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: Electric Charge and Field:
Electrostatics:
The branch of physics which deals with the study of electric forces, electric fields, and electric potentials
due to charge at rest (static charge).
Electric Charge:
It is a physical quantity of matter which causes it to experience an electrostatic force when placed near other
matter.
Example: when a glass rod is rubbed with a silk, the glass rod acquires the property of repelling another
glass rod rubbed with silk.

• Charge is scalar quantity.

• Its unit is coulomb(C).
• Its dimension is [𝐴1 𝑇 1 ].
Types of charges:
There two types of charges namely
1. Positive charge.
2. Negative charge.
(Like charges repel with each other, unlike charges attract with each other).
Basic properties of Electric Charge.
Experimentally that electric charge has the fallowing basic properties.

1. Electric charge has additive nature. i.e., q= 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 +. . . . . . . . 𝑞𝑛 .

2. Electric charge is a quantised quantity i.e., charge on a body, q=±𝑛𝑒 where n=1,2,3… and
e=1.6× 10−19 𝐶.
3. Electric charge is a conserved quantity i.e., the total electric charge of an isolated system always
remains constant.
Coulomb’s law:
Statement: The electrostatic force between two-point charges is directly proportional to the product of their
magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square of distance between their centres.
This force will be repulsive or attractive depending upon whether the charges are like or unlike charges. The
force always acts along the line joining the centres of the two charges.

Consider two-point charges 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 placed at a distance of r from each other. then according to coulomb’s
law, the magnitude of electrostatic force between the charges is given by,

F∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 ……. (1)
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F∝ 𝑟 2……. (2)

Combining mathematically equation (1) and (2) we have

𝑞1 𝑞2
F∝ 𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
F= k 𝑟2

(The force is mutual; it acts on both the bodies equally).

Where k is a constant of proportionality called electrostatic force constant. The value of k depends on the
nature of medium between the two charges and the system of units used.
1 1
In SI units k = 4𝜋𝜀 = 4𝜋8.854×10−12 = 9 × 109 N𝑚2 /𝐶
0

(𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2 )

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
∴ 𝐹= ………. (3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Or 𝑭 = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒓𝟐
N.

Note:
1. The forces act along the line joining the two charges.
2. The force is mutual, it acts on both the charges.
3. Coulomb’s law in vector form:
Consider two like charges 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 separated by a distance r in vacuum. Clearly, charges will repel
each other.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗ = 2 𝑟̂ where 𝑟̂ is unit vector along the line joining the charges
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑟⃗
𝑟̂ =
|𝑟|

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟⃗
𝐹⃗ =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 |𝑟|

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗ = 𝑟⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Limitations of Coulomb’s Law

• The law is applicable only for the point charges at rest.

• Coulomb’s law can only be applied in those cases where the inverse square law is obeyed.
• It is difficult to implement Coulomb’s law where charges are in arbitrary shape because, in such
cases, we cannot determine the distance between the charges.
• The law can’t be used directly to calculate the charge on big planets.
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Electric Field:

+q is a charge located at a point O in a space if another charge +𝑞0 experiences a force of repulsion. If charge
is -ve the force is attraction.
Thus, electrostatic field due to a charge is the space around the charge in which any other charge experiences
a force of attraction or repulsion.
Note:

The charge +q is called the source charge because it produces the electric field. The +𝑞0 is called the test
charge.
Electric field strength at any point is measured by the electric intensity.
Electric field intensity:

Electric field intensity at a point is defined as the force experienced by unit positive charge placed at that
point.

