time that would be required for the flow of
water to fill the tank if there were no outflows. This can be expressed as:
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Detention period = T =
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐶
T= where:
𝑄
T = detention period
𝑑 2 (0.011𝑑+0.785𝐻)
Detention period = T =
𝑄
This formula is based on the fact that volume of the type of circular tank used for sedimentation (i.e.,
the one having a cone shaped bottom with 1:1 slope, is found to have a volume equal to 𝑑 2 (0.011𝑑 +
0.785𝐻)
In practice however some short- circuiting of flowing water does take place and the design period
adopted in design is usually greater than the theoretical value. The detention period usually ranges
between 4 to 8 hours for plain sedimentation and from 2 to 4 hours when coagulants are used. The
detention period is selected on the basis of characteristic of water and the required capacity of the tank
is then computed. Except for very small plants, two or more tanks are desirable. Multiple basins permit
flexibility during maintenance, repair and cleaning without interrupting the output. Arrangement should
be made so that flow may readily be diverted to or from any of the basins.
Overflow Rate:
The overflow rate also known known as surface loading or the surface overflow rate is the flow per unit
area of the settling tank. The overflow rate is equal to the settling velocity of the smallest particle which
the basin will remove. It is calculated by dividing the flow by unit surface area of the tank
The capacity of the settling tank can also be determined on the basis of overflow rate.
In this method it is assumed that the settlement of a particle at the bottom of the settlement of a
particle at the bottom of the tank does not depend on the depth of tank and depends upon the surface
area of the tank.
Distance of descend D
Detention period, T = =
Velocity of descend 𝑉𝑠
C LxBxD
But, T = =
Q Q
D LxBxD 𝐿
Therefore, = =
𝑉𝑠 Q 𝑉𝑐
𝑸 𝑸
Surface overflow rate, 𝑽𝒔 = =
𝐋𝐱𝐁 𝐀
Where;
L → Length of tank
B → Breadth of tank
C → Capacity of tank
T → Detention period
V → Velocity of descend of a particle to the bottom of tank = Surface overflow rate = S.O.R
The equation above shows that the velocity of settling of particles is independent on the depth of the
tank, and it inversely varies with the surface area of the tank. The formula reveals that all the particles
whose velocity of settlement is either equal to Vs or greater than Q/A will reach the sludge zone before
reaching the outlet.
However, even smaller particles having smaller settling velocities lower than Q/A will also settle, if they
happen to enter at some height h of the tank as shown in the diagram above. If they happen to enter at
ℎ 𝑄
some height h of the tank, then all particles with settling velocities 𝑣𝑠 = × will settle down (as
𝐻 𝐴
shown in the diagram above).
The the ratio(r) of removal of a particle of this size with settling velocity 𝑣𝑠 to that with settling velocity
v will be given by:
ⅆ𝒆 𝒉 𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑠
r1 = = = = 𝑸 This equation derived by Hazin states that for discrete particle and unhindered
ⅆ𝒇 𝑯 𝑉𝑠
𝑨
settlement, basin efficiency is solely a function of the settling velocity of particles and the surface area of
the basin relative to the flow rate. The efficiency otherwise is independent of the basin depth and the
detention period.
Decreasing the surface overflow rate leads to settlement of even those particles with lower values of
settling velocities. Hence, smaller particles will also settle down if overflow rate is reduced. Normal
values of overflow rates range between 500-750 liters/hour/m2 of plan area for plain sedimentation
tanks and between 1000-1250 liters/hour/m2 of plain area for sedimentation tanks using coagulant aids.
Given the flow rate(Q) the overflow rate can be reduced by increasing the plan area of the basin. It
therefore follows that an increase in the plan area (i.e., width × length) will increase the efficiency of the
sedimentation tank (theoretically, the depth does not have any effect on the efficiency of sediment
removal). However, it is important for practical consideration and for making allowances for deposition
of sludge and silt to provide sufficient depth. Usual values of depth ranges between 3.0 to 4.5 m with
1.8 m as minimum and 6 m as maximum. The width of the tank is usually kept equal to 10 m and not
allowed to exceed 12 m or so. The length of the tank is generally not allowed to exceed 4 times the
width, though it may vary from one to six times its width. The cross-section area of the sedimentation
tank is such as to provide horizontal flow velocities ranging between 0.15 to 0.9 m/minute, normally
kept about 0.3 m/ minute. The total amount of outflow from the tank within 24 hours, generally equals
the maximum daily demand of water. For the efficient removal of sediment in the sedimentation tank,
it is necessary the flow is uniformly distributed throughout the cross- section of the tank. If currents on
the other side, permits substantial portion of water to pass directly through the tank, without being
detained for the intended time, the flow is said to be short-circuited. Properly designed inlet and outlet
near the entrance and exit may reduce short circuiting tendencies and distribute the flow more
uniformly. Moreover, long relatively narrow tanks are less affected by inlet and outlet disturbances and
by currents caused by breezes. The inlets should be provided near the bottom of the tank but outlets
should be near the top surface to avoids short circuiting of water.
In practice however, certain amount of short circuiting always exists and the actual average time which
a batch of water takes in passing through a settling tank is called flow through period. This is always less
than the detention period which is the corresponding theoretical time. The ratio of the ‘flow through
time’ to the ‘detention period’ is called displacement efficiency. Therefore:
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = and it generally varies between 0.25 to 0.5 in normal
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
sedimentation basins.
Wier loading: This is usually taken as the discharge into the weir per length of the weir. Theoretically
expressed as:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝑚 3 /𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦 .
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟
For circular tanks with radial outward flow the weir is taken as the length along the periphery of the
tank= 𝜋𝑑. As the weir extends over the full width of the tank in rectangular settling tanks, then the weir
length for such tanks is taken as the width of the tank.
Plain settling tanks can give an effluent containing 50 to 40 ppm under normal conditions
TANK DIMENSIONS
The following are the parameters for satisfactory performance of settling tanks
PARAMETER VALUE
Detention period Plain sedimentation: 4 to 8 hours
Coagulated sedimentation 2 to 4 hours
Depth of tank 1.8m to 6m
Velocity of flow Between 0.15 to 0.9 m/minute
Normally kept 0.3/min (horizontal flow)
Tank dimension -Length to width ratio = 1:1 to 6:1
-Common length =30m and max length = 100m
-Breadth = 6m to 10 m
-Diameter of circular tank should not be greater
than 60cm (generally 20 to 40m)
EXAMPLE 1
In rectangular settling tank of continuous flow type having a surface area of 240 m2, the rate of flow is
1.6 m3/sec.
i. Calculate the velocity of settlement with which the particles will be completely removed.
ii. Determine the velocity of settlement of particles that whose ratio of removal will be 50%
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 2
Find the terminal velocity and critical velocity of particles 0.02 mm diameter and specific gravity 2.65 if
for water at 20˚ the kinematic viscosity is given as 1.0105 centistoke. Determine the tank dimension and
calculate the detention time.
SOLUTION
g= 9810 mm/sec2
= 0.3560 mm/sec
0.11574 m3/sec
0.3560 × 10-3 m/sec = 1 L= 31.23m and B = 10.41 m
𝐿× L
3
EXAMPLE 3
A rectangular settling tank (without mechanical equipment) is to treat 2,400,000 liters of raw water. The
sedimentation period is to be 4 hours. The velocity of flow being 10cm per minute and the depth of the
water and sediment 4m. If an allowance of 1.2m for the sediment is made, what should be the
dimensions of the tank.
SOLUTION
As length of tank = 24 m
400m3
Cross section area = = 16.67m2
24 m
16.67m2
Required width of the tank = = 5.96 m
2.8 m
Say 6m
EXAMPLE 4
The maximum daily demand at a water purification plant has been estimated as 12 million liters per day.
Design the dimensions of a sedimentation (fitted with mechanical sludge removal arrangement) for raw
water supplies assuming a detention period of 6 hours and the velocity of flow as 20 cm per minute.
SOLUTION
= 12 × 106 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
12×106
= × 6 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
24
= 3 × 106 𝑙𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠
= 0.2 × (6 × 60) = 72 𝑚
= 0.5 + 4 = 4.5 𝑚
Hence, a rectangular tank with an overall size of 72𝑚 × 10.5𝑚 × 4.5 𝑚 can be used.
EXAMPLE 5
Two million liters of water per day is passing through sedimentation tank which is 6 meters wide, 15 m
long and having a water depth of 3 m.
SOLUTION
= 15 𝑚 × 6 𝑚 × 3 𝑚 = 270𝑚 3
2×106
= 2 × 106 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 83.33 × 103 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
24
Given the average specific gravity of the deposited materials as 2, we have its density as 2000kg/m3
𝑄 85×103 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
= = = 944 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟/𝑚2
𝐵𝐿 6×15 𝑚2
EXAMPLE 6
A rectangular settling tank without mechanical equipment is to treat 1.8 liters per day of raw water. The
sedimentation period as to be 4 hours, the velocity of flow 8 cm/minute and the depth of water and
sediment 4.2 m. If an allowance of 1.2 m for sediment is made, what should be;
SOLUTION
Supply of water to be treated during the detention period of 4 hour, i.e., capacity of the tank
1.8×106
= × 4 = 0.3 × 106 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 300 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
24
EXAMPLE 7
A circular sedimentation tank filled with standard mechanical sludge removal equipment is to handle 3.5
million liters of raw water. If the detention period of the tank is 5 hours, and the depth of the tank is 3
meters, what should be the diameter of the tank.
SOLUTION
Quantity of raw water to be treated during the detention period of 5 hours, i.e., the capacity of the tank
3.5×106×5
= 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 728 × 103 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 728 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
24
The capacity of the circular tank of depth H and diameter d is given by;
EXAMPLE 8
In a continuous settling tank 3m deep and 60 m long, what flow velocity of water would you recommend
for effective removal of 0.025mm particles at 25˚C. The specific gravity of particles is 2.65, and kinematic
viscosity(𝑣) of water may be taken as 0.01 cm2/sec.
SOLUTION
The diameter of particle = 0.025mm <0.1 mm, therefore the stokes law may apply
1 𝑔
𝑉𝑠 = × × (𝑆𝐺𝑝 − 1 )𝑑 2
18 µ
g= 981 cm/sec2
= 0.0562 cm/sec
𝐿 𝐻
= =
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑠
𝐿
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑠 ×
𝐻
Assuming a free board of 0.5 meters from the total depth of the tank, the depth of water in the
tank = 3m-0.5 m= 0.25 m
60
Hence, 𝑉𝑐 = 0.0562 × = 1.35 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2.5
For effective removal of particles up to 0.025mm, the flow velocity should not be more than
1.35 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
EXAMPLE 9
Two primary settling basins are 26 m in diameter with a 2.1 m side water depth. Single effluent weirs are
located on the periphery of the tank.
SOLUTION
𝑑 2 (0.011𝑑+0.785𝐻)
Detention period = T =
𝑄
Where;
d= diameter of tank = 26 m
= 1300m/day
1300
= 𝑚 2 /ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟.
24
(2.6)2 ×(0.011×26+0.785×21)
Detention period = T = 1300 = 2.41 ℎ𝑟
24
EXAMPLE 10
A rectangular sedimentation tank is to handle 10 million liters /day of raw water. A detention basin of
1
width to length ratio of is proposed to trap all particles larger than 0.04mm in size. Assuming a relative
3
density of 2.65 for the particle and 20˚C as the average temperature, compute the basin dimensions. If
the depth of the tank is 3.5 meters, calculate the detention time.
SOLUTION
Particle size = 0.04< 0.1 mm, hence Stokes law may apply
3𝑇+70
𝑉𝑠 = 418(𝑆𝐺𝑝 − 1)𝑑 2
100
3×20+70
𝑉𝑠 = 418(2.65 − 1) × (0.04)2 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
100
= 1.435𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.1435𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐿 𝐻
= =
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑠
𝐿 𝐿
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑠 × = 0.145 ×
𝐻 𝐻
𝐻
Therefore 𝑇 = ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
5.164
10×106 𝑇
= 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 × 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑 = × 𝑚 3 = 416.67𝑇
103 24
𝐵 × 𝐿 × 𝐻 = 416.67𝑇
3𝐵2 × 𝐻 = 416.67𝑇
𝐻
But 𝑇 = ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
5.164
𝐻
Therefore, 3𝐵2 × 𝐻 = 416.67( )
5.164
EXAMPLE 11
A settling basin is designed to have a surface flow rate of 32.6 m/day. Determine the overall removal
obtained for a suspension with size distribution given below. The specific gravity of the particle is 1.2
and water temperature is 20˚C, at which dynamic viscosity is 1.027 centipoise and the density
0.997g/cm3
SOLUTION
𝑄
In sedimentation basin, the overall flow rate( ) represents the settling velocity of particles of size d
𝐵𝐿
𝑄
which get removed. In other words, all particles whose settling velocity equals or exceeds will settle
𝐵𝐿
𝑄
down. Hence, when settling velocity 𝑉𝑠 = and the corresponding particle size is d, then all particles up
𝐵𝐿
to size d will get removed.
𝑄 32.6𝑚 32.6
Here, = 𝑉𝑠 = = = 3.773 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠
𝐵𝐿 𝑑𝑎𝑦 24×60×60
d= diameter of particle
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 µ
𝑣= kinematic viscosity of fluid = =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑤
1
1 centi-poise= poise , 10 poise = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 2
100
1.027 1.027
1.027 centi-poise= poise = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 2 = 1.027 × 10−3 𝑁𝑠/𝑚 2
100 1000
1.027×10−3 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2
𝑣= 𝐾𝑔 = 1.03 × 10−6 𝑚 2 /𝑠 (𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸 1𝑁 = 1𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠 2
997
𝑚
With viscosity in 𝑚 2 /𝑠 , gravity will be taken in 𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑖. 𝑒, 9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 , and the velocity of settlement
will be in 𝑚/𝑠
1 9.81𝑚/𝑠2
𝑉𝑠 = 3.773 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠 = × × (1.2 − 1 )𝑑 2 =
18 1.03×10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
From the table, the percentage of particles equal to or heavier than 0.06mm size is 70%. Hence 70%
removal will occur, because all particles above and up to this size will gat removed in the basin.
