के न्द्रीय विद्यालय संगठन

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

(जयपुर संभाग)
(JAIPUR REGION)

CLASS-XII
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
JAIPUR REGION

OUR PATRONS

SH.B.L.MORODIA

Deputy Commissioner

KVS, RO, Jaipur

SH.D.R.MEENA SH. MADHO SINGH SH. G S MEHTA

Assistant Commissioner Assistant Commissioner Assistant
KVS, RO, Jaipur KVS, RO, Jaipur Commissioner KVS,
RO, Jaipur
PREPARED BY ALL
Guided by
PGT PHYSICS OF
KVS, RO, JAIPUR
REGION.

SH.S.N.MEENA
Principal KV Beawar
 Unit I: Electrostatics
CHAPTER–1: Electric Charges and Fields
Electric charge: Electric charge is the result of excess or insufficiency of electrons (negatively charged
particles) as compared to protons (positively charged particles).
There are two types of electric charge:
Positive and negative (commonly carried by protons and electrons respectively).
Types of Charging with Examples
Charging means gaining or losing electron. Matters can be charged with three ways,
1.Charging by friction: When you rub one material to another, they are charged by friction. Material losing
electron is positively charged and material gaining electron is negatively charged
2. Charging by contact: If a charged body comes with the contact of an uncharged body, then the uncharged
body also becomes charged and there is a redistribution of charge on both the bodies.
Properties of Charges:
1. There exists only two types of charges, namely positive and negative.
2. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
3. Charge is a scalar quantity.
4. Charge is additive in nature Q =Q1+Q2+Q3… e.g. +2 C + 5 C – 3 C = +4 C
5. Charge is quantized: Electric charge exists in discrete packets rather than in continuous amount. It can
be expressed in integral multiples fundamental electronic charge (e = 1.6 x 10-19 C)
q = ± ne where n = 1, 2, 3, …………
6. Charge is conserved: The algebraic sum of positive and negative charges in an isolated system remains
constant.
7. It does not change with velocity also.
Coulomb’s Law (Force between two Coulomb’s Law (Force between two charges)
charges): in a dielectric medium:
The electrostatic force between two-point The ratio of permittivity of a medium to the
charges in vacuum is permittivity of free space is known as dielectric
𝑞1 𝑞2 constant or relative permittivity of the medium
𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑟 and is denoted by K or ɛr
1
where 𝑘 = 4𝜋ɛ . Here, ε0 is the epsilon naught 𝐹 ε
= =K, Hence
0 𝐹𝑚 ε0
and it signifies permittivity of a vacuum. 𝐹
The value of K comes 9 × 109 Nm2/ C2 when we 𝐹𝑚 =
𝐾
take the S.I unit of value of ε0 is The force becomes 1/K times in a dielectric
8.854 × 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2. medium.

Force between multiple charges:

According to principle of superposition, the total force on any
charge due to a number of charges at rest is the vector sum of all
the forces on that charge due to other charges taken one at a time.
 Electric field strength Or intensity of electric field E:
Electric field strength at a point is the amount of force experienced by a unit positive test charge placed at
that particular point.
⃗
⃗ =𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒒→𝟎 𝑭
⃗𝑬
𝒒

Lim q=o signify that the electric field of test charge should not modify the given electric field.
⃗ is a vector quantity and its unit is newton/coulomb or N/C.
Electric field 𝑬
Electric field strength for a point charge at r distance:
We will place a test charge q at r distance and calculate
electrostatic force on q which is
𝐾𝑄𝑞
𝐹 = 2 𝑟̂
𝑟
And we know
⃗
⃗𝑬 =𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒒→𝟎 𝑭
𝒒
Using the value of force in above equation ,Electric field in
vector form
⃗ =𝐾𝑄2 𝑟̂
𝑬 𝑟
And its magnitude
𝐾𝑄
E= 𝑟 2

Electric field for a system of charges:

For a system of charges principle of superposition is used.
We will calculate electric field for each charge at a given point and then vector addition rules will be used.
For a system of n charges

𝐸⃗ =𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸2 +𝐸⃗⃗⃗⃗3 +𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗4 ………+𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
Electric field lines: Electric field lines are the imaginary lines of force along which a positive test charge tends
to move when free to do so.
It shows the direction of an electric field when we draw a tangent at its point.
Properties of Electric Field Lines:
1. Electric field lines start from a positive charge and end at a negative charge, in case of a single charge,
electric field lines end at infinity.

