1.

QUANTITY OF WATER
1.1. General Introduction

All human beings require water and food to sustain life. Many experts have produced
figures that clearly demonstrate that physical output and life expectancy are much
increased by adequate and safe supply of water. Indeed, one of the millennium
development targets under Goal 7, i.e. Environmental sustainability, is to halve, by 2015,
the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation.

Most of the world still does not have centralized water supply with connections to
individual households according to the World Health Organization roughly 1.1 billion of
the world’s 6 billion people do not have access to an improved water supply.
The estimated water supply coverage for Ethiopia is 46.4% for rural and 82 % for urban
without considering the functional condition of the facilities making the country’s water
supply coverage 52.5%.
Access to water-supply services is defined as the availability of at least 20 liters per
person per day from an "improved" source within 1 kilometer of the user's dwelling. An
“improved” source is one that is likely to provide "safe" water, such as a household
connection, a borehole, etc.
An improved water supply is defined as:
 Household connection
 Public standpipe
 Borehole
 Protected dug well
 Protected spring
 Rainwater collection
Only 48% of the world’s population is connected at the household level.
Water supply engineering deals with the planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of water supply systems. While planning a water supply project care should
be taken to come up with economical, socially acceptable, and environmentally friendly
schemes that meet the present as well as future requirement. A water supply system is
designed to attain the following objectives:

 To supply safe and wholesome water to the users

 To supply water in adequate quantity
 To make water readily available to the users to encourage personal and household
hygiene

The system comprises the following major elements:

 Source (groundwater or surface water)
 Raw water collection structures (intake structure, transmission line)
 Treatment plant
 Distribution systems (pipes, pumps, reservoir, different appurtenances)

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1.2. Water supply system planning

Water supply system planning involves identification of service needs, evaluation of

options, determination of optimal strategy to meet services, and development of
implementation strategies. The planning exercise involves collection of pertinent data,
consideration of relevant factors, and preparation of project documents and cost
estimates.

Required data sets

a) Geological data: Geological data and survey of ground water is done in the vicinity
of the area, to know the quantity of available water at various depths in the ground.
b) Hydrological data: The hydrological and the available surface water sources data in
the vicinity of the area are collected to determine the quantity of water available in
the surface sources.
c) Sanitary conditions of the area: The sanitary condition of the area and data
regarding possible sources of water pollution are collected for deciding the
preventive measures against them.
d) Topography of the area: Survey works are done to prepare the topographical map of
the area, showing elevation of the various points, density of population in the
different zones. This map helps in deciding the position of intake works and
treatment plants type of system to be adopted for conveyance and distribution of
water.
e) Legal requirements: Applicable legal requirements like land use, social and
environmental considerations, etc.
f) Public opinion: Data on the public opinions are also collected, regarding the
project.
g) Level of water demand: Current and future demands of water.
h) Existing water supply system: If the project is concerned with expansion of the
existing water supply scheme, the details of collection, conveyance, treatment and
distribution systems should be thoroughly studied. The spare capacity of the
existing water works should also be utilised.
Factors to be considered:
The following factors should be considered and kept in mind during preparation of the
water supply design project:
i) Population. Factors affecting the future increase in the population are to be studied
and taken into account while determining the future population for the design work.
ii) Per capita Requirement. The per capita demand of water should be determined by
taking into account the various factors and will be according to the living standard of
the public and the number and type of industries, number and type of the commercial
establishments in the town etc.

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iii)Public places, parks, institutions etc. Water is required for the development of parks,
fire fighting and so many other purposes at public places.
iv)Industries. The water requirement of the existing industries as well as future industries
should be thoroughly determined and, provision made in the project accordingly.
v) Sources of water. Detailed survey of the various sources of water available in the
vicinity of the area should be made. Survey of the existing sources should also be
made. In case the present source of water is well, which cannot cater for future needs,
alternative water source should be considered.
vi)Conveyance of water. Conveyance of water from source to water treatment units
depend on the relative levels of the two points. It may flow directly by gravity, if
source is at higher elevation. In case pumping is required, then the capacity of the
pumps should be determined.
vii) Quality of water. The analysis of the raw water quality should be made to know
the various impurities present in it, and to decide on the required treatment processes.
viii) Treatment works. The various sizes and number of treatment units in the water
works depend on the quality and quantity of raw water and the limiting water quality
standards.
ix) Pumping units for treated water. The pump-house is designed by considering the
future population water demand. The required number of pumps is installed in the
pump house for the present water pumping requirement, with provision of 50% stand-
by pumps for emergency.
x) Storage. The entire city or town should be divided into several pressure zones and
storage facility should be provided in each zone. The altitude of the storage facility
should ensure supply of water at the required pressure.
xi)Distribution system. The distribution system should be designed according to the
master plan of the town, keeping in mind the future development. The design of the
main should be based on peak hour demands. The design of the pipes should also take
into account the fire demand.
xii) Economy and reliability. The water supply scheme should be economical and
reliable. It should draw sufficient quantity of water from the source at cheapest cost
and the purification should meet desired limits.
Project documents:
In general the following drawings of the project are prepared and used for estimating the
cost and execution of the project:
 Topographical Map: Showing roads, location of water sources, limits of the town with
its roads, layout of pipes from the source to water works etc. at a scale of 1:500
 Site Plan: Showing the location of the scheme and the area to be served is also
prepared at a scale of 1: 500
 Contour Map: The contour map or plan of the entire area is prepared at a scale of
1: 100, showing the location of water mains, sub-mains, branches, valves, fire
hydrants, pumping stations, service reservoirs, roads, streets etc.