The inlet zone should be designed in such a way that water entering the tank is uniformly distributed on
the full width of the tank. Water entering through the inlet should not cause disturbance in the inlet
zone as well as in the subsequent settling zone. A very suitable inlet arrangement of a rectangular
settling tank is in the form of a channel extending to full width of the tank with a submerged weir type
baffle as shown below
Outlet zone is designed similar manner as the inlet zone. While taking out the effluent from the tank
every effort should be made that no disturbance is carried to the settling zone. A suitable outlet
consists of an outlet channel extending for full width of the tank and receiving the water after it has
passed over the weir as shown in the figure below.
the floor, from where sludge is removed under hydrostatic pressure. It is necessary to remove deposited
sludge because it reduces the capacity of the tank and its detention period, but also because it leads to
formation and evolution of certain foul gases due to the decomposition of organic matter. The manual
removal of sludge is done periodically. The manual cleaning is carried out as follows:
The tank is first of al. put out of service, and the supply of raw water stopped. The already contained
water is drained off till a depth of 30 cm or so. the sludge is now stirred and removed as slurry through
separate pipes provided with a gate valve at the bottom of the tank. Pick axes and phaorahs may be
used for displacing hard deposits. The removed sludge is normally thrown into the municipal sewer.
Mechanical devices are also used, where for example, the sludge is scraped and brought to the hopper
at the bottom at the outlet end and is removed daily or more often. Similarly, in the circular tank, the
sludge is scraped and brought to the center and likewise removed. For tanks without mechanical sludge
removal equipment, an additional minimum depth of about 0.8 m to 1.2 m should be provided for
storage of sediment, and is called the sludge zone.
The use of coagulants is generally necessary for clarifying raw water containing turbidities greater than
30 to 50 mg/l. In practice, plain sedimentation is rarely used and coagulation before the sedimentation
is almost universally adopted in all major water treatment plant followed by rapid sand filtration
Various chemicals, such as alum; iron salts like ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, ferric sulphate, etc. are
generally used as coagulant. These chemicals are most effective when water is slightly alkaline. In the
absence of such an alkalinity present in raw supplies, external alkalies like sodium carbonate, or lime
etc. are added to the water, so as to make it slightly alkaline, and thus to increase the effectiveness of
the coagulant.
Alum is the name given to aluminum sulphate with its chemical formula 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 . 18𝐻2 𝑂 . The alum
when added to raw water, reacts with the bicarbonate alkalinities, which is generally present in raw
water, so as to form a gelatenous precipitate(floc) of aluminum hydroxide precipitate 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)2 . This floc
attracts other fine particles and suspended matter, and thus grow in size, and finally settles down to the
bottom of the tank. The chemical equation is:
From the above equation, it is evident that addition of alum to water imparts permanent hardness to it
in form of calcium sulphate 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 . The carbon dioxide gas, which is evolved, causes corrosiveness. The
amount of alum required for coagulation depends on the turbidity and color of raw water. The amount
of alum required for coagulation depends on the turbidity and color of water. The optimum amount of
coagulant is indicated by the formulation of large feathery flakes; and can be approximately determined
by laboratory testing. Which is adjusted with the actual results obtained at the treatment plant. The
dose of alum may vary from 5 mg/l for relatively clear water to 50 mg/l for highly turbid waters. The
average normal dose is about 17 mg/l.
As indicated earlier, the presence of an alkali is necessary for the functioning of coagulant. However, if
raw supplies are not sufficiently alkaline then external alkalies like lime [𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2] and soda ash
[𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3] are generally added and the following reaction takes place.
Alum or filter alum (as sometimes called) has proved to be very effective coagulant, and is extensively
used throughout the world. It is quite cheap, form an excellent stable floc, and do not require any skilled
supervision for handling. The water obtained is quite clear, as it helps in reducing taste and color of raw
water in addition to removing its turbidity. The main problem in using alum is that it is difficult to
dewater the sludge and it is not easy to dispose it off, as it is found unsuitable for filling low laying lands.
However, research has shown that it is possible to recover alum from the sludge and it can be re-used
for coagulation. The cost of recovery is about ¼ the cost of recovered alum. The other disadvantage is
that the effective PH range for its use is small i.e., 6.5 to 8.5, and in many cases require the addition of
external alkali salts, thus rendering it more costly.
Copperas is the name given to ferrous sulphate with its chemical formula 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂4 . 7𝐻2 𝑂. Copperas is
generally added to raw water in conjunction with lime. Lime may be added either to copperas or vise
versa. When lime is added first the following reaction takes place.
Similarly, when copperas is added earlier to lime the following reaction takes places
The ferrous hydroxide formed in either case, further gets oxidized forming ferric hydroxide, as given
below;
The ferric hydroxide forms the floc, and thus helps in sedimentation.
Copperas is extensively used as a coagulant for raw waters that are not colored. It is generally cheaper
than alum, and functions effectively in the PH range of 8.5 and above. For colored raw water, it is
however not used, as it does not give satisfactory results. The quantity of copperas required is almost
the same as that of alum.
When chlorine is added to a solution of copperas (i.e., ferrous sulphate), the two react chemically so as
to form ferric sulphate and ferric chloride. The chemical equation is as follows:
The resultant combination of ferric sulphate and ferric chloride is known as chlorinated copperas, and is
valuable coagulant for removing colors, especially where raw water has low PH value. Both the
constituents of the chlorinated copperas along with lime are effective coagulants, and their combination
is often quite effective. The chemical reaction that takes place are given below;
The resulting Ferric hydroxide forms the flock, and helps in sedimentation
Ferric sulphate is quite effective in PH range of 4 to 7 and above 9, whereas ferric chloride is quite
effective in the PH range of 3.5 to 6.5 and above 8.5. The combination has therefore proved to be very
effective for treating low PH water.
Besides alum and iron salts, sodium aluminate (𝑁𝑎2 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂4 ) is also sometimes used as coagulant. This
chemical when dissolved and mixed with water, reacts with salt of calcium and magnesium present in
raw water resulting in the formation of precipitate of calcium or magnesium aluminate. The chemical
reaction that are involved are:
The coagulant is about 1 ½ times costlier than alum, and is generally avoided for treating ordinary public
supplies but is very useful for treating water which do not have the natural desired alkalinity, and
therefore cannot be treated with pure alum. As evident from the above equation, the chemical further
reduces the temporary as well as permanent hardness present in raw supplies rather than increasing the
same as done by alum. The coagulant is therefore widely used for treating boiler feed water, which
permits very low values of hardness.
i. Iron salts produce heavy flocs and can therefore remove much more suspended matter than
alum
ii. Iron salts, being good oxidizing agent, can remove hydrogen sulphide and the corresponding
tastes and odors of water
iii. Iron salts can be used over a wider range of PH values.
iv. Iron salts cause staining and promote growth of iron bacteria in the distribution system
v. Iron salts impart corrosiveness to water, more than that which is imparted by alum
vi. The handling and sorting of iron salts require more skills and control, as they are corrosive and
deliquescent. Whereas no skilled labor is required in handling alum.
NOTE; Iron salts are used as coagulants more frequently for treating sewage and alum is more
frequently used for treating raw water.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the quantity of alum required in order to treat 13 million liters of water per day at a
treatment plant when 12 ppm of alum dose is required. Also determine the amount of carbon dioxide
which will be released per liter of treated water.
SOLUTION
Amount of alum required per day 12 𝑚𝑔/𝑙 × 13 × 106 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 156 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝑲𝒈/ⅆ𝒂𝒚
The chemical reaction which is involved in treating water with alum is given by:
Since 12 mg of alum is required to treat 1 liter of water, the quantity of carbon dioxide evolve per liter
= 4.76 𝑚𝑔
EXAMPLE 2
8 mg of Copperas is consumed with lime at a coagulation basin, per liter. Determine the quantity of
copperas and quick lime required to treat 10 million liters of water.
SOLUTION
The molecular weight of copperas = 55.85 + 32.066 + 4 × 16 + 7(2 × 1.008 + 16) = 278.028
Say 278
Since one molecule of copperas requires one molecule of lime then, 278 mg of copperas will require 56
mg of quicklime
56
Therefore 80 kg of copperas will require 80 × = 16.2 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒
278
EXAMPLE
A coagulation sedimentation plant clarifies 40 million liters of water per day. The quantity of filter alum
required at the plant is 18mg/l. If the raw water is having an alkalinity equivalent to 5 mg/l of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ,
determine the quantity of filter alum and the quick lime (containing 85 % of 𝐶𝑎𝑂 ) required per day by
the plant given the molecular weight as:
SOLUTION
18×40×106
Quantity of alum required per day = = 720𝐾𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
106
Quantity of filter alum required per year= 720 × 365 = 262.8 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100
𝐶𝑎𝑂 = 40 + 16 = 56
3×100
= × 18 = 8.108 𝑚𝑔/𝑙 ; this is because one part of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 produces one part of 𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 and
666
3 parts of 𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 are required for one part of 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3. 18𝐻2 𝑂 as shown in the equations above
1.74
Since quick lime contains 85% 𝐶𝑎𝑂, the quick lime required = × 100 = 2.05𝑚𝑔/𝑙
85
The quantity of lime required for treating 40 million liters = 2.05 × 40 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 82 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Hence the yearly consumption of Quick lime= 82 × 365 = 29930𝑘𝑔 = 29.93 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠
Coagulation sedimentation tanks, also called coagulant plant or clori-flocculator, contains the following
four units:
1. Feeding device
2. Mixing device or mixing basin
3. Flocculation tank or flocculator
4. Settling or sedimentation tank
The chemical coagulant is first of all fed (either dry or in solution form) in the raw water through the
feeding device. This mixture is then thoroughly mixed and agitated in the mixing basin. The floc which is
formed as a result of chemical reaction taking place in the mixing tank, is then allowed to consolidate in
the flocculation tank. The flocculated water is then passed into sedimentation tank, where these
flocculated particles settle down and be removed. The resultant water of low turbidity is then taken out
through the outlet of the sedimentation tank and directed to rapid gravity filters which do not function
well with turbid water expected from plain sedimentation. The coagulation-sedimentation process helps
in removing turbidities to as low as 10-20 mg/ and can also reduce bacteria from the water to as much
as 70%.
FEEDING DEVICES
Dry feeding refers to the feeding of coagulant in powdered form whereas wet feeding refers to feeding
of coagulant in solution form. Wet feeding equipment are generally more costly than dry feeding
equipment but have an advantage in that they can be easily controlled and adjusted. The choice
between the two depends upon;
a. The characteristic of the coagulant and the convenience with which it can be applied: Chemicals
which clog or which are non-uniform in composition cannot be fed by dry feeding. For example,
alum being fairly fine and uniform in size, can be fed easily by dry feeding but copperas may
give troubles in dry feeding, because the water of crystallization in it may change with
temperature and thereby turning it to solid or a sticky mass. Similarly hydrated lime cannot be
fed by dry feeding because it may bridge the orifices by taking the atmospheric moisture.
b. The amount of coagulant to be used: The amount of the coagulant to be used is important in
selecting the feeding arrangement. For example, if the dose of coagulant is very small, then for
reasons of accuracy, it may be fed in solution form.
c. The cost of coagulant and the size of plant: In plants which use a great deal of coagulant, the
cheapest form of coagulant should be purchased to reduce the cost. In large plants however
the cost of feeding equipment is small compared to the cost of the coagulant. However, in
small plants, dry feeding equipment are cheaper and the coagulant may have to be purchased
in dry form.
The most common dry feeding devices are shown in the figure below:
They are in form of tank with hopper at the bottom. Agitating plates are placed inside the tank, so as to
prevent the arching of coagulant. The coagulant in powdered form is filled in the tank and allowed to fall
in the mixing basin. Its dose is regulated by the speed of the tooth wheel or a helical spring is controlled
by connecting it to a venturi device installed in the raw water pipes bringing water to the mixing basin.
The quantity of coagulant released is thus controlled in proportion to the quantity of raw water entering
the mixing tank.
In wet feeding, the solution of required strength of coagulant is prepared and stored in tanks, from
which it is allowed to trickle down into the mixing basin through an outlet as shown in the figure below.
The level of coagulant solution in the coagulant feeding tank is maintained constant by means of a float
controlled in order to ensure constant rate of discharge for a certain fixed rate of raw water flow in the
mixing basin. When the rate of flow of raw water changes, the rate of outflow of coagulant also
changes. In order to make these two flows proportional, a conical plug arrangement is provided as
shown above. The mixing basin and the float chamber are interconnected together, so that the water
level remains the same in both of them. As flow of raw water increases, the depth of raw water, and
therefore its level increases in the mixing tank. The corresponding level in the float chamber increases
and lifts the float in the float chamber. The rising of the float causes the pinion and the pulley to rotate
in the same direction and lifts the conical plug allowing more coagulant solution to fall down into the
mixing basin. When the flow of raw water decreases, the conical plug descends down and allow feeding
to take place in a lower rate. The constant head coagulant feeding tank, thus automatically controls the
dose of coagulant.
Mixing devices
After addition of coagulant to the raw water, the mixture is thoroughly and vigorously mixed so that the
coagulant gets fully dispersed in the entire mass of water. The violent agitation of water can be achieved
by means of mixing devices such as centrifugal pump, compressed air, mixing basins, etc. Out of these,
mixing basins are most important and normally adopted. The two types of mixing basins are;
The baffle type mixing basins are rectangular tanks which are divide by baffle walls. The baffles may be
either provided in such a way as the water flows horizontally around their ends as shown,
or may be provided as to make the water move vertically over and under the baffle as shown,
Fig. Sectional elevation of an ‘over and under the baffle’ type of mixing basin
The hinderance and disturbances created by the provision of baffle in the path of flow give it sufficient
agitation to cause necessary mixing to develop the floc. The design criteria for these basins are as
follows:
i. The velocity of flow in the channel between the baffles is controlled to a value of 0.15 to 0.45 m/sec
ii. The detention period is normally kept between 20 to 50 minutes.
Knowing these two values, the length of flow is known. The capacity of the tank for the required
detention period is also known as water demand. Dividing the capacity of the tank with the length gives
the cross-section area of the channel. To permit easy cleaning, the distance between baffles should be
less than 45 cm or so. The clear opening between the ends of baffles and the tank walls (or roof or floor)
should be kept about 1.5 times the distance between the baffles, subject to minimum value of 60 cm or
so.
