Falacies with examples

Here’s a detailed explanation of each fallacy with examples:

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### **1. Ad Hominem**

Attacking the person instead of their argument.
**Example:** "You can't trust John's opinion on climate change because
he's not a scientist."

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### **2. Straw Man**

Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack.
**Example:** "You think we should reduce military spending? So you
want to leave the country defenseless?"

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### **3. Appeal to Authority**

Using an authority figure's opinion as evidence, even if they’re not an
expert on the topic.
**Example:** "A famous actor said this diet works, so it must be true."

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### **4. Slippery Slope**

Arguing that a minor action will lead to extreme consequences without
evidence.
**Example:** "If we allow students to redo this test, soon they’ll expect
to redo every assignment."

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### **5. False Dichotomy**

Presenting only two options when more exist.
**Example:** "You’re either with us, or you’re against us."

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### **6. False Equivalence**
Treating two things as equally valid when they’re not.
**Example:** "The media criticized both politicians equally, but one
committed a crime and the other just misspoke."

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### **7. Appeal to Ignorance**

Arguing that something must be true because it hasn’t been proven false.
**Example:** "No one has proven aliens don’t exist, so they must exist."

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### **8. Hasty Generalization**

Making a broad conclusion based on a small or unrepresentative sample.
**Example:** "I met two people from that city, and they were rude.
Everyone there must be rude."

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### **9. Circular Reasoning**

Using the conclusion as evidence for itself.
**Example:** "The Bible is true because it says so."

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### **10. Appeal to Emotion**

Using emotions to persuade instead of logical arguments.
**Example:** "Think of the children! We must ban this video game."

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### **11. Red Herring**

Introducing an irrelevant topic to distract from the main issue.
**Example:** "Why worry about climate change when there are still wars
happening?"

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### **12. Tu Quoque (You Too)**

Dismissing criticism by pointing out the critic’s hypocrisy.
**Example:** "You say I shouldn’t smoke, but you used to smoke too!"

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### **13. Appeal to Tradition/Antiquity**

Arguing something is better because it’s older or traditional.
**Example:** "We’ve always done it this way, so it must be the best
way."

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### **14. False Cause (Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc)**

Assuming causation because one event followed another.
**Example:** "I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game. The socks
caused the win."

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### **15. Zohnerism Fallacy**

Using a true fact to mislead people into a false conclusion.
**Example:** "Dihydrogen monoxide is in all our water, and it’s
dangerous. We should ban it!" (Dihydrogen monoxide is water.)

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### **16. Bandwagon Fallacy**

Arguing something is true because many people believe it.
**Example:** "Everyone is buying this product, so it must be good."

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### **17. Appeal to Nature**

Arguing something is good because it’s natural.
**Example:** "This medicine is made from plants, so it’s better than
synthetic drugs."

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### **18. Burden of Proof**

Shifting the responsibility to prove a claim onto someone else.
**Example:** "Prove that ghosts don’t exist!"
---

### **19. False Analogy**

Comparing two things that aren’t truly comparable.
**Example:** "Employees are like nails; you have to hit them hard to get
them to work."

---

### **20. No True Scotsman**

Changing the definition of a group to exclude counterexamples.
**Example:** "No true vegan would ever eat cheese."

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### **21. Genetic Fallacy**

Judging something based on its origin rather than its merits.
**Example:** "This idea came from a politician, so it must be bad."

---

### **22. Etymological Fallacy**

Assuming a word’s meaning based on its origin.
**Example:** "The word 'nice' originally meant 'foolish,' so it can’t mean
kind today."

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### **23. Definitional Retreat**

Changing the definition of a term to avoid criticism.
**Example:** "I didn’t lie; I just redefined what 'truth' means."

---

### **24. Equivocation**

Using a word with multiple meanings to mislead.
**Example:** "A feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore,
a feather cannot be dark."

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### **25. Ad Hoc Rescue**
Making up excuses to save a theory from being disproven.
**Example:** "The psychic’s prediction was wrong because the stars
were misaligned."

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### **26. Fallacy of Composition**

Assuming what’s true for the parts is true for the whole.
**Example:** "Each brick is light, so the whole house must be light."

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### **27. Fallacy of Division**

Assuming what’s true for the whole is true for the parts.
**Example:** "The team is great, so every player must be great."

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### **28. Argument from Ignorance**

Claiming something is true because it hasn’t been proven false.
**Example:** "No one has proven Bigfoot doesn’t exist, so it must exist."

