Basic Electrical Definitions - Solutions

Q 1- What do you mean by linear charge density and surface charge density?
• Linear Charge Density (λ): It is defined as the charge per unit length. If a charge q is distributed
uniformly over a length L, then λ = q/L. Its S.I. unit is Coulomb per meter (C/m). For non-uniform
distribution, it is given by dq/dl.
• Surface Charge Density (σ): It is defined as the charge per unit area. If a charge q is distributed
uniformly over a surface area A, then σ = q/A. Its S.I. unit is Coulomb per square meter (C/m2 ). For
non-uniform distribution, it is given by dq/dS.

Q 2- Write down the Coulomb’s law for the force of attraction or repulsion b/w
two point charges.
Coulomb’s Law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two stationary point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. The force acts along the line joining the two charges.
Mathematically, the magnitude of the force (F ) between two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a
distance r is given by:
|q1 q2 |
F =k 2
r
where k is Coulomb’s constant, also known as the electrostatic constant, and its value in vacuum is approx-
imately 9 × 109 N m2 /C2 . In terms of permittivity of free space (ϵ0 ):
1
k=
4πϵ0
So,
1 |q1 q2 |
F =
4πϵ0 r2

Q 3- Derive an expression for the torque acting on an electric dipole kept in a

uniform electric field.
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two charges, +q and −q, separated by a distance 2a. Let the dipole
⃗ such that its dipole moment p⃗ makes an angle θ with the direction of
be placed in a uniform electric field E
the electric field.

• Force on charge +q is F⃗+ = q E,

⃗ acting in the direction of E.
⃗

• Force on charge −q is F⃗− = −q E,

⃗ acting opposite to the direction of E.
⃗

These two forces are equal in magnitude (qE), opposite in direction, and act at different points, forming a
couple. This couple exerts a torque on the dipole.
The magnitude of the torque (τ ) is given by:

τ = Magnitude of either force × Perpendicular distance between the forces

From the geometry, the perpendicular distance between the forces is 2a sin θ. So,

τ = (qE)(2a sin θ)

1
 τ = (q · 2a)E sin θ
We know that the electric dipole moment p = q · 2a. Therefore,

τ = pE sin θ

In vector form, the torque is given by the cross product:

⃗
⃗τ = p⃗ × E

Q 4- Define electric dipole moment and derive an expression for electric field
intensity due to electric dipole in its equatorial and axial position.
• Electric Dipole Moment (⃗ p): It is a measure of the strength of an electric dipole. It is defined as
the product of the magnitude of either charge and the distance between the two charges. Its direction
is conventionally from the negative charge to the positive charge.

p⃗ = q · (2⃗a)

where 2⃗a is the vector pointing from −q to +q. Its S.I. unit is Coulomb-meter (C·m).

Electric Field Intensity due to an Electric Dipole:

Consider an electric dipole with charges +q and −q separated by a distance 2a. The midpoint of the dipole
is O.
(a) At an Axial Point: Let P be a point on the axial line (the line passing through both charges) at
a distance r from the center O of the dipole.
• Electric field due to +q at P:
1 q
E+ =
4πϵ0 (r − a)2
(directed away from +q)
• Electric field due to −q at P:
1 q
E− =
4πϵ0 (r + a)2
(directed towards −q)

Since E+ and E− are in opposite directions, the net electric field at P is:

Eaxial = E+ − E−

(assuming P is to the right of the dipole)

 
1 1 1
Eaxial = q −
4πϵ0 (r − a)2 (r + a)2

(r + a)2 − (r − a)2
 
1
Eaxial = q
4πϵ0 (r2 − a2 )2
 2
r + a2 + 2ar − (r2 + a2 − 2ar)

1
Eaxial = q
4πϵ0 (r2 − a2 )2
 
1 4ar
Eaxial = q
4πϵ0 (r2 − a2 )2

2
 1 (q · 2a)2r
Eaxial =
4πϵ0 (r2 − a2 )2
Since p = q · 2a:
1 2pr
Eaxial =
4πϵ0 (r2 − a2 )2
For a short dipole (a ≪ r), a2 can be neglected compared to r2 :
1 2pr 1 2p
Eaxial ≈ =
4πϵ0 r4 4πϵ0 r3
The direction of Eaxial is along the dipole axis, in the direction of the dipole moment p⃗.
(b) At an Equatorial Point: Let P be a point on the equatorial line (the line perpendicular to the
axial line and passing through the center O) at a distance r from the center O of the dipole.
√
• Distance from each charge to P: r2 + a2
• Electric field due to +q at P:
1 q
E+ =
4πϵ0 r + a2
2

(directed away from +q)

• Electric field due to −q at P:
1 q
E− =
4πϵ0 r + a2
2

(directed towards −q)