Consider a point charge +q located at point O in space as shown in (fig). If a small positive test charge 𝑞0
placed at point P experiences a force 𝐹⃗ , then electric field intensity (𝐸⃗⃗ ) at point P is given by

𝐹⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝑞0

Electric Field intensity due to a Point charge

Consider a point charge +q placed at point O. suppose we find electric field intensity at point P distance r
from O i.e., OP = r

Image a test charge +𝑞0 placed at a P then force acting on +𝑞0 𝑖𝑠

1 𝑞𝑞0
𝐹⃗ = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
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Where 𝑟̂ is a unit vector directed from +q to +𝑞0
𝐹⃗ 1 𝑞
∴ 𝐸⃗⃗ = = 𝐹⃗ = 𝑟̂ ……… (1)
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

1 𝑞 𝑞
|𝐸⃗⃗ | = 2
𝑟̂ = 9 × 109 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟

Electric intensity is also a vector quantity if 𝐸⃗⃗ is positive then the field is acting outwards. If 𝐸⃗⃗ is negative
the field is acting inwards.
The electric intensity at any point in a electric field is given by
𝟏 𝒒
⃗⃗| =
|𝑬 𝒓̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
It obeys inverse square law. The electric intensity decreases as you move away from charges.
Electric Dipole:
A system of two equal and opposite point charges separated by a small distance is called an electric dipole.
Dipole Moment:
The dipole moment is a measure of the strength of the electric dipole.
The dipole moment of an electric dipole is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the product of charge and
length of the dipole i.e.,

⃗𝑷
⃗⃗ = 𝒒(𝟐𝒂
⃗⃗)

The direction 𝑃⃗⃗ is along dipole axis from -Q to +q. the SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb per meter.

Dipole Field:
The electric field produced by an electric dipole is called dipole field.
Case (i) Electric field due to an electric dipole at points on the axial line

Consider an electric dipole placed on the x-axis as shown in Figure. A point C is located at a distance
of r from the midpoint O of the dipole along the axial line.

The electric field at a point C due to +q is.

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Since the electric dipole moment vector is from –q to +q and is directed along BC, the above equation is
rewritten as

…………(1)

where 𝑃̂ is the electric dipole moment unit vector from –q to +q.

The electric field at a point C due to –q is.

……….. (2)

Since +q is located closer to the point C than –q, 𝐸⃗⃗+ is stronger than 𝐸⃗⃗− . Therefore, the length of
the 𝐸⃗⃗+ vector is drawn larger than that of 𝐸⃗⃗− vector.

The total electric field at point C is calculated using the superposition principle of the electric field.

……. (3)

Note that the total electric field is along 𝐸⃗⃗+ , since +q is closer to C than –q.

The direction of 𝐸⃗⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 is shown in Figure

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If the point C is very far away from the dipole, then (r >> a). Under this limit the term ( r2 − a2 )2 ≈ r4 .
Substituting this into equation (3), we get

If the point C is chosen on the left side of the dipole, the total electric field is still in the direction of 𝑃⃗⃗ .

Case (ii) Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the equatorial plane

Consider a point C at a distance r from the midpoint O of the dipole on the equatorial plane as shown in Figure.

Since the point C is equidistant from +q and –q, the magnitude of the electric fields of +q and –q are the same.
The direction of 𝐸⃗⃗+ is along BC and the direction of 𝐸⃗⃗− is along CA. 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are resolved into two
components: one component parallel to the dipole axis and the other perpendicular to it. The perpendicular
components | 𝐸⃗⃗+ |sinθ and | 𝐸⃗⃗− |sinθ are oppositely directed and cancel each other. The magnitude of the total
electric field at point C is the sum of the parallel components of 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− and its direction is along −𝑃̂ as
shown in the Figure

……….(1)

The magnitudes 𝐸⃗⃗+ and 𝐸⃗⃗− are the same and are given by.
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……..(2)

By substituting equation into equation , we get

…………(3)

At very large distances (r>>a), the equation (3) becomes

Electric Field Lines:

Electric field due to a charge or group of charge or group of charges is represented by electric lines of force
(or field lines).

Electric lines of force represent the direction in which the unit +ve charge will move when it is kept in the
electric field.

The concept of electric lines of force is useful to understand the dependence of electric field intensity with
the distance from the charge.

The properties of electric lines of force are:

1. The lines emerging from +ve charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
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2. The field lines point in the direction of the electric field.
3. The field lines may be straight. The tangent drawn to these lines at any point represents the direction
of electric intensity at that point.

