Fallacy Definition Common Uses Advantages Disadvantages Other Important Aspects

Ad Hominem Attacking the person instead of addressing Politics, debates, media. Can influence Ignores the actual argument Often used when lacking a strong
their argument. audience perception. and promotes character counterargument.
attacks.

Hasty Drawing a broad conclusion from Journalism, stereotypes, Can create persuasive Leads to misinformation and A common issue in statistical
Generalization insufficient evidence. social discourse. statements. bias. misuse.
Red Herring Introducing irrelevant information to distract Politics, media, Diverts attention from Misleads the audience and Can be intentional or unintentional.
from the argument. advertising. weak points. avoids addressing real issues.
Tu Quoque Dismissing criticism by accusing the critic of Political debates, personal Deflects blame Fails to address the argument Confuses personal conduct with
hypocrisy. arguments. effectively. itself. argument validity.
Slippery Slope Claiming that one action will inevitably lead Policy debates, law, moral Creates a sense of Often relies on exaggeration Common in fear-based rhetoric.
to extreme consequences without evidence. arguments. urgency. rather than logic.

Special Pleading Creating an exception to a rule without valid Personal arguments, Helps defend beliefs. Lacks logical consistency. Often stems from cognitive bias.
justification. ideological discussions.
Loaded Question A question that presumes a controversial Law, media interviews, Puts opponents in a Unfair and manipulative. Used in interrogation tactics.
premise, making it difficult to answer politics. difficult position.
without self-incrimination.
False Dilemma Presenting only two choices when more Politics, persuasion, Simplifies complex Misleads by excluding Ignores middle-ground solutions.
(False Binary) options exist. advertising. issues. alternatives.
Strawman Misrepresenting an argument to make it Political discourse, social Makes opposition Distorts the truth and misleads Often results from misunderstanding
easier to attack. media, debates. seem weaker. the audience. or deliberate misrepresentation.

Circular Reasoning Assuming the conclusion within the premise Religious debates, Reinforces beliefs. Provides no real proof and is Can be difficult to detect in complex
instead of providing independent evidence. ideology, legal arguments. logically invalid. arguments.

Appeal to Claiming something is true because an Science, law, advertising. Can be persuasive if Relies on authority rather than Valid only when the authority is an
Authority authority figure said so, without evaluating the authority is direct evidence. expert in the relevant field.
their expertise. credible.

Appeal to Nature Assuming something is good because it is Health trends, organic Appeals to emotions Ignores scientific Not everything "natural" is
"natural." food marketing. and tradition. advancements and evidence. beneficial, and not everything
"artificial" is harmful.
Composition Assuming what is true of the parts is true of Economics, social policy, Helps create unity. Leads to incorrect The opposite of the division fallacy.
Fallacy the whole. team-building. generalizations.
Division Fallacy Assuming what is true of the whole is true of Stereotypes, nationalism, Can reinforce group Can lead to discrimination and The opposite of the composition
the parts. group dynamics. cohesion. logical errors. fallacy.
False Cause (Post Assuming a causal relationship between two Media narratives, medical Creates compelling Leads to incorrect Correlation does not imply
Hoc Fallacy) events just because one follows the other. misinformation. stories. conclusions. causation.

Anecdotal Fallacy Using personal experiences instead of Personal debates, health Engages people Ignores broader, factual data. Common in pseudoscience and
statistical evidence as proof. claims, storytelling. emotionally. conspiracy theories.
Appeal to Emotion Manipulating emotions instead of using Marketing, political Strong persuasive Can overshadow rational Effective but often misleading.
logical reasoning. speeches, activism. tool. analysis.
Burden of Proof Placing the responsibility of disproving a Law, supernatural claims, Shifts pressure onto Allows unfounded claims to Often used in pseudoscience
Shift claim on others instead of providing political arguments. opponents. persist. debates.
evidence.

No True Scotsman Dismissing counterexamples by redefining a Nationalism, religious Strengthens group Prevents fair evaluation of Often used to shield ideologies from
category to exclude them. arguments, group identity. cohesion. counterarguments. criticism.
Cherry Picking Selecting only favorable data while ignoring Media bias, propaganda, Strengthens an Misrepresents reality and Can be deliberate or due to
counterevidence. scientific argument. misleads the audience. confirmation bias.
misrepresentation.
False Equivalence Treating two unequal things as if they are the Media debates, Creates a sense of Ignores significant differences Common in false neutrality
same. propaganda. balance. between subjects. arguments.
Nirvana Fallacy Rejecting solutions because they are not Policy debates, social Encourages high Prevents implementation of Used to dismiss incremental
perfect. reforms. standards. practical solutions. progress.
Sunk Cost Fallacy Continuing an endeavor due to past Business decisions, Encourages Can lead to wasted resources. Common in financial and strategic
investment rather than future benefits. relationships, gambling. persistence. decision-making.
Appeal to Claiming something is true because it has not Pseudoscience, Keeps possibilities Encourages unfounded beliefs. Can be used to shift the burden of
Ignorance been proven false (or vice versa). supernatural claims, legal open. proof unfairly.
reasoning.
Continuum Fallacy Rejecting distinctions by arguing that small Identity debates, moral Challenges arbitrary Leads to extreme skepticism. Used to dismiss valid distinctions.
differences make categorization meaningless. issues. distinctions.

Thought- Using a phrase to shut down discussion Political slogans, Creates a sense of Avoids real discussion. Common in authoritarian and
Terminating Cliché instead of engaging with the argument. propaganda, cult rhetoric. closure. dogmatic discourse.

Appeal to Arguing that something must be true (or Political arguments, social Motivates action. Ignores objective truth. Can be valid in moral philosophy
Consequences false) because of its consequences. debates. but not in factual discussions.
Appeal to Arguing something is right because it has Cultural debates, ethics, Preserves societal Prevents progress and Can hinder necessary reforms.
Tradition always been done that way. religion. stability. adaptation.
Two Wrongs Make Justifying an action because someone else Political retaliation, Appeals to fairness. Normalizes unethical Often used to justify revenge or
a Right did it. ethical debates. behavior. retribution.