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 Flow Diagrams: The flow diagram of the entire scheme is prepared showing the
sequence of operations and all aspects of the scheme. The approximate sizes of
purification and distribution mains are also given on these diagrams.
 Detailed Drawings: The detailed drawings of the various units and components of the
scheme are prepared.
The cost of a water supply project depends on the types of water sources, length of rising
mains, required treatment processes, pumping and storage facilities, distribution system
etc. The cost of various parts of the water supply schemes may be taken approximately as
follows for guidance.
Table 1.1 Approximate percentage costs of water supply components
S.N Items Cost (% of the total cost)
1 Pumping stations 18 %
2 Storage facilities 6%
3 Treatment plants 10 %
4 Distribution system 50 %
5 Intakes and buildings 2%
6 Source development 9%
7 Water meters and other contingencies 5%
Total 100 %
Note: The above percentages are for guidance and can be used for preparation
of preliminary estimates for administrative approval
A preliminary report for the purpose of determining the most economical, dependable,
and safe community water supply should be prepared. The contents of the report may
cover the following areas:
 existing water supply facilities and need for expansion
 design periods
 population projections, water consumption projections, and design capacities
 water quality objectives and source selection
 site selection for intake, treatment plant and conveyance systems
 Evaluation of raw water quality and treatment processes
 Preliminary design and cost estimates
 Recommended capital improvement plan
 Environmental impact assessment

1.3. Population forecasting

Elements of a water supply system are designed to serve present and future population. It
is therefore necessary to forecast the future population using suitable methods (see Table
1.2). The date in the future for which the projection is made depends on the component of
the system which is being designed.

Table 1.2 Methods of population forecasting

Method Description Basic equation or procedure

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 Population is assumed to increase
by a constant rate. Average value
of proportionality constant over
Arithmetic
several decades may be used. The
method is commonly used for
short-term estimates (1-5 years).
Population is assumed to increase
in proportion to the number
present. Average value of
Geometric proportionality constant over
several decades may also be used.
The method is commonly used for
short-term estimates (1-5 years).
Population is assumed to reach
some limiting value or saturation
point.
Decreasing
rate of
increase

It is assumed that the population

growth follows a logistical
Logistic mathematical relationship.
curve
fitting

n = constant interval between T1, T2, T3

The procedure involves the
graphical projection of the past
Population (in 1000s)

population data for the city being

studied. The population data of
other similar but larger cities are
also plotted in such a manner that
all the curves are coincident at the
Graphical present population value of the city
comparison being studied. These curves are 70
used as guides in future C
projections. 60
A
B
50

40
In this method, the population of From the population records of a series of census years,
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the city in question is assumed to the ratio is plotted and then projected to the year of
Ratio follow the same trends as that of interest. From the estimated population of the zone,
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the zone, region, or country. region, or country and the projected ratio, the population
City A 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
of the city concerned is obtained.
City B 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
City C 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
1. Arithmetic method: here it is assumed that the rate r of population growth is
YEAR
constant. Mathematically the hypothesis may be expressed as

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 ……………………………….. (1.1)
k is determined graphically of from successive population figures. And the future
population is given by
Pt = Po +kt ……………….…………. (1.2)
Where, Pt = population at some time in the future
Po = present population
t = period of projection
2. Geometric or uniform percentage method: This hypothesis assumes a rate of
increase which is proportional to the population.
……………………………….. (1.3)
Integrating equation (1.3) yields
……………………. (1.4)
This hypothesis could be verified by plotting recorded population growth on semi-log
paper. If a straight line can be fitted to the data, the value of k can be estimated from the
slope.
3. Geometric increase method: in this hypothesis, the average percentage of the
last few decades is determined, and the forecasting is done on the basis that
percentage increase per decade will be same. Thus, the population at the end of n
years or decades is given as

………..……….. (1.5)
Where, AGR = annual growth rate of the population
Pn = population at time n in the future
Po = present population
n = periods of projection
Example 1.1. The census figure of a city shows population as follows
Present population 50000
Before one decade 47100
Before two decades 43500
Before three decades 41000
Work out the probable population after one, two and three decades using arithmetic
increase and geometric increase method.