For around the end of baffle, the depth can be obtained by dividing the cross-section area of each
channel by the distance between the baffles. Since a depth less than 1m is normally not allowed
because of considerable variations in flow velocity with even slight variation in water depth, around the
end baffle should not be used when the computed depth works out to be less than 1 meter or so. The
width of the basin provided with ‘over and under baffles’ is obtained by dividing the cross-section area
of each channel by the spacing selected for the baffles. The depth is normally kept 2 to 3 times the
distance between the baffles. Baffle type mixing basins do not give satisfactory results and have several
disadvantages. Such mixing basins are not flexible as the can only operate efficiently within narrow
limits of velocity and volume of flow. The head loss through such a basin is much greater than that in
the basin equipment with mechanical mixers. The head loss is so much that for each 180˚ turn the loss
of head is about 3.2 times the velocity head in the channel. Moreover, such basins require greater
quantities of coagulant as they provide less efficient mixing than what can be obtained with properly
designed mechanical mixers. Baffle type of mixing basins are therefore not common in large plants but
are adopted in small plants as they require less skilled labor in their operation
EXAMPLE
Design the water depth for a mixing basin having around the end baffles in order to treat 48 million
liters per day of water. The tank may be divided into two similar compartments by providing a
longitudinal partition wall, and each half may have a clear width of 8 m. Assume suitable values of
detention period and the flow velocity through the basin. The clear distance between the baffles may be
kept as equal to min. permissible. Mention the number of channels in the tank and also the overall
inside length of the tank.
SOLUTION
Assume detention period of 30 minutes in the basin (i.e. somewhere between 20 to 50 minutes).
48×106 1
= ×
24 2
Further, assume the velocity through the channel as 0.3 m/sec (i.e., somewhere between 0.15 to 0.45
m/s).
The clear opening between the end of each baffle and the wall may be taken as equal to 1.5 times the
distance between the baffles= 1.5 × 0.45 = 0.67𝑚 ; 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒎
The effective length of each channel may now be taken as the average distance travelled by water in
the channel.
1
The effective length of the channel= 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 − 2 × 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
2
1
= 8 − 2 × × 0.7 = 8 − 0.7 = 7.3 𝑚
2
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 540
Number of channels required= = = 74
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 7.3
74
Hence there will be = 37 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
2
The clear length of the tank excluding the baffle walls and the side walls= 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 × 0.45
= 37 × 0.45 = 16.63 𝑚
75
= 16.63 + ( ) × 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠
100
75 75
= 16.63 + ( ) × (37 − 1) = 16.63 + ( ) × 36 = 19.33 𝑚
100 100
Mixing basins equipped with mechanical: The mechanically agitated mixing basins provide best type of
mixing as also the flocculating devices. The chemical added to raw water is vigorously mixed and
agitated by a flash mixer, and the water is then transferred to the flocculation tank provided with slow
mixers. A typical mixing basin is shown in the figure below.
The coagulant is brought by the coagulant pipe and is discharged just under the rotating fall. The raw
water is separately brought from the inlet end, and is deflected towards the moving impeller by a
deflecting wall. The thoroughly mixed water is taken out from the outlet end. A drain valve is also
provided to remove sludge from the bottom of the flash mixer. The impeller speed is generally kept
between 100 to 120 r. p.m. (revolution per minute) and the usual values of detention period may vary
between 2 to 3 minutes.
Flocculation or a flocculator.
The best floc will form when the mixture of water and coagulants are violently agitated followed by a
relatively slow and gently stirring to permit build up and agglomeration of the floc particles. From the
mixing basin, the water is therefore taken to a flocculation tank called flocculator, where it is given a
slow stirring motion. The figure below shows a typical flocculator fitted with paddles.
The rectangular tanks are fitted with paddles operated by electric motor, although even plain
flocculation chambers with controlled flow velocities are also possible. The water coming out from the
flocculator is then taken to the sedimentation tank. The paddles usually rotate at a speed of about 2 to 3
rpm. The usual values of detention period for the tank ranges between 30 to 60 minutes (with 40
minutes as the average value). The clear distance between the paddles is about 15 to 30 cm. The
velocity of flow through such a flocculator is unimportant because the paddles provide a rolling motion
which prevents the flocs from settling.
Sedimentation tank
The function, design and other details of this tank are the same as those of sedimentation tank. The tank
is designed in the same assumption as the plain sedimentation tank with the only difference that a
lower value of detention period (2 to 4hours) is usually sufficient. Also, higher values of surface loading
(or overflow rates) varying between 1000-1250 liters/hour/m2 of plan area generally permitted.
This is usually a combination of flocculation chamber along with sedimentation tank as shown in the
figure below
In such a tank, a plain floc- chamber without any mechanical devices is provided before the water enters
the sedimentation chamber. The detention period for the floc chamber is kept about 15 to 40 minutes,
and that for settling tank, is about 2 to 4 hours. The depth of the floc chamber may be kept about a half
that of the settling chamber. The water from the mixing basin enters this tank, and clarified water
comes out of the outlet end. The design of such tanks is same as that applied in plain sedimentation
tanks except that they are kept deeper. A depth varying from 3 to 6 m is generally provided. They are
cleaned at an interval of about 6 months or so.
EXAMPLE
Design a coagulation-cum-sedimentation tank with continuous flow for population of 60,000 persons
per capita water allowance of 120 liters. Make any assumptions needed.
SOLUTION
Assuming maximum daily consumption as 1.8 times the average daily demand
12.96 × 106
= = 540 × 103 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
24 × 60
540×103 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/ℎ𝑜𝑟
Plan area BL = = 540 𝑚 2
1000liters/ hour/m2
540
Assuming a width of 12 meters, the length of the tank = = 45 𝑚
12
2160
And depth = =4𝑚
540
By providing an extra sludge depth of 0.5 m the depth should be 4.5 at the starting end. And assuming a
4.5
slope of 1;50 from the starting end the depth on the discharge end= 4.5 + = 5.4 𝑚 . a free board of
50
0.5 m may be provided above the water level.
In addition to 45 m length of settling tank, a floc chamber at the entry has to be provided. Assuming the
effective depth in the floc chamber as half the depth in the tank near the floc chamber i.e.
45
= 2.25𝑚, and assuming period of flocculation or detention period as 20 minutes, the capacity of the
2
20
chamber= 540 × 103 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 × ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 180 × 103 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 180 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
60
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 180
Plan area = = = 80 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 2.25
80
Using the same width as 12 m, the length of flocculation chamber = = 6.67 𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝟔. 𝟕 𝒎
12
The best coagulant dose is determined first in the laboratory and then adjusted by actual observation at
the treatment plant. The common test which is performed to determine this approximate optimum
quantity of coagulant is known as Jar test.
The figure below shows the apparatus used for this test.
The sample of water to be tested is placed is placed in a number of jars each having a capacity of one
liter. Normally six jars are used. Different amounts of coagulant are then added to each jar. The driving
unit is started. The paddles connected with the driving shaft through the stirring rod placed inside the
jars, are thus made to rotate.
The formation of floc in each jar is noted. The amount of coagulant in the jar which produces good floc
with least amount of coagulant, indicates the optimum dosage. The speed of paddles and time of
mixing may also be varied for different tests during determination of least optimum dosage.
FILTRATION
Screening and sedimentation remove a large percentage of the suspended solids and organic matter
present in raw water supplies. The percentage of removal of the fine colloidal matter increases when
coagulants are also used before sedimentation. However, the resultant water is not usually pure and
may contain some very fine suspended particles (discrete, or flocculated when coagulant is used) and
bacteria present in it. To remove or reduce the remaining impurities still further, and to produce good
clear water, the water is filtered through bed of fine granular material such as sand, etc. The process of
passing water through beds of such granular materials (called filters) is known as filtration. Filtration
may help in removing color, odor, turbidity and pathogenic bacteria from water. Two types of filters
commonly used for treating municipal water supplies are:
The third type of rapid sand filter which works under pressure is known as pressure filter. This type of
filter is used generally for small plants such as for individual industrial supplies and are generally not
adopted for treating large municipal supplies.
The slow sand gravity filters are generally called slow sand filters and are useful in the sense that they
can remove much larger percentage of impurities and bacteria from water, as compared to what can be
removed by a rapid gravity sand filters often called rapid gravity filters. However, the slow sand gravity
filters yield a very low rate of filtration (about 1/30 times that given by rapid sand gravity filters) and
require large area and are costly. With advancement of disinfection technique, it is not necessary for
removal of 100% bacteria (as obtained by slow sand filters) and therefore slow sand filters are almost
obsolete. Rapid gravity filters are therefore universally adopted for most treatment plant. The water
from coagulation-sedimentation tank is directly fed into the rapid gravity filters and the resultant
supplies are disinfected to completely kill germs and color removal.
Theory of Filtration
i. Mechanical straining: The suspended particles present in water, and which are of bigger size than
the size of the voids in the sand layer of the filter, cannot pass through these voids and are arrested
in them resulting in water that is free from the suspended particles. Most of the particles are
removed on the upper sand layer. The arrested particles including the coagulated flocs form a mat
on the top bed, which further helps in straining out the impurities.
ii. Flocculation and sedimentation: The voids spaces act like tiny sedimentation- coagulation tanks. The
colloidal matter arrested in the voids is a gelatinous mass and therefore, attract other finer
particles. The finer particles thus settle down in the voids and get removed. This helps in removing
even particles smaller than the size of voids present in the filters.
iii. Biological metabolism: Certain micro-organisms and bacteria are generally present in the voids
of filters. They may either reside initially as a coating over sand grains or they may be caught
during the initial process of filtration. However, these micro-organisms may require inorganic
impurities such as algae as their food for survival. These micro-organisms therefore utilize the
inorganic impurities and convert them into harmless compounds by the process of biological
metabolism. The harmless compounds formed form a larger layer on the top which help in
absorbing and straining out the impurities.
iv. Electrolytic process: Filters help in purifying the water by changing the chemical characteristic of
water. Sand filter media and impurities in water carry electrical charges of opposite nature. The
particles are therefore neutralized and therefore changing the character of water and making it
purer. After a certain interval the charges of sand grains get exhausted and have to be restored
by cleaning the filter.
FILTER MATERIALS
Sand, either fine or course is generally used as filter media. The layer of sand may be supported on
gravel which permits the filtered water to move freely to the under drain, and allow the wash water to
move uniformly upward.
Sand: The filter sand should generally be obtained from rocks like quartzite and should contain the
following properties:
The size of sand is measured and expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size i.e., D10
may be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through which 10% of the sample of sand by weight will
pass. The selection of the correct effective size is very important because too smaller particles will lead
to clogging of filters, and will give very low rates of filtration whereas very large particle size will permit
the suspended particles and bacteria to pass through it without being removed.
The uniformity in size or degree of variation is measured and expressed by the term called uniformity
𝐷60
coefficient expressed as ( ) , which may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm through which
𝐷10
60% of the sample passes to the effective size of sand.
Gravel: The gravel which may be used below the sand should be hard, durable, free from impurities,
properly rounded, and should have a density of about 1600 kg/m 3
Other materials: Apart from use of sand, anthrafilt may also be used as filter media. It is made from
anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burn without smoke or flames. It is cheaper and has high
rate of filtration. However, it is not locally available and sand is therefore the most principal filter
medium.
Similarly, based on consideration of gravity and pressure, the following classifications apply:
Slow sand filters are preferred on smaller plants at warmer places where covers on filters are not
required to protect the filters from freezing. They normally utilize effluent from plain sedimentation
tanks and are used for relatively clearer waters.
The slow sand filter consists of an enclosure tank usually an open water tight rectangular tank made of
masonry or concrete. The bed slope is kept at about 1 in 100 towards the direction of the drain. The
depth of the tank may vary from 2.5 to 3.5 m. The plan area of the tank may vary from 100 to 2000
square meters or more depending upon the quantity of water to be treated.
The filter media consist of sand layer about 90 to 110 cm in depth and placed over gravel support. The
𝐷60
effective size (𝐷10 ) varies from 0.2 to 0.4 mm and the uniformity coefficient ( ) varies from 1.8 to 2.5
𝐷10
or 3.0. The top 15 cm layer of this sand is generally finer than the rest. Which is generally kept uniform
in grain size. However, if different gradations of sand are used (though not necessary) the courser layer
should be placed near the bottom, and then the finest towards the top. The finer the sand used, the
purer the water obtained, as more impurities and bacteria will be removed.
The base material is gravel, and it supports the sand. It consists of 30 to 75 cm thick gravel of different
sizes placed in layers. Generally, three or four layers each of 15 to 20 cm depth are used. The coarsest
gravel is used in the bottom most layer, and the finest gravel is used in the topmost layer. The size of
gravel in the bottom-most layer is generally kept 40 to 60 mm; the intermediate layer varies between 20
to 40 mm and 6 to 20 mm (when two intermediate layers are used), and the topmost layer as 3 to 6
mm.
The underdrain system below the gravel support consists of a central drain and lateral drain as shown in
figure below
The laterals are open jointed pipe drains or some other kind of porous drains placed 3 to 5 m apart on
the bottom floor and sloping towards a main covered central drain. The laterals collect the filtered
water and discharge into main drain, which leads the water to filtered water well, sometimes instead of
placing it in the center, the main drain is placed along one side of the tank and the laterals slope towards
it.
The inlet and outlet arrangement are generally governed by automatic valves. An inlet chamber is
constructed for admitting the effluent from plain sedimentation tank without disturbing the sand layer
of the filter and distribute the flow uniformly over the filter bed. A filtered water well is also provided on
the outlet side in order to collect the filtered water coming out from the main under-drain drain. In
order to maintain constant discharge through the filter, an adjustable telescopic tube is generally used.
Other appurtenances are also provided for efficient functioning of the filter. For example, vertical pipes
passing through the layer of sand may be provided and may help in proper functioning of the filter layer.
Similarly, arrangements are made in order to control the depth of water above the sand layer (1 to 1.5
m). This depth is not allowed to undergo large variations. In addition, a meter to measure the flow, and
a gauge to measure the loss of head are usually installed. The loss of head caused by the resistance
offered by the sand grains to the flow of water through it is usually called the filter head or filtering
head. It is the difference between the water level in the filter tank and the filtered water well. For
freshly cleaned filter unit, the resistance offered is less, and therefore the filter head is usually small,
say 10 to 15 cm, but goes on increasing as the filter layer get clogged, and the telescopic tube is adjusted
by manual labor, so as to maintain uniform discharge. However, when the head loss becomes high (0.7
to 1.2 m or so) the filter unit must be put out of service and be cleaned.
The treated water from the sedimentation tank is allowed to enter the inlet chamber and gets
distributed uniformly over the filter bed. The water percolates through the filter media and gets purified
during the process of filtration. The water now enters the gravel layer and comes out as filtered water.
It gets collected in the laterals through the open joints which finally discharges the water to the filtered
water well through the main drain. From there it is taken to the storage tanks for supplies. The water
entering the slow sand filters should not be treated by coagulants. This is because the dirty skin formed
by floc and carried to the filter considerably affects the economic working of the filters. The depth of
water on the filter should be carefully decided and should not be allowed to undergo large variation.