Electric Flux:

Electric flux linked with any surface is defined as the total number of electric field lines that pass through
that surface.

Consider a surface placed in an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗

ds → small area element.

𝜃 → 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑠 of the surface element.

Then electric flux through the surface element is given by 𝑑∅ = (𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝑠

Where E 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃is a component of the electric field perpendicular to the surface area

d𝜙 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
d𝜙 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠……. (1)

the surface made by infinite elements. Then the total electric flux through the surface can be calculated by
integrating equation (1)

therefore, total electric flux through the surface is given by,

∫ 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
𝑠

𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃

Gauss’s Law and applications:

Statement:
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The law states that the total electric flux (𝜙)𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑖𝑛 free space is equal to 𝜀
𝑜
times total electric charge b(q) enclosed by the surface.

i.e.,
1
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 = ∮𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀 𝑞
𝑜

Where q is total charge enclosed by the surface s and 𝜀𝑜 is permittivity in free space.

Proof:

Electric field intensity due to charge +q at every point on the surface of the sphere is given by
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟̂ ……… (1)
𝑜 𝑟2

Consider a small element of area ds with area vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑠 normal to the surface of the area element.

Electric flux through the area element is given by

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝜙 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠

from equation (1)

1 𝑞
𝒅𝜙 = 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑠
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

1 𝑞𝑑𝑠
𝒅𝜙 = 𝑟̂𝑛̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

𝑛̂ is unit vector perpendicular to the surface pf area element since 𝑟̂ and 𝑛̂ → along same line 𝜃 = 0°

rncos𝜃 = 1 × 1 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 1

∴ 𝑟̂𝑛̂ = 1

Hence

𝒅𝜙 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
1 𝑞
𝒅𝜙 = 4𝜋𝜀 ds……. (2)
𝑜 𝑟2
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electric flux over entire closed surface is 𝜙 = ∮𝑠 𝑑𝜙

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=∮𝑠 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠

1 𝑞
=∮𝑠 ds
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

1 𝑞
𝜙 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 ∮𝑠
𝑑𝑠……… (3)
𝑜 𝑟

∮𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = surface area of the sphere of radius 𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

1 𝑞
𝜙= × 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
𝒒
𝝓=
𝜺𝒐

𝒒
𝑬. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝝓 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔 =
𝒔 𝜺𝒐

Special cases:

Case1: If the closed surface does not contain any charge i.e. q=0

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑠

Case2: If the closed surface contains two charges of equal magnitude but opposite ie., -q and +q total charge
+q-q=0

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑠

Case3: If closed surface has discrete distribution of charges.

Let 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 +. . . . . . . 𝑞𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖
𝑛
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = ∑ 𝑞𝑖
𝑠 𝜀𝑜
𝑖=1

Electric field due to uniformly charged sphere:

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Consider a uniformly charged sphere with centre O, radius R and total charge q.

Let the uniform volume density of charge is 𝜌

∴ total charge 𝜌 on the solid sphere is given by.

4
𝑞 = 𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌
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a) Electric field outside the solid sphere:
Electric field intensity at any point P outside the solid sphere where 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟 (from fig) with centre O,
construct a sphere of radius r (𝑟 > 𝑅) through point P. Then this sphere (dotted) is Gaussian surface.
The magnitude of the electric field (E) is the same at all points on the Gaussian Surface and angle
between 𝐸⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 is zero. Therefore, electric flux (𝜙𝐸 ) passing through the surface is
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜙𝐸 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠
𝜙𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃
𝜙𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 cos 0°
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 (Where ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝜙𝐸 = E× 4𝜋𝑟 2
But according to Gauss’s theorem
𝒒
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜺𝒐
𝑞
E× 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜀
𝑜
𝒒
E= 4𝜋𝜺 2
......... (1)
𝒐𝑟
b) Electric Field on the surface of sphere
In this case 𝑅 = 𝑟 i.e gaussian surface coincides with the surface of the solid sphere
𝒒
∴ E= 4𝜋𝜺 𝑟 2……. (2)
𝒐
4 3
Now 𝑞 = 3 𝜋𝑅 𝜌
4 3
𝜋𝑅 𝜌
𝐸=3
4𝜋𝜺𝒐 𝑅 2
𝜌𝑅
𝐸 = 3𝜺 ………. (3)
𝒐
c) Electric field inside the sphere:
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The point P lies inside the solid sphere. With centre O, construct a sphere of radius r (r< 𝑅) as
shown in fig. then this sphere (dotted) is the gaussian surface. The charge 𝑞 ′ enclosed by the
gaussian surface is.