2. In a charge-free region, electric field lines are continuous and smooth.

3. Two electric field lines never intersect or cross each other, as if they do, there will be two vectors depicting
two directions of the same electric field, which is not possible.

4. These lines never form a closed loop. This is because an electric field is conservative in nature and hence
the lines don’t form a closed loop.

5. Electric lines of force are perpendicular to the surface of a positively or negatively charged body.

6. Electric lines of force do not pass through a conductor. Hence, the interior of the conductor is free from
the influence of the electric field.
Electric field lines for various cases:
 (a) For a point charge (b) For two equal positive charges
q1q2 > 0

(C) For two equal negative charges : (d) For an electric dipole (two equal and opposite
q 1q 2 > 0 charges): q1q2 < 0

Electric dipole: Electric dipole is a system of two equal and opposite charges separated by some distance.

Electric dipole moment: Electric dipole moment of an electric dipole is the product of one of two
charges and separation between them. It is a vector quantity and its direction along negative charge to
positive charge.
It is denoted by 𝑝 and its unit is Coulomb-metre.(C-m)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝 = q (2𝑎)
Electric field due to an electric dipole
(a) At its axial point:
Consider a system of charges (-q and +q) separated by a distance 2a. Let ‘P’ be any point on an axis where
the field intensity is to be determined.
Electric field at P (EB) due to +q
Electric field at p due to +q charge is
1 𝑞
𝐸𝐵 = 4𝜋ɛ (𝑟−𝑎)2
0
Electric field at p due to -q charge is
1 𝑞
𝐸𝐴 = 4𝜋ɛ (𝑟+𝑎)2
0
Net field at p isEp=𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴
𝑞 1 1
𝐸𝑝 = [ 2
− ]
4𝜋ɛ0 (𝑟 − 𝑎) (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟 2𝑘𝑝𝑟 2𝑘𝑝
𝐸𝑝 = 4𝜋ɛ (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2 , 𝐸𝑝 = (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2 if 2a<<r, the𝑛𝐸𝑝 = 𝑟 3
0
(b) For points on the equatorial plane:
An equatorial plane of a dipole is the plane perpendicular to the axial line and passing through a point mid-
way between the charges.
 Electric field at p due to +q charge is
1 𝑞
𝐸𝐵 =
4𝜋ɛ0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
Electric field at p due to -q charge is
1 𝑞
𝐸𝐴 =
4𝜋ɛ0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
Net field at p is
E = 2EAcosθ
2 𝑞 𝑎
𝐸=
4𝜋ɛ0 (𝑟 + 𝑎 ) (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )12
2 2

Simplifying
𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑝
𝐸= 3 if 2a<<r 𝐸=
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )2 𝑟3

Electricity intensity at an axial point is twice the electric intensity on the equatorial line.
Torque on an electric dipole uniform electric field:
If a dipole is kept in an external electric field, it experiences a
rotating effect. The rotating effect is also called torque on the
dipole.Net force on the dipole
= qE - qE=0,Net force is zero so there is no translatory motion.
Magnitude of torque = q E × 2a sin θ, τ= 2 q a E sin θ
τ= p E sin θ (Since p = 2 q a)
The vector form of torque is the cross product of dipole moment
and electric field.