This depth should not be too large nor too small. It is generally kept equal to the depth of the filter sand.
The loss of head called filter head, filtering head or filtration head is generally limited to a maximum
value of 0.7 to 1.2 m or so. When this limiting value (which is usually 0.7 to 0.8 depth of filter) is reached
the filter unit must be kept to service and the filter cleaned. The cleaning of the slow sand filter is not
done by backwashing as it is the case with rapid sand filters, but is done by scrapping 1.5 to 3 cm of the
top sand layer. The top surface is finally raked, roughened, cleaned and washed with good water. The
amount of water used is usually small (about 0.2 to 0.6 percent of the total water filtered). Cleaning is
repeated until the sand depth is reduced to about 40 cm or so and then more sand is added. A lot of
manual labor is required in cleaning such filters, although very small quantities of water are needed.
After cleaning, the filter is again put to use and raw water is admitted into it. However, the effluent
obtained at the beginning is not usually purer and is not used for about 24 to 36 hours until the
formation of a film of arrested impurities around the sand grain takes place. The interval between two
successive cleanings depends on the nature of impurities present in water and also the size of filtering
sand used in the filters. The interval ranges between one to three months.
The rate of filtration that can be obtained from slow sand filters is usually small and usually ranges
between 100 to 200 liters per hour per m2 of filter area.
Slow sand filters are usually highly efficient in removal of bacteria and other suspended impurities from
raw water. The extent of removal is about 98 to 99 % or more. These filters also remove odor and
tastes, particularly those caused by organic impurities present in water such as algae. However, these
filters are less efficient in removal of color of raw water. Moreover they can only remove turbidities up
to 50 mg/l or so and are therefore not suitable for sedimented water having turbidities greater than 50
to 60 mg/l or so
EXAMPLE
Also assume that one unit, out of six, will be kept as stand by.
SOLUTION
Maximum daily demand= 1.8 × 7.5 × 106 = 13.5 × 106 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Since, six units are used and one is a stand by unit, then 5 units should provide the necessary area of
filtration.
1
Area of each unit= × 3125 𝑚 2 = 625 𝑚 2
5
2𝐵 × 𝐵 = 625
Hence, use six filter units with one as stand by and each unit having a size of 17.75 m × 35.5 m, arranged
in series of 3 units on either side.
i. One which utilize comparatively large size of particles, which allow greater rate of filtration as
compared to the slow sand filters. They are called Rapid gravity filters
ii. One which utilize development of pressure over the filter and thereby increasing the rate of
filtration. They are called pressure filters.
Rapid gravity filters are used for large municipal supplies whereas pressure filters are used for small
installations such as industrial plants.
These filters employ courser sand with effective size as 0.5 mm or so. On an average, these filters may
yield as high as 30 times the yield given by slow sand filters. Water from coagulation sedimentation
tanks is used in these filters, and filtered water is treated with disinfectant to obtain portable water for
supplies. The figure below shows a typical section and an isometric view of such of a rapid gravity sand
filter.
It consists of an open water tight rectangular enclosure tank made of masonry or concrete. The depth
of the tank varies from 2.5 to 3.5 m.
When valve 1 in the figure above is opened, the effluent from the coagulation sedimentation tank
enters the inlet chamber of the filter. The water gets filtered through the bed and the filtered water is
taken out from the main drain by opening valve 4. The filtered water is then taken to the disinfection
unit. Thus, when in operation these two valves are kept open and all the other valves kept closed.
in order to achieve uniform distribution of water, the area of the filter unit should not be kept large and
is generally limited to about 10 to 180 m2 for each unit.
The number of units at a filter plant is roughly estimated by Morrell and Wallace equation which states
that:
N = 1.22√𝑄 where N= No. of filter units and Q= plant capacity in million liters per day
There should be at least two filter units in any plant. And for a plant of more than 9 million liters per day
capacity, no single unit should have a capacity greater than ¼ of the capacity of the tank.
The filter media consist of sand layer about 60 to 90 cm in depth and placed over a gravel support. The
𝐷60
effective size (𝐷10 ) varies from 0.35 to 55 mm and the uniformity coefficient ( ) varies from 1.2 to 1.8.
𝐷10
the sand must be laid in layers. The top layer of this sand is generally finer and coarser variety towards
the bottom.
The base material is gravel, and it supports the sand but in rapid gravity filters apart from supporting
the sand, the gravel base material also distributes the wash water. It consists of 60 to 90 cm thick gravel
of different sizes placed in layers. The coarsest gravel (about 40 mm in size) is used in the bottom most
layer, and the finest gravel (about 3 mm in size) is used in the topmost layer. The size of gravel in the
bottommost layer is thus generally kept 20 to 40 mm, in the intermediate layer as varying between 12
mm (when two intermediate layers are used), and in the topmost layer as 3 to 6 mm.
In a rapid gravity filter, the distribution of the wash water is the critical function of the gravel layer and
hence careful grading and equally carefully placing of the materials is important.
The under- drainage system receives and delivers the filtered water and also allows back washing for
cleaning of filters. It should therefore be designed in such a way that in addition to collecting water
during the downward movement, it should also be capable of passing water upward at a high rate of
about 300 to 900 liters/ minute/ m2 of filter area or more depending on the design, while applying it
evenly and uniformly over the under portion of gravel or sand bed. Since the rate of application of wash
water is much higher than the rate of filtration (about 6 to 16 times) the rate of filtration which is of the
order 50 to 100 liters/minute/ square m, the design of the under-drain system is primarily governed by
the consideration of even and uniform distribution of wash water. Various forms of under drainage
system include:
The manifold and lateral system installation consist of about 40 cm diameter manifold pipe running
lengthwise along the center of the filter bottom, with laterals taking off from the manifold in both
directions at right angles to it with size of about 10 cm. the laterals are placed at about 15 to 20 cm
apart as shown in the diagram below.
In perforated pipe type the lateral drains are provided with holes at the bottom side. The holes are 6 to
13 mm in diameter and make an angle of 30˚ with the vertical as shown in the figure below.
The holes are spaced at about 7.5 to 30 cm center to center for 6- 13 mm diameter respectively. They
may sometimes be staggered on either side instead of being continuous. Brass brushings are sometimes
inserted in these holes so as to avoid the rusting of the surface of these holes, so as to avoid rusting the
surface of these holes. The lateral drains are supported on concrete block of about 40 to 50 mm
thickness and placed on the floor of these filters.
In pipe and strainer type of this system, the laterals are attached to the manifold as in the above
system but holes are not drilled into the laterals. A strainer is used in place of lateral drains as shown in
the figure below.
In its simple form, the strainer consists of a small brass pipe closed at the top with a perforated cap.
Such strainers are placed 15cm apart on the laterals instead of drilling holes in them. When pipe
strainer pipes are used, compressed air is used while back washing the filter which results in saving of
the wash water. Low rate of about 250 to 300 liters/ minute per square meter of filter area are required
due to use of compressed air in agitating the particles and thus it is called slow velocity wash.
In perforated pipe type the agitation is don by water jet and the backwash therefore requires high
velocity of the order 700 to 8000 liters/ minute/ square meter of filter area and are thus termed as high
velocity wash.
Factors to consider while designing the sizes of pipes to be used in under- drainage systems
i. The total cross section area of the perforations should be about 0.2 % of the total filter area.
ii. The cross-section area of each lateral should be about 2-4 times the total cross section area of
perforation in it, for diameter perforations 13 mm and 6 mm respectively
iii. The cross-section area of the manifold should be about twice the cross-section area of the
lateral drains.
iv. Length of laterals should not be greater than 60 times the diameter of the manifold
v. Maximum velocity in the manifold to provide required amount of wash water is about 1.8 to
2.4 m/s.
Wash water troughs: the dirty water which comes out of the filter after cleaning is collected in wash
water troughs or gutters carried to the main gutter. These gutters may be square, V- shaped or semi-
circular. They may be of cast iron, concrete, steel, or wrought iron. They should be set at such an
elevation that the overflow lip will be at somewhere above the top of the sand rise, otherwise sand may
be washed out of the filter. Their top is therefore kept above the sand-bed by a distance about half
depth of the sand and their bottom adjusted usually 5cm above the top of the sand surface. Flat
bottomed troughs are generally avoided as they cause boiling of sand during the backwashing.
Troughs are generally spaced 1.5 to 2.0 m apart. For efficient working, these troughs should be large
enough to be laid at suitable slopes.
Air compressors:
During backwashing, the filter sand grains are agitated either by water jet, or by compressed air or by
mechanical rakes. When compressed air is used, air compressor should be able to supply compressed
air for about 4 minutes or so at a rate of about 600 to 800 liters/ minute /square meter of filter area the
pressure of the compressed air should be sufficient to overcome friction resistance offered by the air
pipes and the column of water laying above the distribution system. The compressed air is supplied
either through the laterals or through a separate pipe system.
Rate controller:
In order to automatically obtain a uniform rate of filtration irrespective of the head loss though the
filter, a rate controller is required at the outlet end of each filter unit. The most common rate controller
is the venturi-rate controller, which works by the principle of venturi meter. The figure below shows
atypical venturi-rate controller.
It consists of a balanced disc valve connected to a flexible diaphragm below and to a lever and weight
above. Water enters this valve through a venturi tube. A small pipe transmits pressure at the throat of
the tube to the under-side of the diaphragm. When the rate of flow increases, the pressure difference
between the upper and the lower side of the diaphragm increases. The upper side is excreted upon by
higher pressure because of its connection to the larger end. This pushes down the valve till the pressure
becomes small enough to balance the pull of the lever and the weight. As the filter clogs with its use,
and the flow decreases, the reverse action takes place and thereby giving a constant rate of flow.
Miscellaneous accessories: other miscellaneous accessories such as head loss indicators, meters for
measuring rate of flow etc. are also provided. A head loss indicator consists of mercury gauge, with one
end connected to the water resting on the sand bed and the other to the effluent coming from the filter.
Meters are installed for measuring discharges at entry and outlet and also at backwash.
Two troubles generally countered during the operation of rapid filters are:
i. Formation of mud: mud accumulates to form a dense mat and in inadequate washing this mud
may sink down in the sand bed and to the gravel layer. This hinders the upward movement of
water during the back washing and hinder the uniform application of wash water. This may be
reduced by:
a. Breaking them up with rakes or some such equipment and washing the particles.
b. Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda or some other chemicals.
c. Removing and cleaning the damaged sand
ii. Cracking of filters: The shrinkage of the top layer of filter bed causes development of crack
in the sand bed. The loss of head therefore increases which increases the pressure on the
sand bed and widens further the cracks. Flocs and mud then penetrate into through these
cracks impairing the washing and filtration efficiency.
Rate of filtration: the rate of filtration of rapid gravity filters is usually high of orders 3000 to 6000
liters/ hour/ square meter of filter area. This saves on space as well as the size of filter material
Efficiency and performance: these filters a less efficient in removal of turbidities as well as bacteria
as compared to slow sand gravity filters. They can remove turbidities up to 35 to 40 mg/l.
EXAMPLE
Determine the length and width of a rapid sand filter for 4 million liters per day of supply given the
following data:
Solution
For 30 minutes (0.5 hours) are lost every day in washing the filter unit,
4.16
filtered per hour = = 0.177 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
23.5
2(𝐿 × 𝐵) = 35.4
(1.5𝐵 × 𝐵) = 17.7
(1.5𝐵 × 𝐵) = 17.7
B= 3.43 m, L= 5.2 m
Hence use two filter beds each with dimension 5.2 m× 3.43 m
EXAMPLE 2
Design approximate dimensions of a set of rapid sand filters for treating water required for a population
of 50,000 with the rate of supply being 180 liters per day per person the filters are rated to work 5000
liters/ hour / square meter. Assume any other necessary information
SOLUTION
Assuming wash water requirements and taking the maximum daily demand as 1.8 times the average
daily demand, then,
= 50,000 × 180
2(𝐿 × 𝐵) = 135
(1.5𝐵 × 𝐵) = 67.5
(1.5𝐵 × 𝐵) = 67.5
B= 6.75 m, L= 10 m
5 Loss of Head Approximately 10 cm initial loss and Approximately 0.3 m initial loss and 2.5 to
0.8 to 1.2 m final limit when 3.5 m final limit when cleaning
cleaning
6 Supervision No skilled supervision is required Skilled supervision is required
7 Cleaning of Scraping of 21/2cm thick layer Back wash with clean water under
Filter washing and replacing. Cleaning pressure to detach the dirt on the sand.
interval that is replacement of sand Backwashing daily or on alternate days.
at 1 to 2 months.
8 Efficiency Bacterial removal, taste, odor, color There is no removal of bacteria. Removal
and turbidity removal color taste, odor and turbidity is good.
9 Ease of Simple Complicated and under drainage is
construction properly designed.
10 Depreciation Relatively low Relatively high
rate
11 Economy High initial cost but low cost of Low initial cost but higher maintenance
operation and maintenance and operation cost.
12 Flexibility Not flexible to meet variations in Quite flexible in meeting variations in
demand demand
13 Quantity of Very small amounts of wash water Large amounts of wash water varying
wash water varying from 0.2 to 0.6 percent of from 1 to 5 percent of total water
total water filtered. filtered.
14 Period of Cleaned at intervals of 1 to 3 Cleaned at intervals of 1 to 3 days
cleaning months
PRESSURE FILTERS
Pressure filter is type of rapid sand filter in a closed water tight cylinder through which the water passes
through the sand bed under pressure. All the operations of the filters are similar to rapid gravity filter,
expect that the coagulated water is directly applied to the filter without mixing and flocculation. These
filters are used for industrial plants but these are not economical on large scale. Pressure filters may be
vertical pressure filter and horizontal pressure filter as shown in the figure below.
The rate of filtration or rate of loading is usually higher, about to 5 times what can be obtained from a
rapid gravity filter. Their filtration normally ranges from 6,000 to 15,00 liters/ hour/ square meter of
filter area.
However, their efficiency in removal of bacteria and turbidities is usually less than that of rapid gravity
filters. Their effluent is therefore usually poorer and are not used for public supplies.