4 3
𝑞′ = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌
3
4 𝑞
𝑞 ′ = [ 𝜋𝑟 3 ] × [ ]
3 4
(3) 𝜋𝑅 3
𝑟3
𝑞 ′ = 𝑞 𝑅3……… (4)

The magnitude of electric field E at every point on the Gaussian surface, is the same. Further, at every point
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is zero.
on the gaussian surface, angle between 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑠

Therefore, electric flux passing through the Gaussian surface is

𝜙𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠

= ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos 0°

= 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠

𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2

But according to gauss’s theorem

𝑞′
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜

𝑞′ 𝑟3 1
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 = = [𝑞 3 ]
𝜀𝑜 𝑅 𝜀𝑜
𝑞 𝑟
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑜 𝑅3

4
𝜋𝑅 3 𝜌 𝑟
E= 34𝜋𝜺 × 𝑅3
𝒐
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𝜌𝑟
𝐸=
3𝜺𝒐

d) Electric field at the centre of sphere

At the centre of the solid sphere, 𝑟 = 0

Therefore,
𝜌𝑟 𝜌×0
𝐸= =
3𝜺𝒐 3𝜺𝒐

𝐸=0

Electric Field intensity due to infinite flat sheet of charge

Consider a thin plane sheet having uniform surface charge density 𝜎(charge per unit area)

To calculate the electric field intensity 𝐸⃗⃗ at a point P distant r. Draw a Gaussian surface in form of a closed
cylinder of length r

Charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.

𝑞 = 𝜎𝑠

According to Gauss’s theorem

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑠………. (1)

∮𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝒐 𝜺 𝒐𝜺

Gaussian surface is divided in three parts I, II,III

∴ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

𝜎𝑠
∮𝐼 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + ∮𝐼𝐼 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + ∮𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = 𝜺 ………….. (2)
𝒐

Angle between 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑠 is 90° for the curved surface III

In this case ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos 90° = 0

Hence the equation (2) becomes.

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𝜎𝑠
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 =
𝜺𝒐
𝐼 𝐼𝐼

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ for surface I and II is zero

Since angle between 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑠

𝜎𝑠
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠0° + ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠0° =
𝜺𝒐
𝐼 𝐼𝐼

Or
𝜎𝑠
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 =
𝜺𝒐
𝐼 𝐼𝐼

𝜎𝑠
∴ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∮𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + 𝐸⃗⃗ ∮𝐼𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = 𝜺 (∵ E is constant)
𝒐

𝜎𝑠
𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝑠 =
𝜺𝒐
𝜎𝑠
2𝐸𝑠 =
𝜺𝒐
𝜎
∴ 𝐸 = 𝟐𝜺 Electric field of the given flat sheet
𝒐

Electric Field of a uniformly charged hallow cylinder:

As we know electric field lines are perpendicular to the surface of the conductor and coming outwards from
a positive charge.

So, electric field lines for a uniformly charged hollow cylinder.

𝑞
Consider a long uniform conductor of radius r. let the linear charge density is 𝜆(= ) it is assumed to be
𝑙
constant through the length of conductor.

The electric field intensity at a point r distance from the conductor ca be found by using Gauss theorem.

Let us consider the length of the conductor to be l meters. The charge enclosed in this length will be 𝑞 = 𝑙𝜆.