Special case

(a) Maximum torque

For θ=900
τ= p E sin900
τmax= p E
(b) Minimum torque
For θ=00 and 1800
τmin=0
But θ=00 is stable equilibrium and θ=1800 is
unstable equilibrium.
Electric flux:
The total number of electric field lines passing through a given area normally is called electric flux.
Electric flux is denoted by ϕE it is a scaler quantity.
Its unit is newton(metre)2 /coulomb or Nm2/c or volt-metre V-m
Electric flux is the scalar product of electric field vector and area vector.
ϕE = 𝐸⃗ .𝐴

Gauss theorem:
1
The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to ε times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
0
∑𝑞
ϕE = ε0
∑𝑞
ϕE= ∫ 𝐸⃗ .d𝑠 = ε0
Applications of Gauss theorem:
(1) Electric field due to infinitely long, thin and uniformly charged straight wire:
If is the line charge density is λ, then charge inside the Gaussian surface of the wire is =λl

(2)Electric field for infinite charged plane sheet:

Electric field for uniformly charged spherical shell:

If Surface charge density is σ then, charge on the spherical shell

q =(4𝜋𝑅 2 ) σ
Using this value in electric field formula
1 (4𝜋𝑅 2 ) σ σ𝑅 2
E= 4𝜋ℰ , E= ℰ
0 𝑟2 0𝑟
2

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The ratio of the forces between two small spheres with constant charge in air and in a medium of
dielectric constant K is
(a) 1: K (b) K : 1 (c) 1: K2 (d) K2: 1
2. Two charges of equal magnitudes and at a distance r exert a force F on each other. If the charges are
doubled and distance between them is halved, then the new force acting on each charge is
(a) F / 8 (b) F / 4 (c) 16 F (d) F / 16
3. An electron and a proton are separated by a distance of 1Å. The coulomb force between them is
8
(a) 2.3  10 8 N (b) 4.6  10 8 N (c) 1.5  10 N (d) None of these

4. If E1 be the electric field strength of a short dipole at a point on its axial line and E2 that on the
equatorial line at the same distance, then
(a) E2=2E1 (b) E1=2E2 (c) E1 = E2 (d) None of the above

5. The angle between electric dipole P and uniform electric field E the value of torque will be
maximum if angle between them
(a) 900 (b) 00 (c) 1800 (d) 450
 6. Electric field at a point independent on distance r for
(a) An electric dipole (b) A point charge
(c) A plane infinite sheet of charge (d) A line charge of infinite length
7. A point charge  q is placed at the centre of a sphere of radius R. The electric flux emerging from the
sphere is
q 6𝑞𝑅 2 𝑞
(a) (b) Zero (c) (d)
0 𝜀0 6𝑅 2 𝜀0

8. A charge q is placed at the corner of a cube. The electric flux passing through the cube is
q q q 𝑞
(a) (b) (c) (d)
0 2 0 40 8𝜀0

9. 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 and q 4 are point charges located at points as shown in the figure and S is a spherical
Gaussian surface of radius R. Which of the following is true according to the Gauss’s law

q1 R

q2 q3

𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞 (𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞 )
(a) ∮𝑠(𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2 + 𝐸⃗3 ). 𝑑𝑠 = 1 2𝜀2 3 (b)∮𝑠(𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2 + 𝐸⃗3 ). 𝑑𝑠 = 1 𝜀 2 3
0 0
(𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞 )
(c) ∮𝑠(𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2 + 𝐸⃗3 ). 𝑑𝑠 = 1 2𝜀 3 4 (d)None of the above
0
10. Electric field strength E due to a short electric dipole, depends on distance r as
1 1 1 1
(a) 𝐸 ∝ 𝑟 4 (b) 𝐸 ∝ 𝑟 3 (c) 𝐸 ∝ 𝑟 2 (d) 𝐸∝𝑟
11. Which of the following statement is true?
(a) Electrostatic force is a conservative force.
(b) Potential at a point is the work done per unit charge in bringing a charge from any point to
infinity.
(c) Electrostatic force is non-conservative
(d) Potential is the product of charge and work.
12.The SI unit of electric flux is
(a) N C-1 m-2 (b) N C m-2
(c) N C-2 m2 (d) N C-1 m2