ADVANTAGES
2. These are ideal for small estates and small water works
DISADVATAGES
1. Due to heavy cost on treatment, they cannot be used for treatment large quantity of water at water
works
2. Proper quality control and inspection is not possible because of closed tank
The yield of slow sand filters is generally increased by use of a roughening filter which is usually a rapid
gravity filter with a high rate of filtration done before passing the water to the slow sand filter. The
water from the sedimentation coagulant tank is therefore passed through the roughening filter which
removes partly the impurities and then the water passed through the slow sand filters to obtain a good
quality supply at a higher rate. The roughening filters utilizes courser sand and yield a comparatively
higher rate of filtration of the order 7000 liters/ hour/square meter of filter media and it hence reduces
the load on the slow sand filters. The water is thus filtered twice and hence the process is termed as
double filtration.
DISINFECTION
The process of killing the infective bacteria from the water and making it safe to the user is called
disinfection. The water which comes out from the filter may contain some disease – causing bacteria in
addition to the useful bacteria. Before the water is supplied to the public it is utmost necessary to kill all
the disease-causing bacteria. The chemicals or substances which are used for killing the bacteria are
known as disinfectants.
1. They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for use
5. After treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user.
METHODS OF DISINFECTION
I. PHYSICAL METHODS
1. BOILING: Boil the water for 15 to 20 minutes and kills the disease-causing bacteria. This process is
applicable for individual homes.
2. ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS: Water is allowed to pass about 10cm thickness by ultraviolet rays. This process is
very costly and not used at water works. Suitable for institutions. 3. ULTRASONIC RAYS: Suitable for
institutions.
3. POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE: This method is used for disinfection of dug well water, pond water or
private source of water.
5. EXCESS LIME TREATMENT: Needs long detention time for time interval and large lime sludges to be
treated.
CHLORINATION
Chlorination is the addition of chlorine to kill the bacteria. Chlorination is very widely adopted in all
developing countries for treatment of water for public supply.
ADVANTAGES OF CHLORINE
2. It is powerful oxidant and can penetrate the cell wall of organism and its contents.
5. Does not form harmful constituents on reaction with organics of inorganics in water
1. Chlorine gas or liquid is highly corrosive and Lethal to Inhale. Hence it is to be stored carefully in
sealed container at a distance.
2. If the water contains phenolic compounds, there is a reaction with chlorine can result in cancer
causing substances.
When chlorine is applied in water some of it is consumed in killing the pathogens, some react organs &
inorganic substances and the balance is detected as “Residual Chlorine”. The difference between the
quantity applied per litre and the residual is called “Chlorine Demand”. Polluted waters excert more
chlorine demand. If water is pre-treated by sedimentation and aeration, chlorine demand may be
reduced. Normally residual chlorine of 0.2 mg/litre is required.
When chlorine is dissolved in water forms hypochlorous acid and hydro chloric acid.
The two prevailing species (HOCl) and (OCl -) are called free available chlorine are responsible for the
disinfection of water.
Chlorine reacts with ammonia in water to form Monochloramine, (NH2Cl), dichloramine (NH Cl2) and
trichloramine, (N Cl3) released and their distribution depends on the PH value of water
DOSAGE OF CHLORINE
Plain chlorination is the process of addition of chlorine only when the surface water with no other
treatment is required. The water of lakes and springs is pure and can be used after plain chlorination. A
rate of 0.8 mg/lit/hour at 15N/cm2 pressure is the normal dosage so as to maintain in a resided chlorine
of 0.2 mg/lit.
Super chlorination is defined as administration of a dose considerably in excess of that necessary for the
adequate bacterial purification of water. About 10 to 15 mg/lit is applied with a contact time of 10 to 30
minutes under the circumstances such as during epidemic breakout. The water is to be dechlorinated
before supply to the distribution system.
The break-point chlorination represents that much dosage beyond which further addition of chlorine
appears as free residual chlorine. The figure below shows the break point chlorination
The dotted line represents the residual chlorine that would appear when no chlorine was consumed.
When chlorine is added it generally reacts with ammonia present in water to form chloramines. The
residual chlorine however goes on increasing with addition of chlorine though it is slightly less as some
chlorine is used in killing bacteria as indicated by AB in the figure above. As chlorine addition is
continued beyond point B, the organic matter present in water present gets oxidized and residual
chlorine falls down as shown by BC. At point C any further addition of chlorine appears as free chlorine
since nothing is utilized. The point C is therefore known as break point as any chlorine added beyond
this point appears as residual chlorine. The addition of chlorine beyond the break point is known as
break-point chlorination.
The addition of chlorine beyond the break point takes care of recontamination in future in the
distribution systems.
(D) DECHLORINATION
Removal of excess chlorine resulting from super chlorination in part or completely is called
‘Dechlorination’. Excess chlorine in water gives pungent smell and corrode the pipe lines. Hence excess
chlorine is to be removed before supply. Physical methods like aeration, heating and absorption on
charcoal may be adopted. Chemical methods like sulphur dioxide (SO 2) , Sodium Bi-sulphate –Na(HSO 3),
Sodium Thiosulphate (Na2 S 2 O8) are used.
POINTS OF CHLORINATION
Chlorine applied at various stages of treatment and distribution accordingly they are known as pre, post
and Re-chlorination.
a) PRE-CHLORINATION
Chlorine applied prior to the sedimentation and filtration process is known as Pre-chlorination. This is
practiced when the water is heavily polluted and to remove taste, odor, color and growth of algae on
treatment units. Pre-chlorination improves coagulation and post chlorination dosage may be reduced.
b) POST CHLORINATION
When the chlorine is added in the water after all the treatment is known as Post chlorination
c) RE-CHLORINATION
In long distribution systems, chlorine residual may fall tendering the water unsafe. Application of excess
chlorine to compensate for this may lead to unpleasant smell to consumers at the points nearer to
treatment point in such cases chlorine is applied again that is re-chlorinated at intermediate points
generally at service reservoirs and booster pumping stations.
d) DOUBLE CHLORINATION
The term double chlorination is used to indicate that water that has been chlorinated twice. The pre-
chlorination and post chlorination are generally used in double chlorination.
I. ORTHOTOLIDINE TEST
In this test 10 ml of chlorinated water sample is taken after the required contact sample in a glass
tube and 0.1 ml of orthotolidine solution added. The formation of yellow color normally indicates
the presence of chlorine in water. The more yellow the color the greater the chlorine residual.
In this test 10 ml sample is taken in a tube. A reagent sample (DPD tablet) is placed in another tube
and 1cm depth of water added and the tablet allowed to dissolve. More water is then added until
the tube contains the 10 ml. After 2 minutes the colors visible through the window are compared by
rotating a comparator disc to match the color obtained.
Other methods used for residual chlorine test are: a) starch Iodine test b) Chlorotex test
WATER SOFTENING
The removal of hardness from water is known as water softening. It is not essential in order to make
water safe for public use. The main advantage with water softening is that it reduces soap consumption
and lowers the cost of maintaining plumbing fixtures and improved food preparation. As hence, the
decision of whether water for public supplies is to be softened or not depends on the cost of treatment
and satisfaction to the consumers. For industrial purposes water softening is essential as hard water
causes scaling troubles in boilers.
TEMPORARY HARDNES
v. Boiling
vi. Adding of lime/lime process
Calcium and Magnesium carbonate are insoluble in water and can be sedimented out in a
sedimentation tank. However boiling large amounts of large-scale supplies in impracticable and hence
generally not adopted.
Line lime 𝐶𝑎𝑂, generally hydrated lime 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 is added to water. The following reaction takes place:
The calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide get precipitated and can be removed in the
sedimentation tank.
PARMANENT HARDNESS
Permanent hardness or non-bicarbonate hardness is caused by the sulphates , chlorides and nitrates of
calcium and magnesium. It is more permanent and difficult to remove and special methods are for water
softening. These include:
i. Lime-Soda process
ii. Base exchange process/ Zeolite process
iii. Demineralization process
Lime-Soda process
In this process lime 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 and soda ash 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 are added to hard water which react with calcium
and magnesium salt so as to form insoluble precipitate of calcium and magnesium so as to form
insoluble precipitate of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide (𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 ). The precipitates can
be sedimented out in a sedimentation tank. The chemical reactions which may be involved are:
Calcium carbonate (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ) and magnesium hydroxide (𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 ) which are formed get precipitated
and can be sedimented out in a sedimentation tank
The calcium sulphate (𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4) and calcium chloride (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 ) formed in these cases react with soda ash
(𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3) as shown in the following reactions:
As formerly stated, the Calcium carbonate (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ) and magnesium hydroxide (𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 ) which are
formed in this case also get precipitated and can be sedimented out in a sedimentation tank
The sodium salts which are formed are soluble but are generally not objectionable in the amounts
resulting from softening process.
From the above equations, it is clear that the lime helps in removing of carbonate hardness, and also
react with magnesium hardness by substituting the magnesium salts by calcium salts, while the soda
acts on the non-carbonate hardness of calcium salts.
Alum is often added with the lime and soda to combine chemical coagulation and water softening into a
single process. This results in a less costly process that gives relatively good results if operated properly.
v. The increased causticity may sometimes in killing the pathogenic bacteria. This will happen when
the alkalinity caused by calcium and magnesium hydroxide up to 20 to 50 mg/l is retained in the
treated water for about 4 to 5 hours.
vi. This treatment helps in reducing the total mineral content of water.
vii. It helps I removing iron and manganese from the water although to a certain extent.
There are however 4 distinct limitations or disadvantages of lime soda treatment as follows:
i. A large quantity of sludge (i.e., the insoluble precipitates of calcium carbonate and magnesium
hydroxide) is formed in this process, which must be deposited by some suitable method. This
sludge may be discharged into sewers or may sometimes use for raising the low laying areas.
ii. Careful operation and skilled supervision is required in order to get good results.
iii. Incrustation of pipe walls of the distribution systems may result if the water is not properly re-
carbonated. The total omission of re-carbonation, causes troubles in the filter operation in the
filter operation in addition to incrustation in pipes.
iv. This process cannot help in producing water of zero hardness. This is because of the fact that
calcium carbonate is soluble in water. However, this limitation is not a disadvantage for
treating public supplies, because certain hardness is always desired in drinking waters for health
consideration and also for the protection of distribution pipes and plumbing fixtures.
Re-carbonation process
The calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide formed may however remain in small quantities as
finely divided particles and may cause troubles getting deposited on the filters or in the pipes of the
distribution systems. To prevent this, the water is generally re-carbonated by-passing carbon dioxide
through it as it leaves the sedimentation tank. In the re-carbonation process, the insoluble carbonates
combine with carbon dioxide to again form the soluble bicarbonate as given below:
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ↓ +𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 , The calcium bicarbonate (𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2) formed is soluble.
𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 The Magnesium bicarbonate (𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2) formed is soluble.
By the re-carbonation process, even though the water regains some of its hardness, yet re-carbonation
is advisable.
Zeolites are natural or synthetic cation base exchange hydrated silicates of sodium and aluminum,
having the general formula 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 𝑥. 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 𝑂 𝑦𝐻2 𝑂. These Zeolites have the excellent property of
exchanging their cations and hence during the softening process, sodium ions of zeolite get replaced by
calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water. The zeolite softener resembles a sand filter in
which the filter medium is zeolite rather than sand as shown in figure below.
The hard water enters through the top and is evenly distributed on the entire zeolite bed. The softened
water is collected through the strainer at the base. When significant sodium in the zeolite has been
replaced by calcium and magnesium it is regenerated by reversing the flow and treating with 10 %
solution of bromine. The zeolite process results in zero hardness and zero hardness and is generally not
suitable for public supplies.
The main advantages and disadvantages of this process are listed below.
Advantages
i. Water of zero hardness can be obtained, and hence useful for specific uses in textile industries,
boilers, etc.
ii. The plant is compact, automatic and easy to operate
iii. No sludge is formed and hence there is no problem of sludge removal.
iv. The running, maintenance and operation cost is quite less.
v. It removes ferrous iron and manganese from water.
vi. There is no difficulty of treating water of varying quality.
vii. There is no problem of incrustation of pipes of distribution systems as there is in lime soda process.
Disadvantages
i. The process is not suitable for treating highly turbid waters, because the suspended impurities get
deposited around the zeolite particles and thus obstructing the working of the zeolite.
ii. The process leaves sodium bicarbonate in water which causes priming and foaming in industrial or
boiler fed water.
iii. The zeolite process is costlier and unsuitable for treating water containing iron and manganese
because iron zeolite or manganese zeolite formed during the chemical reaction cannot be
regenerated into sodium zeolite. The zeolite is therefore washed out although the iron and
manganese are removed from water.
The following is a comparison between soda-ash and zeolite process of softening water supplies.
Demineralization process
The demineralization is the process of removing the minerals from water. The process helps in
completely removing or reducing the minerals from the water by any desired extent and is suitable for
producing water of any desired hardness or even mineral free water. The demineralized water is
sometimes called de-ionized water and is as pure as distilled water and is therefore very suitable for
industrial purposes especially for steam raising in high pressures in boilers. The complete removal of
minerals present in water can carried out first passing the water through a bed of cation exchange resin
(usually Phenol aldehyde) with formula( 𝐻2 𝑅), and then through a bed of anion exchange resin (usually
formaldehyde) with formula (𝑅𝑂𝐻) where R represent the organic part.
The process of passing the water through cation exchange resin produces almost similar effect as in
zeolite method except that in this case hydrogen instead of sodium is exchanged for basic metallic ions
with the following reaction:
The dilute carbonic, hydrochloric and sulphuric acid are removed through passing the water through the
anion exchange resin and the following reaction takes place:
The water coming out from the anion exchanger is usually free from minerals. The extent of removal
depends upon the strength and freshness of resin used. The completely demineralized water is
sometimes added to raw water so as to obtain the resultant supplies of desired mineral content.
Various special treatment may be given to water under special conditions for removal of colors, odors
and tastes as described below:
a. Aeration: Under the process of aeration, water is brought into intimate contact with air so as to
absorb oxygen and remove carbon dioxide (up to 70%). It also helps in removing hydrogen
sulphide(𝐻2 𝑆) gas and iron and manganese to a certain extent , from the treated water. It however
cannot be relied in removing tastes and odors of all kind. Moreover, it cannot remove completely
carbon dioxide and a residual amount always remains in practice after aeration. However, the
oxidation made possible by aeration helps in removing oils and decomposing products of algae and
other aquatic vegetations and thus helps in removing the odors and tastes due to their presence.
Aeration should however be limited to some extent as too much oxygen makes the water corrosive
and may necessitate de-aeration process.
Types of aerators
Spray aerators: In this method, water is sprayed through nozzle upwards into the atmosphere and
broken into the atmosphere and broken up into mist or droplets, bringing water into contact with
atmospheric air. The installation consists of trays and pipe grid with necessary nozzles fitted on
outlet, or trickling bed aerators.