According to Gauss theorem the total flux 𝜙 traversing the surface of an imaginary cylinder of radius r will
be equal to the charge enclosed in this surface i.e., l𝜆

𝜙 = 𝑙𝜆 …. (1)
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𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑙𝜆
𝜎 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 (2𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟)

𝜆
𝜎 = 2𝜋𝑟……. (2)

We know that 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 ……... (3)

Substitute equation (3) in (2)

𝜆
𝐸𝜀 =
2𝜋𝑟
𝛌
𝐄 = 𝟐𝛑𝐫𝛆 electric field of the given hallow cylinder.

(∵ 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 )
𝛌
𝐄 = 𝟐𝛑𝐫𝛆 …….. (4)
𝐨 𝛆𝐫

: Electric Potential:
The potential at any point in an electric field near a charged body is defined as the electric potential is equal
to the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the electric
field.
𝑊 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
I.e., 𝑉 = = = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑞 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

• The SI unit of electric potential is volt.

• The dimension is [𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 3 𝐴−1 ].
1 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
• 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝐽/𝐶

Point charge: A charged particle (point charge or a source charge) causes an electric field to exist in the
region of space around itself.
Electric Potential Difference:
It is defined as the amount of work done in moving a positive unit charge from one point to the other against
the field.
Let the test charge be moved through a distance dl in a uniform electric field E due to some stationary
charge. The electric force on the charge will be 𝑞0 𝐸 and will be along the direction of the field. The work
done in moving the test charge through a small distance dl given by
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙
Therefore, the work done in moving the charge from A to B will be obtained by integrating dW between A
and B
𝐵
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ −𝑞𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙
𝐴
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𝐵
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = −𝑞 ∫𝐴 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 …….. (1)

Further the potential difference

𝑊𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 =
𝑞
From equation (1) The potential difference between A and B
𝐵
−𝑞 ∫𝐴 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 =
𝑞
𝐵
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙
𝐴

Electric Potential as line integral of Electric Field:

Consider a uniform electric field e acting from left to right as shown in fig.

The field lines are straight and equally spaced. If test charged +𝑞0 is placed at A, electric field will exert a
force +𝑞0 𝐸 on it. If we move the test charge towards B, we must exert a force −𝑞0 𝐸 Work done to move the
charge +𝑞0 along AB through a small displacement dl is given by.

𝑑𝑤 = −𝑞0 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑙
the total work done in moving the charge from the initial point A to the final B is
𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = ∫ −𝑞0 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
𝐴

But
𝐵
∴ ∫𝐴 −𝑞0 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑞0 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑞0 𝑉𝐴
𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞0 (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )
𝑞0 ∫ − 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
𝐴
𝐵

∫ − 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
𝐴
𝐵

∴ 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = − ∫ − 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
𝐴

Hence potential difference 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 between any two points B (final point) and A (initial point) in an electric
field is equal to the negative of the line integral of electric field from A to B.
Relation between Electric field and Electric Potential:
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Consider two-pint A and B in the electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ due to a point charge +Q placed at O
Let 𝑞0 be the +ve test charge placed at A the force acting on it is.

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞0 𝐸⃗⃗ along 𝐸⃗⃗

Work done to move the test charge from point A to point B through a distance dr is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑤 = 𝑞0 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑞0 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜃 = 180°
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑞0 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠180°
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑞0 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 (−1)
𝑑𝑤 = −𝑞0 𝐸 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑤
= −𝐸 𝑑𝑥 ……. (1)
𝑞0

According to the definition of potential difference

𝑑𝑤
𝑑𝑉 = …….. (2)
𝑞0

put (1) in (2)

𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑥
𝐝𝐕
or 𝐄 = ……... (3)
𝐝𝐱
Potential due to a point charge [work done by a point charge]

Consider a point charge +Q as shown in fig. let a unit positive charge (+1) be placed at a point P in the
electric field of the charge Q.
Let the distance between +Q and unit +ve charge (+1) be x
Then by coulombs force of repulsion between +Q and +1 is given by
1 𝑄×1
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 2
1 𝑄
𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
…… (1)
𝑜𝑥
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Let unit +ve charge be displaced towards +q charge, ̅𝑑𝑥
̅̅̅ → displacing +ve charge.

