4-21-2018

The Quotient Field of an Integral Domain

The rationals Q are constructed from the integers Z by “forming fractions”. This amounts to making
all the nonzero elements of Z invertible. In fact, you can perform this construction for an arbitrary integral
domain.

Theorem. Let R be an integral domain.

(a) There is a field Q, the quotient field of R, and an injective ring map i : R → Q.

(b) If F is a field and φ : R → F is an injective ring map, there is a unique ring map φ̃ : Q → F such
that the following diagram commutes:
φ ✲F
R
✸
✑
✑
i ✑
✑ φ̃
✑
❄✑
Q
Heuristically, this means that Q is the “minimal” way of inverting the nonzero elements of R.

Proof. The first step is to form the fractions. Let

S = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ R, b 6= 0}.

a
(Think of (a, b) as corresponding to the fraction . The elements of Q aren’t actually fractions, but
b
1 2
equivalence classes of fractions. Think of the situation in the rationals Q: and are really the same
2 4
element of Q.)
a c
Two rational fractions and are equal if and only if ad = bc. I’ll use this idea to put an equivalence
b d
relation on S.
If (a, b), (c, d) ∈ S, write (a, b) ∼ (c, d) if and only if ad = bc. I claim this is an equivalence relation.

(a) Since ab = ab, I have (a, b) = (a, b).

(b) If (a, b) ∼ (c, d), then ad = bc. So bc = ad, and hence (c, d) ∼ (a, b).

(c) Suppose (a, b) ∼ (c, d) and (c, d) ∼ (e, f ). Then ad = bc and cf = de. I want to show that af = be.
The first equation yields adf = bcf , while the second equation yields bcf = bde. Therefore, adf = bde. Now
(c, d) ∈ S implies d 6= 0, and since R is a domain, I may cancel d to obtain af = be. Hence, (a, b) = (e, f ),
which completes the proof of transitivity.

Let Q be the set of equivalence classes. Let [a, b] ∈ Q denote the equivalence class of (a, b) ∈ S. I want
to show that Q is a field with the appropriate properties.
First, I’ll define the operations. For [a, b], [c, d] ∈ Q, define

[a, b] + [c, d] = [ad + bc, bd]

[a, b][c, d] = [ac, bd]

Note that in each case b, d 6= 0 so bd 6= 0, and the expressions on the right at least make sense.
I now have some routine but extremely tedious verifications to perform. Since these operations are
defined on equivalence classes, I must check that they’re well-defined — i.e. that they’re independent of the
choices of representatives for the equivalence classes.
Once I have well-defined operations, I have to check all the axioms for a field. This entails checking all
the ring axioms, commutativity, and the existence of inverses for nonzero elements. For example, I’ll show
that [0, 1] functions as an additive identity, while [1, 1] is the multiplicative identity.

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 It is probably a little much to expect you to wade through all of the ugly computations. Nevertheless,
I’ll show all the work below. I suggest that you at least verify that one of the two operations is well-defined,
and that you work through the proof for at least one of the ring axioms.
First, I’ll prove that addition and multiplication are well-defined. Suppose that [a, b] = [a′ , b′ ], so
ab = a′ b, and [c, d] = [c′ , d′ ] so cd′ = c′ d.
′

1. Addition is well-defined.

[a, b] + [c, d] = [ad + bc, bd] and [a′ , b′ ] + [c′ , d′ ] = [a′ d′ + b′ c′ , b′ d′ ].

Now
(ad + bc)b′ d′ = ab′ dd′ + bb′ cd′ = a′ bdd′ + bb′ c′ d = (a′ d′ + b′ c′ )bd,
Hence, [ad + bc, bd] = [a′ d′ + b′ c′ , b′ d′ ].
2. Multiplication is well-defined.

[a, b][c, d] = [ac, bd] and [a′ , b′ ][c′ , d′ ] = [a′ c′ , b′ d′ ].

Now
(ac)(b′ d′ ) = ab′ cd′ = a′ bc′ d = (a′ c′ )(bd).
Hence, [ac, bd] = [a′ c′ , b′ d′ ].

Next, I’ll verify that Q is a field. I have to verify the ring axioms, that multiplication is commutative,
and that nonzero elements have inverses.

3. Addition is associative.

([a, b] + [c, d]) + [e, f ] = [ad + bc, bd] + [e, f ] = [adf + bcf + bde, bdf ],

[a, b] + ([c, d] + [e, f ]) = [a, b] + [cf + de, df ] = [adf + bcf + bde, bdf ].
4. Addition is commutative.

[a, b] + [c, d] = [ad + bc, bd] and [c, d] + [a, b] = [bc + ad, bd].

5. [0, 1] is the additive identity.

[a, b] + [0, 1] = [a · 1 + b · 0, b] = [a, b].

6. −[a, b] = [−a, b].

[a, b] + [−a, b] = [ab − ab, b2 ] = [0, b2 ].
However, [0, b2 ] = [0, 1], since 0 · 1 = b2 · 0.

7. Multiplication is associative.

([a, b][c, d]) [e, f ] = [ace, bdf ] = [a, b] ([c, d][e, f ]) .

8. Multiplication is commutative.

[a, b][c, d] = [ac, bd] = [c, d][a, b].

9. [1, 1] is the multiplicative identity.