Example 1.2. The Annual Growth Rate of a town in Ethiopia is 3.5%. Assuming the
present population of the town (in 2007) is 4500, what would be the population in 2020?

Example 1.3. The following data shows the variation in population of a town from 1944
to2004. Estimate the population of the city in the year 2014 and 2019 by arithmetic and
geometric increase methods.
Year 1944 1954 1964 1974 1984 1994 2004
Population 40185 44522 60395 75614 98886 124230 158800

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Good judgment in population estimation should be used to avoid underestimation or
overestimation. Those methods that are inapplicable to the situation under consideration
should be dropped. The population growth of an area with limited land and resources for
future expansion may be modelled by the declining growth or logistic curve method. An
area with abundant potential for land and resources may follow geometric type of
population growth. In nearly all cases, comparison is made to the recorded growth
patterns of similar cities.

1.4. Population density

It is important to know the population density in different parts of a city in order to

estimate the flows and to design the distribution network. Population density varies
widely within a city, depending on the land use.

1.5. Components of water demands

Water demand is defined as the volume of water required by users to satisfy their needs.
It is often considered to be identical to water consumption, although conceptually the two
terms do not have the same meaning. This is because in some cases, especially in rural
parts of Ethiopia the theoretical water demand considerably exceeds the actual
consumptive water use. Design of a water supply scheme requires knowledge of water
demand and its timely variations. Various components of a water demand are residential,
commercial, industrial, public water uses, fire demand and unaccounted for system
losses.

Residential Water Demand

This includes the water required in residential buildings for drinking, cooking, bathing,
lawn sprinkling, gardening, sanitary purposes, etc. The amount of domestic water
consumption per person varies according to the living standards of the consumers. In
most countries the residential demand constitutes 50 to 60% of the total demand.

Commercial and industrial water demand

Commercial water demand includes that portion required by establishments such as

hotels, shopping centres, service stations, movie houses, airports, etc. The commercial
water demand may vary greatly depending on the type and number of establishments.
Industrial water demand constitutes water consumptions by various industries like
tanning, brewery, dairy, etc.
The quantity of water required for commercial and industrial purposes can be related to
such factors as number of employees, floor area of the establishment, or units produced.
Public water use
This is the quantity of water required for public utility purposes and includes water for
public institutions like schools, watering of public parks, washing and sprinkling of

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roads, use of public fountains, clearing wastewater conveyance, etc. Usually the demand
may range from 2-5% of the total demand.

Unaccounted system losses and leakage

This includes water lost or unaccounted for because of leaks in main and appurtenances,
faulty meters, and unauthorized water connections. These losses should be taken in to
account while estimating the total requirements. Losses and leakage may reach as high as
35% of the total consumption.

Fire demand

The quantity of water required for fire protection should be easily available and kept
always stored in storage reservoirs. Fire hydrants are usually fitted to the water mains and
fire-fighting pumps are connected to these mains by the fire brigade personnel when a
fire breaks out. Although the actual amount of water used for fire fighting in a year is
small, the rate of use is high. The following empirical equation may be used to estimate
fire demand.
National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU)

Where, QF = is fire demand (m3/hr); P = Population in 1000’s.

Examples of required fire flow for single family residential areas not exceeding two
stories in height is given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3
Distance b/n dwelling units (m) Required fire flow m3/min
Over 30.5 1.9
9.5 – 30.5 2.8-3.8
3.4 – 9.1 3.8-5.7
3.1 or less 5.7-7.6
Continuous building 9.5
The fire flow should be available from 2 hrs to 10 hrs depending on the estimated fire
demand (Table 1.4).