The, 𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑥
dw = 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∴ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠180°
𝑑𝑤 = −𝐹 𝑑𝑥 (cos180°=−1)
using equation (1) we get
1 𝑄
𝑑𝑤 = − 4𝜋𝜀 𝑑𝑥…….. (2)
𝑜 𝑥2

let the unit positive charge is displaced from ∞ to point A from 𝑥 = ∞ 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑟

the total work done can be calculated by integrating equation (2) between limits 𝑥 = ∞ 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑟.
𝑥=𝑟
1 𝑄
∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ − ∙ 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 2
𝑥=∞
𝑟
𝑄
𝑤=− ∫ 𝑥 −2 ∙ 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝜀𝑜
∞
𝑟
𝑄 𝑥 −2+1
𝑤=− [ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 −2 + 1 ∞
𝑟
𝑄 𝑥 −1
𝑤=− [ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 −1 ∞

𝑄 1𝑟
𝑤= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 ∞
𝑄 1 1 1
𝑤 = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟 − ∞] where (∞ = 0)
𝑜

1 𝑄
𝑤 = 4𝜋𝜀 …….. (3)
𝑜 𝑟

this is the work done in bringing a unit +ve charge from ∞ to a given point in the electric field of source
charge equal to electric potential due to the source charge at that point.
i.e., W=V
equation (3) becomes,
1 𝑄
𝑣 = 4𝜋𝜀 …… (4)
𝑜 𝑟

Above equation gives the Potential due to point charge.

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Potential at any point due to an electric dipole:

Consider any point P at a distance r from O centre of electric dipole AB.

Let OP makes an angle 𝜃 with the vector moment 𝑝⃗ and 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 be the distance of points from point p from -q
and +q respectively.
Potential due to −𝑞
1 −𝑞 −1 𝑞
𝑉1 = =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1
Potential due to +q
1 𝑞
𝑉2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
Potential at p due to the dipole
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
−1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝑉= +
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
𝑞 1 1
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟 − 𝑟 ]…….. (1)
𝑜 2 1

Draw perpendicular from A which meets the line OP at C when produced backward. Also draw BD
perpendicular to OP.
Then,
𝑟1 = 𝐴𝑃 ≃ 𝐶𝑃
𝑟1 = 𝐶𝑃
From fig 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝐶
𝑟1 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝐶
𝑟1 = 𝑟 + 𝑙 cos 𝜃…… (2)
𝑟2 = 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐷𝑃
𝑟2 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐷
𝑟2 = 𝑟 − 𝑙 cos 𝜃 ……... (3)
Substituting values of 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 from (2) and (3) in equation (1)
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𝑞 1 1
𝑉= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 − 𝑙 cos 𝜃) (𝑟 + 𝑙 cos 𝜃)
((𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 )
𝑞 𝑟 + 𝑙 cos 𝜃 − 𝑟 + 𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑉= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑞 2𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑉= [ 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 − 𝑙 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑞2𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)
We know that dipole moment 𝑃 = 𝑞2𝑙
𝑃 cos 𝜃
𝑉= …….. (4)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 −𝑙2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃)

If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (4) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒.

𝑃 cos 𝜃
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
……. (5)
𝑜𝑟

Since 𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 𝑃⃗⃗ 𝑟̂ along OP

𝑃⃗⃗ 𝑟̂
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
…… (6) for 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙
𝑜𝑟

Special cases:
𝑃 cos 𝜃
Consider the equation 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
𝑜𝑟

Case (i) If the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of +q, then θ = 0. Then the electric potential
becomes

Case (ii) If the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of –q, then θ = 180o, then

Case (iii) If the point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole, then θ = 90o. Hence
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Electric potential due to Quadrupole:

To calculate the potential and field, we shall consider the simple case of a linear quadrupole, as shown in fig
whose effects at external point do not cancel complete. The origin of coordinates is taken at the centre of the
quadrupole.
The potential at P due to +q
1 𝑞
𝑉1 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1