Water falls or multiple tray aerators:
b. Treatment with activated carbon: Activated carbon is special treated carbon manufactured by
charring wood or saw dust or any similar carbonaceous material at about 500˚C in a closed vessel
and then slowly burning it (or oxidizing it or activating it) under closed controlled condition at 500˚C
thus removing hydrocarbons from it. It possesses the property of absorbing and attracting impurities
such as gasses, liquids, and finely divided solids. Because of its excellent property of absorbing
impurities, it is widely used for removing tastes and odors from public supplies.
The activated carbon is mostly used in the powdered form and may be added to water either before
or after coagulation but before filtration. It may be added in two stages, first in the mixing tank and
the remaining portion added to water just before it enters the filter and the method is then referred
to as split method.
The following are the advantages of activated carbon:
i. When used in powdered form before coagulation it aids in coagulation.
ii. It reduces chlorine demand of treated water.
iii. It removes organic matter present in water.
iv. It removes tastes, odors and colors caused by presence of manganese, phenols, excess chlorine,
hydrogen sulphide etc.
v. Its overdose is not harmful
c) Use of copper sulphate: Copper sulphate (𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 . 7𝐻2 𝑂) help in removing colors, tastes and
odors from water. It may be added to treated water in the distribution pipes but its main
advantage is obtained by adding it to open reservoirs and lakes. The use of copper sulphate helps
in preventing the growth of algae and thus keep the water free from bad tastes and odors likely to
be caused by them. Usual dosses of 0.5 to 0.65 mg/l are added at the entry to distribution systems
and do not prove the water unfit for domestic or industrial purposes.
d) Oxidation of organic matter: The colors, odors ad tastes from water may also be removed by
oxidizing the organic matter responsible for them. The oxidizing agent commonly used are
potassium per manganate, chlorine, ozone etc. The usual doses of potassium per manganate may
vary from 0.5 to 0.1 mg/l. Chlorine in removing the organic matter, provided sufficient doses (i.e.,
beyond break point or super chlorination followed by de-chlorination) are used.
Iron and Manganese salts are generally found dissolved together in water. When their content exceeds
0.3 mg/l, and 0.5 mg/l respectively, they become objectionable due to the following reasons:
i. They impart red or brown color to water. The reddish tinge is due to iron, whereas the brownish
is due to manganese.
ii. They make the water unpleasant in taste.
iii. They cause incrustation of water mains due to the deposition of ferric hydroxide and
manganese oxide
iv. They cause discoloration of clothes washed in such waters.
The iron and manganese may be present in water either in combination with organic matter or without
such combination. When present without combination with organic matter, they can be easily removed
by aeration, followed by coagulation, sedimentation and filtration. During aeration, the soluble ferrous
and manganous compounds present in water get oxidized into insoluble ferric and manganic
compounds, which can be sedimented out easily.
On the other hand, when iron and manganese are present in combination with organic matter, it
becomes difficult to break the bond between them. This bond is removed by either adding lime and
thereby increasing the pH to about 8.5 to 9 or by adding chlorine or potassium permanganate.
The surface may sometimes contain lesser amounts of fluoride present in them. Since fluoride
concentration of less than 1 mg/l are harmful, as they result in formation of fever cavities in teeth of
children, extra additional fluoride dose may be added to treated water so as to make it useful with
respect to the growth of teeth of children. The process of adding of adding fluoride compounds is called
fluoridation. The compounds which may be used for adding fluoride to water are: sodium fluoride
(𝑁𝑎𝐹), sodium silico fluoride (𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑖𝐹6), and hydro-fluosilicic acid (𝐻2 𝑆𝑖𝐹6 ). Of these compounds,
sodium fluoride is the most widely used.
However, the dose of fluoride should be carefully worked out as excess fluoride presence (above 1.5
mg/l) is also harmful as it causes spotting and discoloration of teeth. When fluoride contents in raw
water are more than the permissible, it is necessary to remove the excess quantities to make the water
safe for drinking. The process for removal of fluorides are however difficult. They include:
Dangerous radioactive substances such as uranium, thorium etc. from atomic reactors and explosions
pollute water sources. In developing countries, it is however rare to find such cases. Radio active
materials in water can be removed partly (up to 80 or 90%) by coagulation and filtration. Lime soda
softening is also quite effective in removing radioactive materials in water. Methods applied in removal
of radioactive materials include:
The water which contains common salt or sodium chloride dissolved in it, has peculiar salty or blackish
taste and is therefore named as salt water or brackish water. The water cannot be put to use for various
purposes unless the salts content is removed or reduced. The process of removing this salt from water is
known as desalination and the resultant water which is free from salt is known as salt water.
Sea water is the most evident example of salt water with average 3.5% of salt. Land-locked lakes without
outlets could have more salt than ocean water. The process of desalination is much more costly than
naturally available water treatment. It can therefore only be applied in cases where it is the only
alternative needed for survival of a society. Methods used in desalination include:
The water may be supplied either continuously for 24 hour or impermanently during fixed hours of the
day. It may either pumped directly into the distribution pipes or may first be stored in a distribution
reservoir and then fed into the distribution pipes.
i. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places within the city within a
reasonable sufficient pressure head.
ii. It should be capable of suppling the required amount of water for firefighting during such needs.
iii. It should be cheap with the least capital construction cost. Note that the cost of installing
distribution systems is an important factor as it is costly and may take up to 70% of total cost of
scheme.
iv. It should be simple and easy to operate and repair thereby reducing the running, maintenance
and operation cost.
v. It should be safe against future pollution of water. This is achieved by keeping water lines above
and away from sewer and drainage lines.
vi. It should be safe as not to cause failure of pipes by bursting.
vii. It should be water tight and losses due to leakage must be kept at minimum
Distribution pipes systems consists of supply mains, sub- mains and laterals made of of cast iron and
joined by socket spigot joint as shown in the figure below.
Service connection are connected to the laterals and are made of galvanized cast iron. Water mains and
sub- mains are laid sloping to achieve the available head and keep their sizes at minimum. Sluices are
placed along the straight pipe at suitable intervals and also at junctions and branching off points to
control flow of water at different sections. Drain valves are placed at low points on the distribution pipes
to drain off water for carrying out repairs. Air valves are provided at high points so as to remove air from
the pipe during filling up operations and admit air when emptying. In small towns, distribution mains
take water from treatment to different sections. In large cities however different distribution take water
from treatment to various zones of the city. The size of smallest laterals is normally not less than 8 to 10
cm.
Dead-end system
The dead-end system is also called tree system. This system consists of one main supply pipe from
which originates a number of sub-mains at right angles. Each sub- main divide into several branch pipes
called laterals as shown in the figure below.
i. The distribution net-work can be solved easily and it is possible to accurately calculate the discharges
and pressures at different points in the system.
ii. Lesser number of cut-off valves (i.e., sluice valve) are required in this system.
iii. Shorter pipe lengths are needed and laying the pipe is easier.
iv. It is cheap and simple and can be extended or expanded easily
i. As water reaches a point only through one route, damage and repair in any pipe completely stops
the area fed by that pipe.
ii. There are numerous dead-ends which prevents free circulation of water. The stagnation results in
degradation of quality of water.
iii. Since the system discharges water at a point only through one point the supplies during firefighting
cannot be increased by diverting any other supplies from any other side.
This system is also known as interlaced system or reticulation system. In this system, the mains, sub-
mains and branches are all inter-connected with each other as shown in the figure below.
It is adopted in well planned city and the pipe lines follow the roads easily
i. Since the water reaches different places through more than one route, the discharges to be carried
by each pipe, friction loss and the size of pipe therefore get reduced.
ii. Incase of repair, very small area gets devoid of complete supply. Some supply reaches the point from
another route.
iii. Because of different interconnections, the dead ends are completely eliminated and therefore
water remains in continuous circulation and not liable to contamination by stagnation.
iv. During fire, more water can be diverted towards the affected point from various directions by closing
and manipulating the various cut-off valves.
i. This system requires more lengths of pipe lines and a large number of sluice valves.
ii. It is costlier to construct
iii. The design is difficult and costlier and the calculation for determining the accurate sizes of pipes
and pressures at various points is tedious.
Ring System
This system is also called circular system. In this system, a closed ring either circular or rectangular of the
main pipe is formed around the area to be served as shown in the figure below.
The distribution area is divided into rectangular or circular blocks and the main water pipe laid along the
periphery of these blocks with sub-mains diverting from it as shown above. It may be applied for cities
with well planned roads. The main advantages and disadvantages are similar to those of grid iron
system.
Radial system
This type of system consists of reservoirs placed at various centers in the area. Water is therefore
pumped from the water main into the distribution reservoirs at these centers then supplied through
radially laid distribution pipes as shown in below.
This ensures high pressures and efficient water distribution. The calculations of sizes are also simple.
Methods of distribution
The main objective of distribution system is to develop adequate pressures at various points of
customer taps. Depending upon the level of the source of water and that of the city, topography of the
area, and the local condition considerations, the water may be forced into the distribution system in the
following ways.
i. Gravitational system
ii. Pumping system
iii. Combined gravity and gravity system
Gravitational system
In this system water from the high-level source is distributed to consumers at a lower level by mere
action of gravity without pumping. For proper functioning of this system, the difference of heads
available between the source (or rather the distribution reservoir at the treatment plant) and the
localities must be sufficient enough to maintain adequate pressure at the consumers door-steps after
allowing friction losses and other loses in the pipes. The figure below shows gravitational systems with
hydraulic energy gradient during minimum and maximum demands.
The method is the most economical and reliable since no pumping is involved. It however requires a
reservoir as a source of supply. The gravitational system is designed to leave only minimum permitted
available head to consumers and the rest is consumed in friction losses and other losses. This helps in
keeping the leakages and wastes at minimum and also reduces the sizes of pipes required. It however
requires the use of motor pump to develop sufficient pressures during fires.
Pumping systems
In the pumping system, the treated water is directly pumped into distribution mains without storing it
anywhere. For this reason, it is sometimes called pumping without storage. The figure below shows the
pumping system with hydraulic gradient lines during maximum and minimum demands.
High lift pumps are operated at variable speeds so as to meet the variable demands of water. Thus, a
continuous attendance is needed at the pumping station so as to ensure the desired flows in the
distribution system. Moreover, if the power supply fails the supply completely fails which may lead to a
disaster. The only advantage with this system is that during fires, it can force large amounts of water
under high pressures in the required direction so that the motor pumps are eliminated.
In this system, the treated water is pumped at a constant rate and stored into an elevated distribution
reservoir, from where it is distributed to the consumers by action of gravity. It is some times called
pumping with storage system. The figure below shows the combined gravity and pumping system with
hydraulic gradient lines during maximum and minimum demands.
The excess water during low demands gets stored in the reservoir and gets supplied during high
demands and therefore the rate of pumping must be so adjusted that excess quantity of water stored
during low demands almost equals the extra demand during high consumption. The pumps are worked
at a constant rate thus increasing their efficiency and reducing their wear and tear.
i. The balancing reserve quantity of the distribution reservoir can be supplied to places of fire. The
necessary pressures of fire fighting are achieved by use of motor pumps or by closing down the
supply of some localities.
ii. The pumps are worked at a constant rate thus increasing their efficiency and reducing their wear
and tear.
iii. This method is quite reliable even during power failure as certain amount of water can be supplied
from the service reservoir.
iv. This system proves overall cheap, efficient and reliable and hence adopted everywhere.
Supply systems
Water may be supplied continuously for all the 24 hours or may be supplied intermittently for peak
period during the morning and evening. The intermittent system sometimes leads to saving on water
consumption since the losses occur for a lesser time and the consumers are more vigilant. It is therefore
adopted in places where there is a shortage of water from the source. However, it has numerous
limitations and therefore not commonly adopted. The disadvantages of intermittent system include:
i. At times intermittent systems may not lead to saving of water consumers store the water in tanks,
drums, etc. and may throw the water as soon as supply is restored.
ii. Intermittent systems do not cover fire risk during the non-supply hours.
iii. It causes great inconvenience to consumers as they have to be on toes when the supply is restored.
iv. It necessitates the use of larger mains as the water is not supplied for the whole day.
v. When the water is stopped and water drained off from the pipes, partial vacuum is created which
induces suction through leaky joints and the surrounding dirt may be sucked in hence
contaminating the water.
vi. A number of air valves and sluices require to be fitted in the distribution pipes.
DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIR
Distribution reservoirs also called service reservoirs are storage reservoirs which store the treated water
for supplying water during emergencies (such as fires, break-downs, repairs, etc.) and also help in
balancing the hourly fluctuations in water demand.
i. They balance hourly variations in demand and allow the water treatment units and pumps to
operate at a constant rate. This reduces the running and maintenance operations and improve
efficiency.
ii. They help in maintaining constant pressure in the distribution system. In their absence the
pressures fall down with the increase in demand.
iii. The pumping of water in shifts is made possible by them without affecting the supply. Thus 8 to 16
hours of pumping can be carried out so as to pump the whole days demand.
iv. The lead to an overall economy by reducing the sizes of pumps, the pipe lines and treatment units.
Storage reservoirs are made of steel, R.C.C or masonry. Depending on their elevation with respect to
ground distribution reservoirs may be classified into two types:
i. Surface reservoir
ii. Elevated reservoir
Surface Reservoir
Surface reservoirs are circular or rectangular tanks constructed at ground level or below ground level.
They are therefore also called ground reservoir. They are generally constructed at high points in the city.
If the city has more than one high points, more than one reservoir may be provided. In such cases the
city is divided into various zones each with its own separate reservoir for distribution of water. In
gravitational system of distribution, the water is generally stored in a ground service reservoir then sent
from there to the distribution system. In combined gravity and pumping systems, the water may first be
stored in a ground reservoir then pumped to an elevated reservoir from where it is supplied to the
distribution mains.
It consists of two compartments, so that one may be cleaned and repaired while the other is in use. The
two compartments are connected with each other by a shut off valve or a sluice valve. Overflow pipes
are provided to maintain a constant water level. Ventilators are provided in the roof so as to affect free
circulation of air. Although the treated water is treated, some sludge may still settle down to the storage
and hence has to be removed by cleaning through washout pipes at suitable intervals. The cement floor
may therefore be made sloping towards the central washout pipes to enhance the cleaning.