The magnitudes E+ and E− are equal. The vertical components of E+ and E− cancel each other, while the
horizontal components add up. Let θ be the angle between the electric field vectors and the horizontal axis.
From the diagram, cos θ = √r2a+a2 The net electric field at P is the sum of the horizontal components:

Eequatorial = E+ cos θ + E− cos θ = 2E+ cos θ

  
1 q a
Eequatorial = 2 √
4πϵ0 r2 + a2 r2 + a2
1 2qa
Eequatorial =
4πϵ0 (r + a2 )3/2
2

Since p = q · 2a:
1 p
Eequatorial =
4πϵ0 (r2 + a2 )3/2
For a short dipole (a ≪ r), a2 can be neglected compared to r2 :
1 p 1 p
Eequatorial ≈ =
4πϵ0 (r2 )3/2 4πϵ0 r3
The direction of Eequatorial is anti-parallel to the dipole moment p⃗.

Q 5- State Gauss theorem in electrostatics and with the help of Gauss theorem
deduce the electric field intensity near to a infinitely long straight wire.
• Gauss’s Theorem (Gauss’s Law in Electrostatics): It states that the total electric flux (ΦE ) out
of any closed surface (Gaussian surface) is equal to the total electric charge (qenc ) enclosed within the
surface divided by the permittivity of free space (ϵ0 ).
Mathematically: I
ΦE = E ⃗ = qenc
⃗ · dA
ϵ0

3
Deduction of Electric Field Intensity near an Infinitely Long Straight Wire:
Consider an infinitely long, thin, straight wire with a uniform linear charge density λ. We want to find the
electric field at a point P at a perpendicular distance r from the wire.

1. Choose a Gaussian Surface: Due to the cylindrical symmetry of the charge distribution, we choose
a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and length L, coaxial with the wire.
2. Electric Field Symmetry:
• The electric field lines will be radial, pointing outwards if λ is positive, and inwards if λ is negative.
• The magnitude of the electric field E ⃗ will be the same at all points on the curved surface of the
cylinder, and its direction will be perpendicular to the surface.
• The electric field lines will be parallel to the flat ends (circular caps) of the cylinder.
3. Calculate Electric Flux: The total electric flux through the Gaussian surface can be divided into
three parts: flux through the curved surface and flux through the two flat ends.
• Flux through the flat ends (Φ1 , Φ2 ): For the flat ends, the electric field E
⃗ is perpendicular to
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
the area vector dA (i.e., E · dA = 0). So, Φ1 = 0 and Φ2 = 0.
• Flux through the curved surface (Φ3 ): For the curved surface, E ⃗ is parallel to dA⃗ at every
point. I I
⃗ ⃗
Φ3 = E · dA = E dA = E(2πrL)

(since E is constant over the curved surface and its area is 2πrL).
The total electric flux ΦE = Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 = 0 + 0 + E(2πrL) = E(2πrL).
4. Calculate Enclosed Charge: The charge enclosed (qenc ) within the Gaussian cylinder of length L
is given by qenc = λL.
qenc
5. Apply Gauss’s Law: According to Gauss’s Law, ΦE = ϵ0

λL
E(2πrL) =
ϵ0
Solving for E:
λL
E=
2πrLϵ0
λ
E=
2πϵ0 r
The direction of the electric field is radially outward for a positively charged wire and radially inward
for a negatively charged wire.

Q 6- Prove that electrostatics potential at a point on the equatorial line of an

electric dipole is always zero.
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two charges, +q and −q, separated by a distance 2a. Let O be the
midpoint of the dipole.
Let P be a point on the equatorial line at a distance r from the center O.
√
• Potential due to charge +q at P (V+ ): The distance from +q to P is d+ = r2 + a2 .
1 q
V+ = √
4πϵ0 r2 + a2

4
 √
• Potential due to charge −q at P (V− ): The distance from −q to P is d− = r2 + a2 .
1 −q
V− = √
4πϵ0 r2 + a2

The total electrostatic potential (V ) at point P is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to individual
charges:
V = V+ + V−
1 q 1 −q
V = √ + √
4πϵ0 r + a
2 2 4πϵ0 r + a2
2
 
1 q q
V = √ −√
4πϵ0 r 2 + a2 r2 + a2
1
V = (0)
4πϵ0
V =0
Thus, the electrostatic potential at any point on the equatorial line of an electric dipole is always zero. This
is because every point on the equatorial line is equidistant from the positive and negative charges of the
dipole, and potential is a scalar quantity, so the potentials due to equal and opposite charges cancel each
other out.