---

### **29. Fallacy of Sunk Costs**

Continuing an endeavor because of past investments.
**Example:** "We’ve spent so much on this project; we can’t quit now."

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### **30. Gambler’s Fallacy**

Believing past random events affect future ones.
**Example:** "The roulette wheel landed on red five times in a row, so
black is due next."

### **31. Anecdotal Fallacy**

Using a personal story or isolated example instead of sound reasoning or
evidence.
**Example:** "My grandfather smoked every day and lived to 100, so
smoking can’t be that bad."

---

### **32. Loaded Question**

Asking a question that contains an assumption.
**Example:** "Have you stopped cheating on tests?" (Assumes you were
cheating.)

---

### **33. Ambiguity Fallacy**

Using vague or ambiguous language to mislead.
**Example:** "The sign said 'fine for parking here,' so I thought it was
okay."

---

### **34. Fallacy of Accent**

Changing the meaning of a statement by emphasizing different words.
**Example:** "I never said *she* stole my money." (Implies someone
else did.)

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### **35. Just World Fallacy**

Believing that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.
**Example:** "She got cancer because she must have done something
wrong."

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### **36. Appeal to Fear**

Using fear to persuade instead of evidence.
**Example:** "If you don’t vote for me, the economy will collapse."

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### **37. Middle Ground Fallacy**
Assuming the middle position between two extremes is always correct.
**Example:** "One person says 2 + 2 = 4, and another says 2 + 2 = 6,
so the answer must be 5."

---

### **38. Composition Division Fallacy**

Confusing the properties of parts with the whole or vice versa.
**Example:** "This car is made of lightweight parts, so it must be
lightweight overall."

---

### **39. Cherry Picking**

Selectively choosing evidence to support a claim while ignoring
counterevidence.
**Example:** "This study shows coffee is healthy, so I’ll ignore the
studies that say it’s harmful."

---

### **40. False Attribution**

Misattributing a quote or idea to someone who didn’t say it.
**Example:** "Einstein said, 'Everything is energy,' so this crystal must
have healing powers."

---

### **41. Fallacy of Exclusion**

Ignoring important evidence that contradicts your argument.
**Example:** "This diet works because I lost weight," (while ignoring
exercise and other factors).

---

### **42. Argument from Incredulity**

Claiming something must be false because it’s hard to believe.
**Example:** "I can’t imagine how evolution works, so it must be
wrong."
---

### **43. Fallacy of Reification**

Treating an abstract concept as if it’s a concrete thing.
**Example:** "The market is angry today, so stocks are falling."

---

### **44. Fallacy of False Authority**

Using an authority figure who isn’t qualified to speak on the topic.
**Example:** "A famous athlete says this medicine works, so it must be
true."

---

### **45. False Dilemma/Dichotomy**

Presenting only two options when more exist.
**Example:** "You’re either part of the solution or part of the problem."

---

### **46. Fallacy of Misleading Vividness**

Using vivid but irrelevant details to make an argument seem stronger.
**Example:** "This car is unsafe because my neighbor’s cousin crashed
one and died."

---

### **47. Appeal to Complexity**

Arguing something is true because it’s too complicated to understand.
**Example:** "You wouldn’t understand the science, so just trust me."

---

### **48. Argument from Repetition (Ad Nauseam)**

Repeating a claim until it’s accepted as true.
**Example:** "Our product is the best. It’s the best. It’s the best."

---

### **49. Fallacy of Special Pleading**

Making exceptions for your argument without justification.
**Example:** "Everyone should follow the rules, but I’m special, so I
don’t have to."

---

### **50. False Balance (False Equivalence)**

Presenting two sides as equally valid when they’re not.
**Example:** "Some scientists say climate change is real, and others say
it’s not, so the truth must be in the middle."

---

### **51. Moving the Goalposts**

Changing the criteria for a claim after it’s been met.
**Example:** "You proved the vaccine works, but what about long-term
effects?"

---

### **52. Fallacy of Suppressed Evidence**

Ignoring evidence that contradicts your argument.
**Example:** "This study proves my point," (while ignoring studies that
disprove it).

---

### **53. Reductio ad Absurdum**

Taking an argument to an absurd extreme to discredit it.
**Example:** "If we allow gay marriage, next people will want to marry
their pets."

---

### **54. Fallacy of Questionable Cause**

Assuming a cause-and-effect relationship without evidence.
**Example:** "I wore my lucky shirt, and we won the game, so the shirt
caused the win."