Elevated reservoir
Elevated tanks are rectangular, circular, or elliptical overhead tanks elected at a suitable elevation
above the ground and supported on towers. They are constructed where the pressure requirements
necessitate considerable elevation above the ground surface, and where the use of stand pipes becomes
impracticable. They are constructed in areas where cobined gravity and pumping systems for water
distribution is adopted. Water is pumped into these elevated tanks from the filter units or from surface
reservoir and then supplied to consumers. They could be made of, steel, R.C.C or prestressed concrete.
They are generally very costly and hence not designed for capacities of more than 6 to 8 hours of the
average daily demand of the city. The figure below shows atypical section of a simple rectangular
elevated tank.
They are generally covered at the top by a roof slab to avoid contamination of water due to dirt, insects,
birds etc. Roof are provided with ventilators so as to allow free circulation of air. Various accessories of
such a reservoir include:
viii. Manhole for providing entry into the tank for inspection purposes.
ix. Ventilator for fresh air circulation.
Stand pipes
Stand pipes are a special kind of elevated tanks without any erected tower for resting the tank body.
They are thus tall cylindrical shells resting directly on the ground as shown in figure below.
The stand pipe may be 15 to 30 m high and 10 to 15 m in diameter. They may be made of R.C.C or steel.
However, with very large heights, tension is developed which is difficult to be borne by concrete and
therefore R.C.C pipes are not used. The useful storage of stand pipes is the volume above the required
pressure in the distribution system. The water below this elevation can also be utilized during
firefighting by help of booster pumps. They are also provided with inlet pipes, outlet pipes, drains or
washout pipes, overflow pipes and other miscellaneous facilities such as manholes, ladders etc. just like
in elevated reservoirs.
The main primary function of a distribution reservoir is to meet the fluctuating demand with a constant
supply from the treatment plant. The quantity of water required to be stored in the reservoir for
equalizing or balancing this variable demand against constant supply is known as balancing reserve or
the balancing storage or the storage capacity of a balancing reservoir.
The balancing storage can be worked out by utilizing the hydrograph of inflow and outflow, either by
mass curve or by using an analytical tabular solution.
A mass curve diagram is a plot of the accumulated inflow (i.e., the supply) or outflow (i.e., demand)
versus time. The mass curve supply lines are first of all drawn and the amount of balancing storage is
determined by adding the maximum ordinates between the demand and the supply lines. The following
is the procedure for the mas curve method:
i. From the past records, the hourly demand or draft for all 24 hours for typical days (i.e.,
maximum, average and minimum) are determined.
ii. The cumulative demand against time are calculated and a mass curve of demand plotted as
shown in figure below.
Note that: If pumping is continued for all 24 hours of the day, the supply line will be a straight line
diagonally across the diagram. However, if the pumping is restored for certain fixed hours, the supply
line is drawn from the beginning of pumping to its end.
iii. The storage required is read as the sum of the two maximum ordinates between demand and
supply lines.
iv. The procedure is repeated for all the typical days and the maximum storage required during the
worst days determined.
In this method, the cumulative hourly demand and cumulative hourly supplies are tabulated are
tabulated for all the 4 hours. The hourly excess of supply as well as hourly excess of demand are then
worked out. The summation of maximum excess of demand and maximum excess of supply gives the
required storage capacity.
EXAMPLE 1
A town with a population 1 million has a continuous water supply. Average supply is 270 liters per
capita per day, the water being supplied by direct pumping. The total 270 liters per capita per day is
phased as follows:
12 midnight to 5 A.M 18
Water is supplied from the treatment plant at a uniform rate of 11.25 million liters per hour for all the
24 hours. Find out the capacity of reservoir required for distribution of water. Assume no loss or
withdrawals from the trunk mains.
Solution
The total daily supply = 270 × 106 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 270 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
The demand pattern is converted into a cumulative demand table as shown below;
The mass curve is plotted as a curve of cumulative demand against time. The supply line is drawn as a
straight line with gradient 11.25 million liters per hour as shown below.
The maximum ordinates, A and B enclosed between the demand and supply lines are read out.
Example 2
For water supply of a small town with daily requirements of 225,000 liters, it is proposed to construct a
distribution reservoir. The pattern of draw off is under:
SOLUTION
The given demand pattern is converted into cumulative demand as shown in the table
The two maximum ordinates A and B enclosed between the demand and supply lines are read out as
A= 88 × 103 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
EXAMPLE 3
A city with a population of 200,000 has to be supplied with water at 180 liters per person per day. The
probable hourly variations are as shown in the table below.
Use
SOLUTION
The given demand is converted to cumulative demand as shown in the following table.
Case (a) when pumping is done for all 24 hours of the day. The mass curve is plotted for cumulative
demand against time and the supply line drawn at a gradient equal to the average hourly supply 36/24
million liters per hour as shown below. Note that in this case since the pumping is done for 24 hours,
then the gradient of pumping line = 36/24 = 1.5 million liters per hour.
The two maximum ordinates A and B between the supply and the demand lines are read out.
Case (b) the mass curve of demand is drawn as shown in figure below. The supply line is also drawn
with the same gradient in between 5 A.M and 11 A.M and between 2.PM and 8 P.M so as to cover for
the entire cumulative demand as shown in the figure below. Note that in this case since the pumping is
done for 12 hours, then the gradient of pumping line = 36/12 = 3 million liters per hour.
The maximum ordinates A and B between the supply line and demand line is read out.
Therefore, total storage required 9.75 million liters as worked out previously
Therefore, total storage required 5.70 million liters as worked out previously
BREAKDOWN STORAGE
The break-down are often called emergency storage and are the storage preserved to tide over
emergencies posed by failure of pumps, electricity or many other mechanisms of driving pumps.
The provision for this storage depends upon the frequency and extent of failure and also the time for
carrying out repairs. A value of 25 % of the total storage capacity or about 2 times the average hourly
supply is usually considered enough for this storage.
Fire storage
The provision takes care of requirements of water for extinguishing fires. The storage is dependent on
fire break-out in the city. It should be noted that in fire extinguishing three jet streams each giving 1100
liters per minute must be thrown on the fire. Thus, if a provision of 10 hours firefighting per day is
required the volume of water to be stored is
(3 × 1100) × (10 × 60) = 1.98 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 , . 𝑠𝑎𝑦 2 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
Under serious fires as provided by National board of underwriters 10 hours at a rate of about 10,000 to
50,000 liters/minute are adopted for towns of 6,000 to 200,0000. For smaller towns a lower value is
adopted.
The total reservoir storage is obtained by adding the three storage i.e.,
i. Balancing storage
ii. Emergency storage
iii. Fire storage
Points to consider before deciding the location of the distribution reservoir are:
i. They should be located in the heart of the city so as to command the maximum area all around. Also,
they should be located close to the points of the heaviest demand to reduce friction losses in the
pipes.
ii. They should be located at higher elevations so that adequate pressure is maintained in the
distribution systems. They should be located at a natural ridge of the area if they suite otherwise.
iii. The reservoir may be placed in between the pumping station and the area to be served or may be
placed at the farthest end of the area to be served.
Considerable amount of water gets lost and wasted in the distribution system either through leakage or
through unauthorized water connections. If not best managed in the distribution system these losses
and wastages may amount 15 up to 40% of total consumption in faulty distribution systems.
Detection of leakage
i. Direct observation; by observing a wet soft spot on the unpaved grounds, emergence of springs at
an odd ground etc.
ii. By use of sounding rod: where a sharp pointed rod is thrust into the ground along the pipe line and
pulled for inspection. Its moist or muddy points preliminarily indicate the presence of leakage.
iii. Plotting of hydraulic gradient line; In this method pressures along the suspected pipe lines are
measured and a hydraulic gradient line plotted. Any kink or change in slope of hydraulic gradient
line indicates the presence and location of leakage.
iv. Use of waste detection meters: These meters measure un-usual flows high flows during the low
consumption such as at night or early in the morning. The unusual excess flows indicate the
leakage of water through the section of pipe.
The four-distribution network earlier looked at are decided based on various factors such as layout of
roads, etc. One or a combination of two or more layout may be adopted for a particular town.
After deciding the layout of distribution pipes, and the possible appurtenances such as valves, fire
hydrants, etc., the next important task is to determine the sizes of distribution pipes that are capable of
supplying the water at their terminal ends with minimal allowable pressures at times of maximum
demand. The sizes are first of all assumed and the terminal pressure which could be available at the end
of each pipe after allowing loss of pressure head in the pipe section while discharging peak flow
calculated. The analysis of the discharges entering a point (i.e., inputs) and the discharges coming out
from that point (i.e., take offs) is therefore done.
The total head lost in the pipe section is the friction lost in the pipe length and minor losses in pipes
fittings and valves. The three formulars used for analysis of friction losses as earlier described are:
Since 𝑯𝑳 = 𝑳. 𝑺 then
𝟏 𝑸 𝟏.𝟖𝟓 𝑳 𝑸 𝟏.𝟖𝟓 𝑳
𝑯𝑳 = ( ) × = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟗 ( ) ×
𝟎.𝟎𝟗𝟒 𝑪𝑯 ⅆ𝟒.𝟖𝟕 𝑪𝑯 ⅆ𝟒.𝟖𝟕
The design involves various trials. For each trail the head loss is calculated by the above formula and
finally the terminal residual pressures worked out. Since the design involves various trials a Hazen
William’s chart is used for cast iron (which is the most common pipe for distribution system with 𝐶𝐻 =
100 ) as shown below.
The loss of head in this is given per 1000 m of pipe length. Therefore, the loss of head is multiplied by
the length of pipe in thousands. The losses of head are then used in working out the terminal pressures
by starting from the reservoir or pumping end where pressures are known.
i. Hardy-Cross method
ii. Equivalent pipe method
The two conditions that must be met for analysis of these pipe network are:
i. The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a closed loop must be zero. i.e., there can be no
discontinuity in the pressure.
ii. The pressure entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving the same junction. i.e., the law
of continuity must be satisfied.
Hardy-Cross method
The procedure suggested by hardy-cross requires that the flow in each pipe is first assumed by the
designer (in magnitude as well as direction) in such a way that the principle of continuity is satisfied at
the junction (i.e., the inflow at any junction becomes equal to the outflow at that junction).
A correction to these assumed flows is then computed successively for each loop in the network, until
the correction reduced is to an acceptable magnitude. If 𝑄𝑎 is the assumed flow and 𝑄 is the actual
flow in the pipe, then the correction ∆ is given by:
∆= 𝑄 − 𝑄𝑎 and therefore,
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑎 + ∆
𝐻𝑙 = 𝐾𝑄 𝑥 where the value for 𝑥 and 𝐾 are given as follows for Hazen Williams and Darcy’s formula.
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾(𝑄𝑎 + ∆ ) 𝑥
Around the loop, summation of head loss must be equal to zero, 𝛴𝐻𝑙 = 0
Assuming ∆ is same for all pipes of the considered loop, it can be taken out of the summation.
Therefore; 𝛴𝐾𝑄𝑎 𝑥 = −∆𝛴𝐾𝑥𝑄𝑎 𝑥−1
𝜮𝑲𝑸𝒂 𝒙
And ∆= −
𝜮𝒙𝑲𝑸𝒂 𝒙−𝟏
Since ∆ is given the same sign (or direction) in all pipes of the loop, the denominator of the equation is
taken as the absolute sum of the individual items in the summation. Hence,
𝜮𝑲𝑸𝒂 𝒙
∆= −
𝜮|𝒙𝑲𝑸𝒂 𝒙−𝟏 |
−𝜮𝑯𝑳
∆= 𝑯
𝒙𝜮|𝑸 𝑳 |
𝒂
The numerator of the above equation is the algebraic sum of head losses in the various pipes of the
closed loop. Since the direction and magnitude of flow in these pipes is assumed their respective head
losses with regard to sign can be easily calculated after assuming their diameters. The absolute sum of
𝐻𝐿
respective 𝐾𝑄𝑎 𝑥−1 or is then calculated. Finally, the value of ∆ is found for each loop and the
𝑄𝑎
assumed flows are corrected. Repeated adjustment is made until the desired accuracy is obtained.
The values of x are taken as 2 and 1.85 for Darcy’s and Hazen’s equation as shown in the above table.
Minor losses are generally neglected and can be introduced by substituting an equivalent length of pipe.
When analyzing the given distribution system, the system must be divided into two or more loops such
that each pipe in the network is included in at least one loop. This method is the most widely used for
design of distribution systems.
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the head losses and corrected flows in various pipes in the distribution network shown in
figure below.
The diameters and lengths used are given against each pipe. Make use of Hardy-cross method and
Hazen Williams formula. Compute the corrected flows after two corrections. Assume the distribution
system is made of cast iron (𝐶𝐻 = 100)
Various appurtenances are provided in the pipe network or distribution system for its efficient and
controlled functioning. These includes:
v. Meters
vi. Water taps
vii. Stop cocks
viii. Pipe bends etc.
Fire hydrant
A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe (main or sub-main) for tapping water mainly in case of fire.
They are located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads and also at junction roads. They are of two
types namely.
1. Flush Hydrants.
2. Post Hydrants
1. Flush Hydrants
The flush hydrants is kept in underground chamber flush with footpath covered by C.I. cover carrying a
sign board “F-H”.
Post Hydrants
The post hydrant remains projected 0.9 to 1.2m above ground level as shown figure below.
They have long stem with screw and nut to regulate the flow. In case of fire accident, the firefighting
squad connect their hose to the hydrant and draw the water and spray it on fire.
1. Should be cheap
WATER METERS
Water meters are the devices which are used for measuring the quantity of water flowing under
pressure through a pressure conduit. This measurement of water supplied to the general public (for
industrial, commercial or domestic use) is necessary in order to charge the consumers according to the
quantity of water supplied to them.
i. must record the entire water passing through with capabilities of recording even slight discharge.
ii.It should be easy to maintain and repair.
iii.It should measure discharge within the limits of 20% error.
iv. It should be able to work efficiently at all pressures in the mains.
v. It should cause minimum hinderance to the flow and therefore cause minimum head loss in its
working.
vi. It should not be easily affected by chemicals in the water passing through it.
vii. It should prevent backflow passing through it and should not be liable to clogging.
TYPES OF METERS
These meters measure the horizontal velocity of water through them. The measured velocity when
multiplied by the area of flow cross-section gives the discharge through the meter. Automatic
arrangements are made so that to measure the discharge over a certain period of time. Velocity meters
can be successfully used for measuring high flows.
i. Rotary meters
ii. Turbine meters
iii. Venturi-meters
Rotary meters: These meters consist of radial vanes attached to a shaft and enclosed in a casing as
shown in the figure below.