Q 7- What is potential gradient. Established relation b/w potential gradient and

intensity of electric field.
• Potential Gradient: Potential gradient is the rate of change of electric potential with respect to
distance. It describes how rapidly the electric potential changes as one moves in a particular direction.
It is a vector quantity, and its direction is in the direction of the maximum decrease in potential.
Mathematically, for a small change in potential dV over a small displacement dl, the potential gradient
is − dV
dl . The negative sign indicates that the electric field points in the direction of decreasing potential.

⃗
Relation between Potential Gradient and Intensity of Electric Field (E):
The electric field intensity at a point is equal to the negative of the potential gradient at that point.
⃗ If a positive test charge q0 is moved a small displacement d⃗l in the electric
Consider an electric field E.
field, the work done by the electric field is dW = F⃗ · d⃗l = q0 E ⃗ · d⃗l.
The change in potential energy is dU = −dW = −q0 E ⃗ · d⃗l. Also, the change in potential is dV = dU . So,
q0

⃗ · d⃗l
−q0 E
dV =
q0

⃗ · d⃗l
dV = −E
⃗ = Ex î + Ey ĵ + Ez k̂ and d⃗l = dxî + dy ĵ + dz k̂, then:
In Cartesian coordinates, if E

dV = −(Ex dx + Ey dy + Ez dz)
∂V ∂V ∂V
We also know that dV = ∂x dx + ∂y dy + ∂z dz. Comparing these two expressions:

∂V
Ex = −
∂x
∂V
Ey = −
∂y

5
 ∂V
Ez = −
∂z
⃗ can be expressed as the negative gradient of the electric
Therefore, in general, the electric field vector E
potential V :  
⃗ = − ∂V î + ∂V ĵ + ∂V k̂
E
∂x ∂y ∂z
⃗ = −∇V
E
where ∇ is the gradient operator. This relation shows that the electric field points in the direction of the
steepest decrease in electric potential.

Q 8- If a charge q is placed on each corner A, B, C, D of a square of size a, find

the force acting on the charge placed at corner D.
Let the square be ABCD with side length ’a’. Let charges ’q’ be placed at corners A, B, C, and D. We need
to find the net force on the charge at D.
Let’s place the square in a coordinate system. A = (0, a) B = (a, a) C = (a, 0) D = (0, 0) (This choice
simplifies calculations for the force on D)
The charges influencing the charge at D are at A, B, and C.

1. Force on D due to charge at C (FDC ):

• Distance rDC = a
•
1 q·q 1 q2
FDC = =
4πϵ0 a2 4πϵ0 a2
• Direction: Along DC, i.e., in the positive x-direction (î)
2. Force on D due to charge at A (FDA ):
• Distance rDA = a
•
1 q·q 1 q2
FDA = =
4πϵ0 a2 4πϵ0 a2
• Direction: Along DA, i.e., in the positive y-direction (ĵ)
3. Force on D due to charge at B (FDB ):
√ √
• Distance rDB is the diagonal of the square. rDB = a2 + a2 = a 2
•
1 q·q 1 q2
FDB = √ =
4πϵ0 (a 2) 2 4πϵ0 2a2

• Direction: Along DB, which is along the diagonal from D to B (45 degrees with the positive
x-axis).
2
1 q
Let F0 = 4πϵ 0 a
2.

So, in vector form:

F⃗DC = F0 î
F⃗DA = F0 ĵ
F⃗DB = FDB cos(45◦ )î + FDB sin(45◦ )ĵ

6
  
F0 1 1 F0
F⃗DB = √ î + √ ĵ = √ (î + ĵ)
2 2 2 2 2
The net force on charge at D (F⃗net ) is the vector sum:

F⃗net = F⃗DC + F⃗DA + F⃗DB

F0
F⃗net = F0 î + F0 ĵ + √ (î + ĵ)
2 2
   
1 1
F⃗net = F0 1 + √ î + F0 1 + √ ĵ
2 2 2 2
√ !
⃗ 2
Fnet = F0 1 + (î + ĵ)
4
Substitute F0 : √ !
1 q2 2
F⃗net = 1+ (î + ĵ)
4πϵ0 a2 4
The magnitude of the net force is: q
|F⃗net | = Fx2 + Fy2

√ !#2 " √ !#2

v"
u
u 1 q2 2 1 q2 2
⃗
|Fnet | = t 1+ + 1+
4πϵ0 a2 4 4πϵ0 a2 4
√ !
1 q2 2 p 2
|F⃗net | = 2
1 + 1 + 12
4πϵ0 a 4
√ !
1 q 2
2 √
|F⃗net | = 1 + 2
4πϵ0 a2 4

1 q2 √
 
2
|F⃗net | = 2 +
4πϵ0 a2 4
2 √
 
1 q 1
|F⃗net | = 2 +
4πϵ0 a2 2
The direction of the net force is along the diagonal from D to B (45° with the x-axis).