---
### **55. Fallacy of Opposition**
Assuming your opponent’s argument is wrong just because they’re your
opponent.
**Example:** "You’re a Democrat, so your argument about taxes must
be wrong."

---

### **56. Appeal to Worse Problems**

Dismissing an issue because there are bigger problems.
**Example:** "Why worry about pollution when there’s war in the
world?"

---

### **57. Appeal to Novelty**

Arguing something is better because it’s new.
**Example:** "This phone is the latest model, so it must be the best."

---

### **58. Fallacy of False Analogy**

Comparing two things that aren’t truly comparable.
**Example:** "The government is like a family, so it should run like one."

---

### **59. Appeal to Wealth**

Assuming something is true because a wealthy person says so.
**Example:** "This billionaire says taxes are bad, so they must be."

---

### **60. Argument from Silence**

Assuming something is true because it hasn’t been denied.
**Example:** "The government hasn’t denied the existence of aliens, so
they must exist."

---

### **61. Appeal to Tradition**

Arguing something is better because it’s traditional.
**Example:** "We’ve always celebrated holidays this way, so we
shouldn’t change it."

---

### **62. Fallacy of False Continuum**

Assuming there’s no clear distinction between two things because they
exist on a spectrum.
**Example:** "There’s no difference between a drizzle and a hurricane
because they’re both rain."

---

### **63. Fallacy of False Premise**

Basing an argument on a false or unsupported premise.
**Example:** "All birds can fly. Penguins are birds, so penguins can fly."

---

### **64. Appeal to Common Practice**

Arguing something is acceptable because everyone does it.
**Example:** "Everyone speeds on this road, so it’s fine if I do too."

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### **65. Fallacy of Reification**

Treating an abstract concept as if it’s a concrete thing.
**Example:** "Society is to blame for my problems."

---

### **66. Appeal to Probability**

Assuming something will happen because it’s possible.
**Example:** "There’s a chance you could win the lottery, so you should
buy a ticket."

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### **67. Fallacy of Division**

Assuming what’s true for the whole is true for the parts.
**Example:** "The team is great, so every player must be great."

---

### **68. Fallacy of Presumption**

Assuming something is true without evidence.
**Example:** "You’re guilty because you look suspicious."

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### **69. Fallacy of False Consensus**

Assuming everyone agrees with you.
**Example:** "Everyone knows this policy is wrong."

---

### **70. Appeal to Celebrity**

Using a celebrity’s opinion as evidence.
**Example:** "A famous actor said this diet works, so it must be true."

---

### **71. Fallacy of Incomplete Evidence**

Ignoring evidence that contradicts your argument.
**Example:** "This study proves my point," (while ignoring studies that
disprove it).

---

### **72. Appeal to Common Belief**

Arguing something is true because many people believe it.
**Example:** "Most people believe in ghosts, so they must exist."

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### **73. Fallacy of Inappropriate Ad Hoc Hypothesis**

Making up excuses to save a theory from being disproven.
**Example:** "The psychic’s prediction was wrong because the stars
were misaligned."

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### **74. Fallacy of Presumptive Evidence**
Assuming evidence exists without providing it.
**Example:** "It’s obvious that this policy works, so I don’t need to
prove it."

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### **75. Appeal to the Stone (Argumentum ad Lapidem)**

Dismissing an argument as absurd without refuting it.
**Example:** "That idea is ridiculous, so I won’t even discuss it."

---

### **76. Proof by Assertion**

Repeating a claim until it’s accepted as true.
**Example:** "This is the best product. It’s the best. It’s the best."

---

### **77. Fallacy of Confirmation Bias**

Only considering evidence that supports your beliefs.
**Example:** "I only read news that agrees with my political views."

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### **78. Fallacy of Unwarranted Extrapolation**

Assuming a trend will continue indefinitely.
**Example:** "This stock has been rising for a week, so it will keep rising
forever."

---

### **79. Fallacy of Complex Question**

Asking a question that contains an assumption.
**Example:** "Have you stopped cheating on tests?" (Assumes you were
cheating.)

---

### **80. Appeal to Spite**

Using spite or malice to persuade.
**Example:** "Don’t vote for her; she’s just a snob."

---

### **81. Fallacy of False Attribution**

Misattributing a quote or idea to someone who didn’t say it.
**Example:** "Einstein said, 'Everything is energy,' so this crystal must
have healing powers."

---

### **82. Fallacy of Vacuous Truth**

Making a statement that is technically true but meaningless.
**Example:** "All unicorns are immortal." (Unicorns don’t exist, so the
statement is vacuous.)