The potential at P due to −q

1 𝑞
𝑉2 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
The potential at P due to charge at O
1 2𝑞
𝑉3 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
The potential at P due to this quadrupole is,

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
1 𝑞 2𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 1 2 1
𝑉(𝑟) = ( − + )= ( − + )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟2
𝑞 1 2 1
𝑉(𝑟) = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 − 𝑟 + 𝑟 ) ….. (1)
𝑜 1 2

From the figure,

OA=OB=d

From Δ𝑂𝐴𝑃 we can write by cosine law, 𝑟1 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑑 2 − 2𝑟𝑑 cos 𝜃

𝑟1 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑑2 − 2𝑟𝑑 cos 𝜃
1
𝑟1 = [𝑟 2 + 𝑑2 − 2𝑟𝑑 cos 𝜃]2
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1
2 2
𝑑 2𝑑
𝑟1 = [𝑟 2 (1 + 2
− cos 𝜃)]
𝑟 𝑟
1 1 1
= 1 = 1
𝑟1
𝑑2 2𝑑 2 𝑑2 2𝑑 2
[𝑟 2 (1 + 2 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃)] 𝑟 [1 + 2 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃]
𝑟 𝑟
1
−
1 1 𝑑2 2𝑑 2
= [1 + 2 − cos 𝜃]
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

Since 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑 we can expand by binomial theorem, as

−
1 𝑥 3𝑥 2
[(1 − 𝑥) 2 =1− + ]
2 8

1 1 1 𝑑2 2𝑑 3 4𝑑2
= [1 − ( 2 − cos 𝜃) + ∙ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃+. . . . . . . . ]
𝑟1 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟 8 𝑟

Since 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑, higher power terms are neglected.

1 1 𝑑2 𝑑
= [1 + 2 (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]
𝑟1 𝑟 2𝑟 𝑟

Similarly,

1 1 𝑑2 𝑑
= [1 + 2 (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]
𝑟2 𝑟 2𝑟 𝑟

From equation (1)

𝑞 1 𝑑2 𝑑 2 1 𝑑2 𝑑
𝑉(𝑟) = ( [1 + 2 (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] − + [1 + 2 (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃])
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 2𝑟 𝑟

𝑞 𝑑2
𝑉(𝑟) = 4𝜋𝜀 (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1) ……. (2)
𝑜 𝑟2

The product 2q𝑑2 is called the electric quadrupole moment denoted by P than

2 𝑞 𝑑2
𝑉(𝑟) = × 2
(3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1)
2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

2𝑞 𝑑 2
𝑉(𝑟) = (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1)
8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
𝑃
𝑉(𝑟) = 8𝜋𝜀 2 (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1)…… (3)
𝑜𝑟

The above equation gives the electric potential due to quadrupole.

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Electrostatic potential energy due to a system of charges:
The electric potential energy of a system of charges or a single charge is the total work done by an
external force to bring the charge or system of charges from infinity to a reference point in an electric field
without any acceleration.
Definition: Electric potential energy is the total energy possessed by a charge in order to change its
position in the electric field.

Consider a system of charges q1, q2,…, qn with position vectors r1, r2,…, r n relative to some origin. The
potential V1 at P due to the charge q1 is.

where r1P is the distance between q1 and P. Similarly, the potential V2 at P due to q2 and due to q are given
by.

where r2P and r3P are the distances of P from charges q2 and q3, respectively, and so on for the potential due to
other charges.
By the superposition principle, the potential V at P due to the total charge configuration is the algebraic sum
of the potentials due to the individual charges.

𝑛
1 𝑞𝑖
𝑉= ∑
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑖𝑝
𝑖=1
The electric field outside the shell is as if the entire charge is concentrated at the centre. Thus, the potential
outside the shell is given by

where q is the total charge on the shell and R its radius. The electric field inside the shell is zero. This implies
that potential is constant inside the shell (as no work is done in moving a charge inside the shell), and,
therefore, equals its value at the surface, which is