Table 1.4
Required fire flow, m3/min Duration, hrs
7.6 2
11.3 3
15.1 4
18.9 5
22.7 6
26.5 7
30.2 8
34.0 9
37.8 10

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Factor Affecting Water Use
1. Climatic conditions
2. Cost of water
3. Living Standards
4. Industries
5. Metering water lines
6. Quality of water supply
7. Size of city

1.6. Variations in water demand

Due to various factors there are great fluctuations in seasonal, daily and hourly water
demands. Such factors include size of the city, climatic conditions, living standard,
industrial and commercial activities, pressure in the distribution system, system of supply,
cost of water, policy of metering and method of charging.
The water demands used for the planning and design of water supply systems include
annual average day demand, maximum day demand and peak hour demand.
Annual average day demand (Qday-avg) represents the average daily demand over a period
of one year. For economical calculations and fire fighting.
Maximum day demand (Qday-max) represents the amount of water required during the day
of maximum consumption in a year. Important for water treatment plants and water
storages.
Peak hour demand (Qhr-max) represents the amount of water required during the maximum
hour in a given day. Important for design of distribution systems.
Coincident draft (Qcd). This is the sum of maximum daily demand, Q day-max, and the fire
demand (QF).
The fluctuations among the above demands can be conveniently expressed as a ratio to
the mean average daily flow. These ratios vary greatly for different localities and as such
a careful study for each locality must be made from past data to develop these
fluctuations. In the absence of past data, the following empirical formula may be used.

Where,
p = percent of annual average demand for time, t
t = time, d. The time t in days varies from 2/24 to 365.
The peak hourly demand may be estimated as 150 percent of maximum day demand.

Estimating per capita water demand

Design of water supply system components requires knowledge of per capita water
demands at the initial and design years. The following procedure is generally used to
project the water demand;
1. Estimate the future population of the service area for the initial and design years.
2. From the historical annual water usage data and population served, determine the
average per capita daily water demand.

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 3. Plot annual average per capita demand versus the year.
4. Considering water-conservation efforts and other general trends in water demand,
establish for the desired future years the annual average per capita water demands.
5. Develop the ratio of maximum day (of the year) usage record and the annual
average day data developed in step 2.
6. Establish an appropriate maximum day to average day ratio for future projections.
7. From records taken during high-demand hours, establish the ratio of peak hour to
maximum day demand.
8. Determine the projected average day, maximum day, and peak hour demands.

1.7. Design periods for water supply components

A water supply system is generally designed and constructed to serve the needs of a community
for a number of years in the future. The initial year is the year when the construction is completed
and the initial operation begins. The design year is the year when the facility is expected to reach
its full design capacity and further expansion may become necessary.
Several factors need to be considered to select an appropriate design period. The major ones
include:

 Useful life of structures

 Convenience of future expansion
 Likelihood of obsolescence by technological advancement
 Trends in interest rates, cost of present and future construction, and availability of funds
 Growth pattern of the community

The design period and design capacity of the different system components (Fig. 1.1) may
vary as indicated in Table 1.5.

Pipe grids

Pipe Pipe Pipe

SOURCE LLP TP HLP SR
Type I Type II Type III

Distribution system

Fig. 1.1 Typical water supply system (LLP: Low Lift Pump; HLP: High Lift Pump; TP:
Treatment Plant; SR: Service Reservoir)

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Table 1.5 Design periods and design capacities of water supply components
Design Design capacity
Special
Component period
characteristics
(Years)
Source:
Groundwater  Easy to expand 5-10
Qday-max during the design period
Surface sources  Uneasy to expand 20-50
(River intakes,
Reservoirs)
 Long life  Qday-max
 Cost of material is  Suitable velocities under all
Pipe mains (Type I
only a small >25 anticipated flow conditions
and Type II)
portion of the cost
of construction
 Expansion is Qday-max or 1.6Qday-avg whichever is
Treatment plant 10-15
simple greater
LLP: 2Qday-avg or 4/3Qday-max
 Easy to modify whichever is greater
Pumping units 10
and expand HLP: 3Qday-avg or 4/3Qday-max,
whichever is greater
Design should consider:
 Hourly fluctuations of flow
 Long life
 The emergency reserve
 Easy to construct
Service reservoir Very long  The provision required when
 Relatively
pumps satisfy the entire days
inexpensive
demand in less than 24 hrs.
 The fire demand.
 Long life Qhr-max or Qday-max+QF , whichever is
Type III pipe and
 Replacement is Indefinite greater (calculated for anticipated
distribution pipes
very expensive maximum growth)

1.8. Water conservation

Water conservation in homes, commercial establishments, and industries is gaining

popularity. It reduces both water use and wastewater generation. For water conservation
efforts to be successful, cooperation of the public and local government commitment are
required. Methods of water conservation include:

 Following water saving practices (e.g. turn off water while soaping in a shower)
 Use of water saving devices (water saving toilets, shower heads, etc.)
 Reducing water pressure
 Metering water usage
 Leak detection and repair
 Recycling of “grey water”

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