---

### **83. Fallacy of Wrong Direction**

Assuming the cause and effect are reversed.
**Example:** "People who exercise are healthy, so being healthy makes
you exercise."

---

### **84. Fallacy of Extended Analogy**

Taking an analogy too far.
**Example:** "The government is like a family, so it should run like one."

---

### **85. Fallacy of Circular Cause and Consequence**

Assuming a cause and effect are the same thing.
**Example:** "I’m successful because I’m successful."

---

### **86. Fallacy of Vagueness**

Using vague language to mislead.
**Example:** "This product is the best because it’s amazing."
---

### **87. Fallacy of Origin**

Judging something based on its origin rather than its merits.
**Example:** "This idea came from a politician, so it must be bad."

---

### **88. Fallacy of Overgeneralization**

Making a broad conclusion based on a small sample.
**Example:** "I met two people from that city, and they were rude.
Everyone there must be rude."

---

### **89. Fallacy of Triviality**

Focusing on minor details to avoid addressing the main issue.
**Example:** "We shouldn’t discuss the budget; let’s talk about the
office coffee instead."

---

### **90. Fallacy of Inconsistent Comparison**

Comparing things that aren’t comparable.
**Example:** "This car is better because it’s red, and red is a faster
color."

---

### **91. Fallacy of Suppressed Correlative**

Ignoring a necessary comparison to make a claim.
**Example:** "This is the best movie ever," (without comparing it to
other movies).

---

### **92. Fallacy of Excessive Focus**

Focusing on one aspect of an issue while ignoring others.
**Example:** "This car is fast, so it must be the best car."
---

### **93. Fallacy of False Exception**

Making an exception to a rule without justification.
**Example:** "Everyone should follow the rules, but I’m special, so I
don’t have to."

---

### **94. Fallacy of Projection**

Assuming others think or feel the same way you do.
**Example:** "I love this movie, so everyone must love it too."

---

### **95. Fallacy of Circularity**

Using the conclusion as evidence for itself.
**Example:** "The Bible is true because it says so."

---

### **96. Fallacy of Empty Labelling**

Using labels without evidence to support them.
**Example:** "This policy is 'un-American,' so it must be bad."

---

### **97. Texas Sharpshooter**

Cherry-picking data to fit a pattern.
**Example:** "This town has a high number of cancer cases, so it must
be caused by the power lines."

---

### **98. Inflation of Conflict**

Exaggerating disagreements to discredit a field.
**Example:** "Scientists disagree on climate change, so it must not be
real."

---
### **99. Fallacy of Single Cause**
Assuming a complex issue has only one cause.
**Example:** "Poverty is caused by laziness."

---

### **100. Chronological Snobbery**

Dismissing something because it’s old or new.
**Example:** "This idea is outdated, so it must be wrong."

### **101. Ignoratio Elenchi (Missing the Point)**

Presenting an argument that is irrelevant to the issue at hand.
**Example:** "We should focus on improving education, not debating
school uniforms."

---

### **102. Association Fallacy**

Assuming something is true because it’s associated with something else.
**Example:** "Hitler was a vegetarian, so vegetarians must be bad
people."

---

### **103. Fallacy of False Consistency**

Assuming something must be consistent when it doesn’t have to be.
**Example:** "You said you liked cats, so why don’t you like this cat?"

---

### **104. Fallacy of Misleading Precision**

Using precise numbers to make a claim seem more credible.
**Example:** "This diet is 93.7% effective," (without evidence to back it
up).

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### **105. Fallacy of Pseudo-Accuracy**

Using overly specific numbers to mislead.
**Example:** "This product will save you $127.43 per year," (without
explaining how).

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### **106. Fallacy of Non Sequitur**

Drawing a conclusion that doesn’t logically follow.
**Example:** "She’s wearing red, so she must be angry."

---

### **107. Relativist Fallacy**

Claiming truth is relative to avoid criticism.
**Example:** "That’s just your opinion, so it’s not valid."

---

### **108. Whataboutery Fallacy**

Deflecting criticism by bringing up a different issue.
**Example:** "Why are you criticizing my policy when there are worse
problems in the world?"

---

### **109. Ecological Fallacy**

Assuming what’s true for a group is true for individuals in the group.
**Example:** "This country has a high average income, so everyone
there must be rich."

---

### **110. Rosy Retrospection Bias**

Remembering the past as better than it was.
**Example:** "Things were so much better in the good old days."