13. A force F acts between two charges +Q and -Q that is placed at a certain distance from each other.
The third sphere of charge Q is placed between them. What is the magnitude and force experienced by
the third charge?
(a) 3F in the direction of +Q charge (b)4F in the direction of +Q charge

(c)8F in the direction of -Q charge (d)No direction and magnitude is zero

14 .At a distance r, two equal charges are kept and they exert a force F on each other. What is the force
acting on each charge, if the distance between them is doubled and charges are halved?

(a) F/4 (b) 4 F (c)F/16 (d)F/8

15. The variation of electric field E due to a hollow spherical conductor of radius R as a function of
distance from the centre of the sphere is shown in which of the following graphs?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

16.Gauss’s Law is valid when,

(a) the speed of light isn’t a universal constant

(b) the inverse square law is false
(c) magnetic monopoles are present
(d) None of the above
17. What is the SI unit of permittivity of free space?

(a) Weber (b) Farad (c) C2N-1m-2 (d) C2N-1m2

18. Pick the true statements about electric field lines

(a) It provides information about the direction of the electric field

(b) Electric field lines provide information about the type of charge
(c) Electric field lines provide information about the field strength
(d) All of the above
19. An electron is separated from a proton through a distance of 0.53 Aº Calculate electric field at the
location of electron.
(a) 1.6x1011 NC-1 (b) 1.4x1011 NC-1 (c) 5.1x1011 NC-1 (d) 5.1x10-11 NC-1
20. Which statement among the following is false regarding Gauss’s law?
(a) Gauss’s law holds for any closed surface.
(b) When a system exhibits symmetry, Gauss’s law may not be beneficial for calculating the electrostatic field.
(c) In Gauss’s law, the term “q” on the right side of the equation represents the total charge enclosed within the
surface.
(d) Gauss’s law is derived from Coulomb’s law, which contains an inverse square dependence on
distance.
21. Assume a system inside which there are different types of charges, but the total charge is practically
zero. At points outside the given region
(a) the electric field must be zero.
(b) the electric field is caused solely by the dipole moment of the charge distribution.
(c) For large distances (r) from the origin, the dominant electric field is inversely proportional to r3.
(d) if a charged particle is moved along a closed path away from a region, the work done will not be
zero.
22. The quantisation of charge implies that
(a) it is not possible for a charge to be a fraction of the charge on an electron.
(b) charges cannot be destroyed
(c) charge exists on particles, and there is a minimum allowable charge for a particle.
(d) none of above
23. Two charges, one +5 µC and other -5 µC are placed 1 mm apart. What is the dipole moment.
(a)-5x10-9 Cm (b) 25x10-9 Cm (c) 5x10-9 Cm (d) 5x10-10 Cm
24. If two conducting spheres are charged separately and then connected, the following may occur:
(a) The electrostatic energy of the spheres will be conserved.
(b) the total charge on the spheres is conserved
(c) Both the electrostatic energy and charge will be conserved.
(d) None of the above.
25. An electric dipole when held at 30° with respect to a uniform electric field of 104N/C experience a
torque of 9x10-26Nm what is the dipole moment of the dipole.
(a) 1.8x10-29 Cm (b) 4.5x10-29 Cm (c) 1.8x10-19 Cm (d) 4.5x10-19 Cm
26. An electric dipole of dipole moment 4 × 10 − 5 Cm is placed in a uniform electric field of 10 − 3 N / C
making an angle of 300 with the direction of the field. the torque exerted by the electric field on the
dipole.
(a) 4x10-8 Nm (b) 4x108 Nm (c ) 2x10-8 Nm (a) 8x10-8 Nm
28. The quantisation of charge indicates that

(a) Charge, which is a fraction of charge on an electron, is not possible

(b) A charge cannot be destroyed
(c) Charge exists on particles
(d) There exists a minimum permissible charge on a particle
29. The property which differentiates two kinds of charges is called.