When the water enters and passes through the meter, with a certain velocity, the vanes are rotated in
clockwise direction which in turn revolves the shaft. The number of revolutions per unit time made by
the shaft depends upon the velocity of flow. The greater the velocity the higher will be the speed of
rotation and vise versa. The velocity of flow and thus the discharge are therefore proportional to the
speed of the shaft. The discharge is further integrated through a system of gears to read the total
discharge over a period of time.
Turbine meters: These are similar to the rotary meters and consist of a turbine wheel which is rotated by
the moving water. The number of revolutions made by the turbine wheel gives the discharge as in rotary
meters.
The venturi-meters are a velocity type of meter and is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation. It is
used for measuring high flows in raw water pipes with a nominal head loss. It consists of a pipe
contracting to a throat and then more gradually expanding to the normal size as shown below.
It consists of a piezometer at the normal end and another on in at the throat inserted in the pipe. When
water passes through such a portion of a pipe it will rise to different levels in the piezometer tubes on
account of different velocities and pressures at the normal and contracted section of the tube. The
discharge through the pipe is proportional to the difference between the heads of the two piezometers.
These meters are more accurate because they measure the quantity of water passing by counting the
number of times, the meter chamber is filled and emptied. The capacity of the meter chamber when
multiplied by the quantity of times it is filled and emptied gives directly the quantity of water flow over a
given period of time. Various types of displacement meters are, reciprocating meters, oscillating meters,
disc type etc. The most common type is the disc meter which is extensively used for measuring small
flows in residential houses. It consists of a disc placed inside a chamber as shown.
Water enters and oscillates the disc about an axis with a spiral motion. The arrangement is made in
such a way that one complete filling and emptying of the chamber gives one revolution to the train of
gears and the meter goes on recording the volume of water passing through it.
Plumbing is a general term used to indicate the practice, material and fixtures used in installation and
maintenance of all piping, fixtures, appliances and all other appurtenances used in connection of public
and private water systems as well as sanitary and drainage systems.
1. Plumbing of water lines should be such as not to permit back flow from cistern and sinks
2. All joints shall be perfectly water tight and no leakage or spill at taps or cocks should be allowed
4. It should not be close to sewers or waste water drains. There should not be any possibility for cross
connections.
5. When pipe lines are close to electric cables proper precautions for insulation should be observed 6.
plumbing lines should be such as to afford easy inspection and repair of fixtures and joints.
7. Number of joints should be less and the number of bends and tees should be less
8. It should supply adequate discharge at fixtures economical in terms of material and protected against
corrosion, air lock, negative pressure and noise due to flow in pipes and in flushing
In installing of water supply plumbing system, the first and mains step is to obtain the water from
municipal water main. A typical connection of the service pipe to the water main is shown in the figure
below.
Water main: A water supply pipe vests in the administrative authority for the use of public or
community
Ferrule: It is gunmetal or bronze screwed into the hole drilled in CI pipe mains. Communication pipe
takes off from the ferrule. The pressure in the domestic supply and equal distribution among the house
connection are affected by adjusting the ferrule opening. Normally the ferrule opening is equal in area
to the area of flow in communication pipe.
Communication pipes: It is a pipe taking off from the ferrule for the house connection. It is owned and
managed by the water supply authority. Communication pipe terminates at the boundary of the
consumers premises.
Service pipe: it is the part of the house connection beyond the stop cock. It is owned and maintained by
the consumer. No pumps shall be installed on this pipe.
Water meter: It is installed to measure the flow. It is an integrating meter that it records the total flow
up to the time of measurement. Generally, 12.5 mm to 18.75mm rotary water meters are installed
either at the beginning or at the middle of the service pipe. A masonry pit is constructed around it. It has
facility of sealing by the water supply authority
Residual pressure: It is generally measured at the ferrule and should be about 7m head of water
Goose Neck: It is the short-bent pipe and allow for small changes in length due to expansion and
movement of pipes due to soil settlements
STOP COCKS
It is a valve fitted at the end of communication pipe and it is under the control of water supply
authority. The purpose of stop cock is to stop the supply of water. Temporary disconnections are made
at the stopcock while permanent disconnections are made at ferrule. The figure below shows a typical
stop cock.
Water taps are the type of valves provided at the end of service pipe for withdrawal of water at the
consumer houses. The most common type of tap is the bill cock shown in figure below.
The orifice opening through which the water passes can be increased or decreased there by controlling
the outflow through the spout. They could also be a push type which opens by slight push upwards and
closes automatically when the push is removed due to self-weight. Such valves are used in public to
avoid due to carelessness of public. The bill cocks should be water tight to avoid wastage of water.
Pipe fittings
In addition to the pipes, valves, tapes, various types of pipe fittings such as unions, caps, plugs, flanges,
nipples, crosses, tees, elbows, bends etc. are used during laying of distribution pipes as shown below.
Before the actual construction of these works it is necessary to properly plan and prepare for full
scheme and also to design various components of the projects. Proper preparation ensures an
economical and efficient scheme which serve which serve the various objectives, more efficiently with
minimal expenditure and recuring operational troubles. Out of study of the projects the following
reports are produced.
i. Feasibility report
ii. Final report
The feasibility study is based on engineering analysis and presents information to determine whether
the project should be advanced to final design and construction stage. It therefore helps determine
whether the water supply project is viable or not.
i. Description of the area; It describes the location, climate, topography of the area etc.
ii. Its describes the system of sanitation of the area, existing water supply, their location,
source and ownership.
iii. It describes the population of the area, design period and water demand for the area
iv. It identifies the various sources of water that have been recommended for water supply and
the alternative proposed surface and underground water sources
v. Provides without detailed drawing recommended water treatment works
vi. Provides the preferred and alternative distribution systems for the water supply scheme.
vii. Gives a rough estimate of construction and operation maintenance cost
i. Deterring the viability of the project and analyze other alternative viable solutions
ii. Determining any potential problems that could arise in implementation of project
iii. To identify various components of the water supply project
iv. To obtain acceptance from funding agent
v. To assess the and analyze the available budget for the scheme
vi. Asses the information on site for the water supply scheme
vii. It is also used in development other documents for the project.
After the feasibility study and the justification for the necessity of the scheme, economic justification for
carrying out the scheme out of cost-benefit analysis the project is sanctioned to the final design stage.
Details of land acquisition, design principle and actual design involving design of various units, water
rates proposed to be levied to the consumers etc. are captured in the final design reports. The project
report is accompanied by detailed project drawing and estimates of the project. The following are the
contents of the design report:
The following are some of the uses of final design report among others:
YEAR (2011)
QUESTION
1.b Outline the uses of the following reports when designing a water supply project:
i. Feasibility
ii. Final 8mrks
1.c Outline the layout of a water supply scheme under the following:
i. Intake
ii. Transmission
iii. Treatment
iv. Storage
v. distribution
WATER DEMAND
YEAR (2011)
QUESTION
YEAR (2014)
QUESTION
1.a outline six parameters which affect per capita water consumption 9mrks.
1.b With regards to urban water supply demand explain each of the following:
I. Fire demand
II. Industrial demand
III. Domestic demand 6mrks
1.c The population of a town in 1990 was 25,000 inhabitants, if the growth rate is 2.75 % and the per
capita consumption is 150, determine for the year 2010 the following:
I. Ultimate demand:
II. Fire demand using the Freeman’s formular
P
Q =1136( + 10)
5
P= Population
QUESTION
1.b Explain four factors that govern the design period of a water supply component
1.c Table 1 below shows the population of a town obtained from population data.
If the per capita daily water consumption in 2009 is 150 liters, and it is expected to increase
geometrically by 1.5% annually, using geometrical increase method determine:
QUESTION
Table 1
Year Population
1970 10,000
1980 15,000
1990 18,000
2000 22,000
2010 25,000
iii. Calculate the estimated population in 2020 using geometrical increase method
iv. Estimate the water demand for the estate at the end of 2020 in m 3/d. Assume per capita
consumption as 135 l/d/person.
WATER SOURCES
YEAR (2011)
QUESTION
1.a state four factors to be considered when selecting a water source 4mrks
QUESTION
8b. Outline four factors which govern the selection of a particular source of water for supply
QUESTION
WATER INTAKES
YEAR (2011)
QUESTION
YEAR (2014)
QUESTION
2.c The difference in levels between an intake and a service reservoir is 160m, and the distance between
them is 58 kilometers. The intake and service reservoir were originally connected by a single pipeline
designed to carry 24 million liters per day. It was later found necessary to increase the supply to 33
million liters per day by laying another pipe of the same diameter alongside the first part cross
connected. Determine:
QUESTION
(III) Explain the condition that favor the use of intake towers
6b. Design a river intake with respect to size, shape and height of intake well,
Data
QUESTION
WATER PUMPING
QUESTION
8.b With aid of a well labelled diagram illustrate a pumping station of a river intake.
WATER TREATMENT
YEAR (2011)
QUESTION
6.b (i) state four factors that affect the coagulation process
(ii) With aid of a sketch, outline the procedure of conducting a ‘Jar test’ 10mrks
7.a With aid of a sketch, describe the working principle of a rapid sand filter 10mrks
7.b With aid of a flow chart, outline the general layout of a surface water treatment works 10mrks
YEAR (2014)
QUESTION
I. Prechlorination
II. Super chlorination 4mrks
4.b With aid of a diagram, explain the break point chlorination 9mrks
4.c with aid of a diagram, explain the operation of a rapid sand filter. 7mrks
5.a With aid of a well labelled diagram, explain the settling zones in a horizontal flow sedimentation tank
8mrks
ii. A horizontal rectangular sedimentation tank is required to treat 2.25 x 10 6 liters of raw water per day.
Using the following information, determine:
Overflow rate to be less than 40,000 liters per square meter of surface area per day
i. Cascade aerator
ii. Diffused air aerator
QUESTION
3a. Sketch and label a typical section through a circular sedimentation tank
3b. Show that the settling velocity of a spherical particle in water when Reynold number is less than 0.5
may be given by the expression;
1 𝑔
v= × × (Gs − 1 )𝑑 2
18 µ
where:
g= 9810 mm/sec2
3c. Determine the dimensions of a rectangular sedimentation tank given the following information
Data
4.a Compare a slow sand filter and a rapid sand filter in terms of each of the following
Rate of filtration
Period of cleaning
4b. Sketch a typical section through a rapid sand filter and explain its operation 10mrks
Data
Filter units to be provided = six filters, with one filter unit as a stand by
v. Plain chlorination
vi. Pre-chlorination
vii. Post-chlorination
viii. Super chlorination
(II) A town with a population of 100,000 persons is supplied with water, the consumption rate being
200liters/head/day. The water is treated with 8 kg/day of chlorine. IF the residual chlorine after 10
minutes contact is0.2 mg/l, calculate the dosage and the chlorine demand.
7c.(I) Distinguish between the two types of hardness found in water, stating their causes.
(II) Calculate the amount of lime and soda required to treat two million liters of hard water
containing 150 mg/l of carbonate hardness, 90 mg/l of magnesium hardness and 240 mg/l total
hardness as CaCO3
Ca = 40 Mg = 24 C = 12 O = 16 Na= 23
QUESTION
4a. With the aid of a well labelled diagram, illustrate the following components of a sedimentation tank:
5a. Determine the length and breadth of the filter unit of a rapid sand filter for a town given:
6a. State five operation and maintenance activities in a water supply system
b. With aid of a well labelled diagram illustrate the schematic layout of a water treatment plant for
river water
8a. A rectangular sedimentation tank is to handle 12 million l/d of raw water. The tank is to have a width
to length ratio of 1/3 and proposed to trap all particles larger than 0.05 mm in size. Assume relative
density of 2.62 for particle and 20˚ C as the average temperature.
i. Determine the tank dimension if the effective depth of the tank is 3m.
ii. Calculate the detention time.
YEAR (2011)
QUESTION
ii. Outline the factors to be considered when determining the capacity of a service reservoir 10mrks
5.b i. State the uses of each of the components of an elevated water storage tank
YEAR (2014)
QUESTION
3.b With aid of a sketch, describe the construction of an elevated reservoir 7mrks
3.c Determine using mass curve method the capacity of service reservoir for a water supply scheme. Use
the following data:
-Population to be supplied = 30,000 persons
Schedule of pumping
QUESTION
(b) A town with a population of 200,000 persons is supplied with water at a rate of 180 liters per head
per day. The probable hourly variation in the rate of demand is shown in table 2 below. Using mass
curve method, determine the capacity of the balancing reservoir to be provided for balancing the
variable demand against a constant rate of pumping, if pumping is done:
I) for 24 hours
Table 2
10-11 100
11-12 80
12-13 60
13-14 110
14-15 150
15-16 180
16-17 180
18-19 160
19-20 140
20-21 80
21-22 45
23-24 15
QUESTION
3a. Table 2 shows daily water supply phases of a town. The town has a population of one million and a
continuous water supply. Water is supplied from the treatment plant at a uniform rate of 11.25 million
liters per hour for all the 24 hours.
Time l/h/d
5 A.M to 11 A.M 90
11 A.M to 3 P.M 54
3 P.M to 9 P.M 81
9 P.M to 12 midnight 27
12 midnight to 5 A.M 18
Calculate reservoir capacity using the mass curve method. Assume no loss and draw off. 20mrks
YEAR (2011)
QUESTION
4a. Design the size of water main required to carry some water from a source 3218 m away from a town.
The yield from the source is 180 liters per minute. The reduced levels of the source and the town
centers are 1828.800 m and 1767.840m respectively. Take f= 0.01 10mrks
4.c Explain three advantages and three disadvantages of each of the following:
i. Pumping intake
ii. Gravity intake
8.b Briefly describe the procedure of installation of water meter in a distribution line.
YEAR (2014)
QUESTION
7.a With aid of a sketch, describe the following water distribution system:
Determine:
8b. With aid of a sketch, explain the use of the following in a water supply system
QUESTION
iii. Indicate possible location of blow-off valves, gate valves and air valves
iv. Sketch a typical detail of an air relief valve
8a. Using the Darcy-Weisbach formular, determine the size of water supply main given the following
data
Data
QUESTION
4b. A storage reservoir is situated 6 km from a town of 300,000 population. The total loss of head from
the source to the town is not to exceed 20 m. Taking daily demand of 200 l/h/d, and pumping to be
done for 12 hours.
i. Determine the size of supply main by Darcy- Weisbach formula. Take f = 0.015
ii. Calculate velocity of flow. 6mrks
5b (i) Explain the location of air valves in water distribution system. 4mrks