[a, b][1, 1] = [a, b].
10. Multiplication distributes over addition.

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 By commutativity of multiplication, it suffices to check this on one side.

[a, b] ([c, d] + [e, f ]) = [a, b][cf + de, df ] = [acf + ade, bdf ],

[a, b][c, d] + [a, b][e, f ] = [ac, bd] + [ae, bf ] = [abcf + abde, b2 df ].

However,

(acf + ade)b2 df = ab2 cdf 2 + ab2 d2 ef and (abcf + abde)bdf = ab2 cdf 2 + ab2 d2 ef.

Therefore, [acf + ade, bdf ] = [abcf + abde, b2 df ].

11. Nonzero elements have multiplicative inverses.

Suppose [a, b] 6= [0, 1], so a 6= 0. Then using ab · 1 = 1 · ab, I have

[a, b][b, a] = [ab, ab] = [1, 1].

Hence, [b, a] = [a, b]−1 .

This completes the verification that Q is a field. Next, I’ll construct the imbedding of R into Q.

Define i : R → Q by i(r) = [r, 1]. I’ll check that i is a ring map. First, i(1) = [1, 1].
Next,
i(a) + i(b) = [a, 1] + [b, 1] = [a + b, 1] = i(a + b),
i(a)i(b) = [a, 1][b, 1] = [ab, 1] = i(ab).
Next, I’ll show that i is injective. Suppose i(x) = [0, 1] (since [0, 1] is the zero element of Q). Then
[x, 1] = [0, 1], or x = 0. Therefore, ker i = {0}, so i is injective.

Finally, I’ll complete the proof by verifying the universal property. Suppose that F is a field and
φ : R → F is an injective ring map. Define φ̃ : Q → F by

φ̃ ([a, b]) = φ(a)φ(b)−1 .

Observe that since b 6= 0, φ(b) 6= 0 (injectivity), so φ(b) is invertible in the field F .

I have to check that the map is well-defined. Suppose that [a, b] = [a′ , b′ ], so ab′ = a′ b. Then

φ(a)φ(b′ ) = φ(a′ )φ(b),

φ(a)φ(b)−1 = φ(a′ )φ(b′ )−1 ,
φ̃ ([a, b]) = φ̃ ([a′ , b′ ]) .

Next, I’ll check that φ̃ is a ring map. First,

φ̃ ([1, 1]) = φ(1)φ(1)−1 = 1 · 1 = 1.

Next,

φ̃ ([a, b] + [c, d]) = φ̃ ([ad + bc, bd]) = φ(ad + bc)φ(bd)−1 = φ(ad)φ(bd)−1 + φ(bc)φ(bd)−1 =

φ(a)φ(d)φ(b)−1 φ(d)−1 + φ(b)φ(c)φ(b)−1 φ(d)−1 = φ(a)φ(b)−1 + φ(c)φ(d)−1 = φ̃ ([a, b]) + φ̃ ([c, d]) .
Finally,

φ̃ ([a, b][c, d]) = φ̃ ([ac, bd]) = φ(ac)φ(bd)−1 = φ(a)φ(b)−1 φ(c)φ(d)−1 = φ̃ ([a, b]) φ̃ ([c, d]) .

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 I need to check that φ̃ makes the diagram commute. If a ∈ R,

φ̃ · i(a) = φ̃ ([a, 1]) = φ(a)φ(1)−1 = φ(a).

Finally, I’ll show that φ̃ is the only map which could satisfy these conditions. If ψ was another injective
ring map filling in the diagram, then for a ∈ R,

ψ · i(a) = φ(a).

Hence, ψ ([a, 1]) = φ(a).

Now let b ∈ R, b 6= 0. Since ψ is a ring map,

1 = ψ ([1, 1]) = ψ ([b, 1][1, b]) = ψ ([b, 1]) ψ ([1, b]) = φ(b)ψ ([1, b]) .

φ is injective, so φ(b) 6= 0, and it’s invertible in F . Therefore, ψ ([1, b]) = φ(b)−1 .

Now put the results of the last two paragraphs together, again using the fact that ψ is a ring map:

ψ ([a, b]) = ψ ([a, 1][1, b]) = ψ ([a, 1]) ψ ([1, b]) = φ(a)φ(b)−1 = φ̃ ([a, b]) .

Thus, φ̃ is the unique map filling in the diagram, and the proof is (finally!) complete.

The standard argument for objects defined by universal properties shows that the quotient field of an
integral domain is unique up to ring isomorphism. That is, if R is a domain and Q and Q′ are fields satisfying
the universal property for the quotient field of R, then Q ≈ Q′ .

If R is a field, then it is its own quotient field. To prove this, use uniqueness of the quotient field, and
the fact that the identity map id : R → R satisfies the universal property.
In most cases, it is easy to see what the quotient field “looks like”. For example, let R be the domain
Q[x] of polynomials with rational coefficients. The quotient field is Q(x), the field of rational functions
p(x)
with rational coefficients. It consists of all quotients , where p, q ∈ Q[x] and q 6= 0, under the usual
q(x)
operations.
This may seem like a lot of work to produce something that is “obvious”. But the reason this may seem
“obvious” to you is that you’ve had lots of experience working with the the rational numbers Q, the quotient
field of the integers Z.

c 2018 by Bruce Ikenaga