(a) Equality of charge (b) Polarity of charge

(c) Fraction of charge (d) None of the option

30. Two point charges +q and +4q are separated by a distance of 6a. find the point on the line joining
the two charges where the electric field is zero
(a) 2a from charge q (b) 2a from charge 4q (c) a from charge q (d) a from charge 4q
Answers of MCQ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B c a b a c a d b B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
a d c c b d c d c c
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
c a c c a c d a b a
 Assertion & Reasoning based Questions:
Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the
correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false and R is also false.
1. Assertion: The charge on any body can be increased or decreased in terms of e.
Reason: Quantization of charge means that the charge on a body is the integral multiple of e.
2. Assertion : A Charge, which is less than charge of one electron is not possible
Reason : Charge is quantized.
3. Assertion: The properties that the force with which two charges attract or repel each other are
not affected by the presence of a third charge.
Reason: Force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all the forces on
that charge due to other charges, taken one at a time.
4. Assertion(A) : A metallic shield in the form of a hollow shell, can be built to block an electric
field.
Reason(R): In a hollow spherical metallic shell, electric field inside is zero at every point.
5. Assertion: Coulomb force is the dominating force in the universe.
Reason: Coulomb force is weaker than the gravitational force.
6. Assertion (A): The range of gravitational force and coulomb force is infinity.
Reason(R): The Coulomb force is stronger than the gravitational force.
7. Assertion (A): If an dipole is enclosed by a surface, then according to the gauss theorem, electric
flux linked with it is zero.
Reason (R): The net charge on an electric dipole can never be zero.
8. Assertion (A): Positive electric flux indicates that electric lines of force are directed outwards
Reason (R): Positive electric flux is due to a positive charge.
9. Assertion (A): Electric field inside a metallic charged conductor is always zero whatever of
amount of charge.
Reason (R): Electric field lines are always perpendicular to surface of the metal.
10. Assertion (A): Charge on a body is 2.3x10-19C is not possible.
Reason (R): Electric charge on a body is quantized and integral multiple of charge of an electron.
11. Assertion: The positive charge particle is placed in front of a spherical uncharged
conductor. The number of lines of forces terminating on the sphere will be more than those emerging
from it.
Reason: The surface charge density at a point on the sphere nearest to the point charge will be
negative and maximum in magnitude compared to other points on the sphere.

Answer key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
a b b a d c c b
9 10 11
b a d
 CHAPTER-2 Electrostatic potential and Capacitance
Electric Potential
Electric potential at a point in an electric field is equal to the work done in bringing a unit positive charge
(against electric field) from infinity to that point along any path.
𝑊 𝑞
𝑉 = 𝑞 = 4𝜋∈ 𝑟
0 0

Unit- Volt (JC-1).Scalar quantity.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A SINGLE POINT CHARGE
Consider a point charge +q placed at point O in free space/air as shown in Fig. It is desired to find electric
potential at P due to charge +q. Let r be the distance of point P from O i.e,. OP = r.

At point A at a distance x from charge +q, electric field intensity is

Small amount of work done/C in moving positive test charge from A to B (where AB = dx) is
dW = – E dx
The negative sign is taken because dx is measured along the negative direction of x.
Total amount of work done/C in bringing a small positive test charge from infinity to r is

𝑞
Therefore, 𝑉 = 4𝜋∈
0𝑟

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE,

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
Any surface over which the potential is constant is called an equipotential surface.
Few equipotential surfaces
Equipotential surface due to a uniform field

Equipotential surface due to point charge

Equipotential surface due to a dipole

Equipotential surface due to equal charges

Properties of equipotential surfaces.