---

### **111. Nostalgia Bias**

Preferring things from the past simply because they’re old.
**Example:** "Music from the 80s is better than modern music."
---

### **112. Negativity Bias**

Focusing on negative information while ignoring positive information.
**Example:** "This restaurant has one bad review, so it must be
terrible."

---

### **113. I Am Not Wrong Bias**

Refusing to admit you’re wrong even when presented with evidence.
**Example:** "I don’t care what the data says; I know I’m right."

---

### **114. Projection Bias**

Assuming others think or feel the same way you do.
**Example:** "I love this movie, so everyone must love it too."

---

### **115. Ostrich Bias/Effect**

Ignoring obvious problems or risks.
**Example:** "Climate change isn’t real because I don’t see it affecting
me."

---

### **116. Bad Research**

Using flawed or biased research to support a claim.
**Example:** "This study funded by a soda company says soda is
healthy."

---

### **117. Rationalization**

Making excuses to justify bad behavior.
**Example:** "I only cheated on the test because everyone else was
doing it."

---
### **118. Oversimplification**
Reducing a complex issue to a simple explanation.
**Example:** "Poverty is caused by laziness."

---

### **119. Causal Oversimplification**

Assuming a complex issue has only one cause.
**Example:** "Crime is caused by video games."

---

### **120. Anecdotal Evidence**

Using personal stories instead of evidence.
**Example:** "My friend tried this remedy, and it worked, so it must be
effective."

---

### **121. Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence**

Demanding more evidence for claims that are unlikely.
**Example:** "You say you saw a UFO, but where’s the proof?"

---

### **122. Using Science to Justify Beliefs**

Misusing science to support personal beliefs.
**Example:** "Science says we only use 10% of our brains, so psychic
powers must be real."

---

### **123. Misinformation**

Spreading false or misleading information.
**Example:** "Vaccines cause autism," (a claim debunked by scientific
research).

---

### **124. Begging the Question**

Assuming the conclusion in the premise.
**Example:** "The Bible is true because it says so."

---

### **125. Untestable Claim**

Making a claim that cannot be proven or disproven.
**Example:** "There’s an invisible dragon in my garage."

---

### **126. Hindsight Bias**

Believing an event was predictable after it happened.
**Example:** "I knew they would lose the game."

---

### **127. Appeal to Personal Incredulity**

Claiming something must be false because you can’t understand it.
**Example:** "I can’t imagine how evolution works, so it must be
wrong."

---

### **128. Gish Gallop**

Overwhelming an opponent with too many arguments at once.
**Example:** "Here are 50 reasons why you’re wrong," (without
addressing any in detail).

---

### **129. God of the Gaps**

Using God or the supernatural to explain gaps in scientific knowledge.
**Example:** "Science can’t explain how life began, so God must have
done it."

---

### **130. Research Not Provided**

Making a claim without providing evidence.
**Example:** "Studies show this product works," (without citing the
studies).

---

### **131. Historian’s Fallacy**

Judging past decisions based on present knowledge.
**Example:** "They should have known the stock market would crash in
1929."

---

### **132. Historical Fallacy**

Assuming something is true because it happened in the past.
**Example:** "We’ve always done it this way, so it must be right."

---

### **133. Prosecutor’s Fallacy**

Misinterpreting statistical evidence in legal cases.
**Example:** "The suspect’s DNA matches the crime scene, so they
must be guilty."

---

### **134. Nirvana Fallacy**

Rejecting a solution because it’s not perfect.
**Example:** "This policy won’t solve all our problems, so it’s useless."

---

### **135. Availability Heuristic**

Overestimating the importance of information that’s easily available.
**Example:** "Plane crashes are more dangerous than car crashes
because they’re in the news more."

---

### **136. Anchoring Bias**

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information you hear.
**Example:** "This car costs $50,000, so $40,000 seems like a good
deal."

---

### **137. Dunning-Kruger Effect**

Overestimating your abilities because you lack knowledge.
**Example:** "I’ve never played chess, but I’m sure I can beat you."

---

### **138. Optimism Bias**

Overestimating the likelihood of positive outcomes.
**Example:** "I’ll definitely win the lottery this week."

---

### **139. Pessimism Bias**

Overestimating the likelihood of negative outcomes.
**Example:** "I’ll never pass this test, no matter how hard I study."

---

### **140. Self-Serving Bias**

Taking credit for success but blaming others for failure.
**Example:** "I aced the test because I’m smart, but I failed because
the teacher is unfair."

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This is still a partial list due to the extensive number of fallacies. Let me
know if you'd like further explanations or examples for specific ones!