(i) Work done in moving a charge over an equipotential surface is zero.
The work done in moving a test charge +q0 from A to B is given by;
WAB = (VB – VA) q0
Since VB– VA = 0, WAB = 0
Hence, no work is done in taking a charge from one point to another over an equipotential surface.
(ii) The electric field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface. we have,
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = −𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
But
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 0
Therefore,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
−𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑟
It implies that, E perpendicular to r.

(iii) Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect. If two equipotential surfaces could intersect, then
at the point of intersection there would be two values of electric potential which is not possible.
(iv) The spacing between equipotential surfaces enables us to identify regions of strong
and weak fields.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

The electric potential energy of a system of point charges is the work needed to bring the charges from an
infinite separation to their final positions
 ENERGY OF TWO-CHARGE SYSTEM
(i) First assume that the two charges +q1 and +q2 are infinite apart at rest. If we bring charge +q1 from infinity
to its original position A, no work is done because no electrostatic force acts on it due to any other charge.
(ii) When we bring charge +q2 from infinity (where V = 0) to its original position B, work will have to be done
due to the repulsive force of +q1. This work done is equal to potential difference between B and ∞ multiplied
by charge +q2, i.e.

By definition, this is the electric potential energy (U) of the two-charge system.

Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field

Important electrostatic properties of a conductor

1. Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero.
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every point
because surface of the conductor is an equipotential surface.
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation because E=0 and therefore
Q=0(from Gauss theorem)
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the
volume of the conductor and has the same value (as
inside) on its surface because work done is zero from
surface to inside as at surface E is perpendicular and
inside E=0.
𝝈
5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor 𝑬 = 𝝐
𝟎

ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING: The phenomenon of protecting a

certain region of space from external electric field is called
electrostatic shielding.
Since, Electric field inside a conductor is zero therefore if we want to protect delicate instruments from external
electric field, we enclose them in hollow conductors.

Dielectric Strength:The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand without its electrical
break-down. e.g. for air it is about 3 × 106 Vm–1.
Capacitor
It consists of two metallic conductors electrically insulated from each other as well as their surroundings.
It is used to store electrical energy in the form of electric field lines. The total charge of the capacitor is zero.
Principle of Capacitor: The charge storing capacity of a conductor can be increased considerably by bringing
an uncharged earthed conductor near it.
Capacitance(C):The ratio of charge of capacitor to the potential difference across its ends.
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
SI unit of capacitance is 1 farad (=1 coulomb volt-1) or 1 F = 1 C V–1.
It does not depend on charge and potential. It depends only on the dimension of the capacitor.
Graph between Q and V is a straight line.
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR :It consists of two flat, parallel metal plates separated by a small distance as
shown in Fig. The space between the plates may have vacuum or some other insulating material such as mica,
glass or paper.
CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
Consider a parallel plate capacitor having air/vacuum in the
space between the plates.
Let A = area of each plate, d = distance between the plates
V = p.d. across the plates, q = charge on each plate
𝜎 = surface charge density on either plate = q/A
The electric field between the plates is uniform and its magnitude is given by

CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A DIELECTRIC SLAB

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having dielectric in the space between the plates.
Let A = area of each plate
d = distance between the plates
V = p.d. across the plates
q = charge on each plate
𝜎 = surface charge density on either plate = q/A
In the absence of dielectric, field between the plates
𝜎 𝑞
𝐸0 = =
𝜖0 𝐴𝜖0
The electric field due to the charged plates induces a net dipole moment in the dielectric. This effect,
called polarization ,gives rise to a field in the opposite direction.
The net electric field inside the dielectric is thus reduced and given by
𝐸0 𝑞
𝐸′ = =
𝐾 𝐾𝐴𝜖0
𝑞
Also, 𝑉 ′ = 𝐸′ 𝑑 =
𝐾𝐴𝜖0

𝑞 𝐾𝜖0 𝐴
=
𝑉′ 𝑑
 𝐾𝜖0 𝐴
But q/v’ is the capacitance, therefore, 𝐶′ = 𝐶 ′ = 𝐾𝐶0
𝑑

RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY or DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Effect of introducing a dielectric of constant K between the plates of parallel plate capacitor

Physical Quantity When the capacitor connected When the capacitor disconnected
Capacitance K times K times
Charge K times Constant
Potential Difference constant 1⁄ times
𝐾
Electric Field 1⁄ times 1⁄ times
𝐾 𝐾
Potential Energy K times 1⁄ times
𝐾

Energy stored in a Capacitor

During charging a capacitor, transfer of electrons take place from one plate of the capacitor to the other . This
work done by the battery in moving the electron is stored in the form of electric potential energy in the electric
𝑸𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
field between the plates. 𝑼 = 𝟐𝑪 = 𝟐 𝑪𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐 𝑸𝑽
ENERGY DENSITY
Consider a charged parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and plate
separation d as shown in Fig.

When two capacitors are connected then

𝐶 𝑉 𝐶 𝑉
(i) Common Potential, 𝑉𝐶 = 1𝐶 1++𝐶2 2
1 2
(ii) New charge on each capacitor, 𝑞1 = 𝐶1 𝑉𝐶 , 𝑞2 = 𝐶2 𝑉𝐶
1 𝐶 𝐶
(iii) Energy loss, ∆𝐸 = 2 𝐶 1+𝐶2 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
1 2
(iv) This energy is lost in the form of heat and electromagnetic radiation.
(v) For uncharged capacitor take V=0
 Multiple choice questions
Q.1 Consider a uniform electric field in the z-direction. The potential is a constant
(a) for any x for a given z (b) for any y for a given z
(c) on the x-y plane for a given z (d) all of these
Q.2 In a parallel plate capacitor, the capacity increases if
(a) area of the plate is decreased. (b) distance between the plates increases.
(c) area of the plate is increased. (d) dielectric constant decreases
Q.3 When two identical charges approaches each other then electric potential energy of the system
(a) Increases (b) decreases ( c) may increase or decrease (d) remains constant
Q 4. Two charges + 3 µC and – 3 µC are placed at points A(0,0,4cm) and B( 0,0,-4cm.) respectively. Work
done to move a charge of 2 µC from point P (0,1cm,0) to point Q ( 2cm,0,0) will be
(a) 2 mJ (b) Zero (c) 1 mJ (d) 4 mJ
Q.5 Three capacitors each of capacitance 3 µF are first connected in series and then in parallel. Ratio of
effective capacitance in series Cs and in parallel CP is
(a) 9 ( b) 1/9 (c) 2/9 (d) 9/2
Q.6 Two capacitors 3 µF and 6 µF are connected in series and connected to 100 V d.c. source. What is the ratio
of energies stored in them
(a) 1:2 ( b) 1:3 (c) 2:1 (d) 3:1
Q. 7 SI unit of line integral of electric field is
(a) J (b) N /C (c) N c -1 m2 (d) J / C
Q. 8 Two parallel plate air capacitors A and B have plate separation in ratio 1:3 and plate area in ratio 2:3.
Ratio of their capacitances
(a) 1:2 ( b) 1:3 (c) 2:1 (d) 3:1
Q. 9 To protect a given region from the effect of electric fields and charges
(a) it should be enclosed in a non magnetic material (b) it should be enclosed in a metallic conductor
(c) it should be enclosed in a magnetic material (d) it should be enclosed in an insulating material
Q.10 Four capacitor each of capacitance 16μF are are given. Equivalent capacitance will be 4μF when
(a) all are connected in parallel (b) three are connected in parallel and one in series with them
(c) all are connected in series (d) three are connected in series and one in parallel with them
Q11. Which of the following options is correct? In a region of constant potential
(a) the electric field is uniform. (b) The electric field is zero.
(c) There can be charge inside the region. (d) The electric field shall necessarily change if a charge is placed
outside the region.
Q.12 The potential at a point due to an electric dipole will be maximum and minimum when the angles
between the axis of the dipole and the line joining the point to the dipole are respectively
(a) 900 and1800 (b)00 and 900 (c)900 and00 (d)00 and 180o
Q.13 A parallel plate capacitor with dielectric slab (K= 2) in between the plates has a capacitance ‘C’. Without
the slab capacitance of the capacitor is
(a) C/ √2 (b)2C (c)C/2 (d) √2C
Q.14 Dielectric constant for metal is
(a)Zero (b) Infinite (c) 1 (d)Greater than 1
Q. 15 Two charged spheres of radii R1 and R2 are connected by a thin wire. No current will flow, if they have
(a) The same charge on each (b)the same charge densities
(c) The same potential energy (d)The same potential
Q.16 The kinetic energy will be gained by an alpha particle in going from a point at 20𝑉 to another point at
10𝑉
(a) 20𝑒𝑉 (b) 20𝑘𝑒𝑉 (c) 20𝑀𝑒𝑉 (d) 20𝐽
Q.17 The electric potential V is given as a function of distance x (metre) by 𝑉 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 9)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡. Value of
electric field at x = 1 is
6𝑉
(a) 4 𝑉/𝑚 (b) 𝑚 (c) 2𝑉/𝑚 (d) 0
Q.18 The capacity of a parallel plate condenser is C.Its capacitance when the separation between the plates is
halved and dielectric slab of dielectric constant K=5 in inserted between the plates, will be
(a) 10𝐶 (b) 2𝐶 (c) C/10 (d) C/2
Q.19 A 2𝜇𝐹capacitor is charged to 100𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 and then its plates are connected by a conducting wire resistance
2ohm. The heat produced is
(a) 1 𝐽 (b) 0.1 𝐽 (c) 0.01 𝐽 (d) 0.001 𝐽
20. Three equal charges are located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. At the centre of the triangle
(a) The field is zero but potential is non-zero (b) The field is non-zero but potential is zero
(c) Both field and potential are zero (d) Both field and potential are non-zero
Q.21 Shape of equipotential surface in uniform electric field will be :
(A) Spherical normal to electric field (B) Random
(C) circular normal to electric field (D) Equidistant Planes normal to electric field.
Q.22 Two conducting spheres A and B of radii a & b respectively are at the same potential. The ratio of surface
charge densities of A and B is
(a) b/a (b) a/b (c) b2/a2 (d) a2/ b2
Q.23 A charge Q is given to a metallic conductor. Which is true?
(a) Electric field inside it is same as on the surface. (b) Electric potential inside is zero.
(c) Electric potential on the surface is zero (d) Electric potential inside it is constant.
Q.24 A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery. Once it is charged battery is removed. Now a dielectric
material is inserted between the plates of the capacitor, which of the following does not change?
(a) electric field between the plates (b) potential difference across the plates
(c) charge on the plates (d) energy stored in the capacitor.
Q.25 Electric field and electric potential inside a charged spherical shell :
(A) E = 0; V = 0 (B) E = 0 ; V ≠ 0 (C) E ≠ 0 ; V = 0 (D) E ≠ 0 ; V ≠ 0
Q.26 A hollow metal sphere of radius 5 cm is charged so that the potential on its surface is 10 V. The potential
at the centre of the sphere is
(a) 0 V (b) Same as at point 5 cm away from the surface
(c)10 V (d) Same as at point 25 cm away from the surface
Q. 27 Two insulated charged spheres of radii 20 cm and 25 cm respectively and having an equal charge q are
connected by a copper wire and then they are separated.
(a) Both spheres will have the same charge q.
(b) Charge on sphere of radius 20 cm will be more than that of radius 25 cm.
(c) Charge on sphere of radius 20 cm will be lesser than that of 25 cm.
(d) Charge on each will be 2q.
Q. 28 A parallel plate air capacitor is given a charge of 3 µC. A sheet of dielectric constant 3 is inserted so that it
completely fills the gap between the plates. The induced charge on each face of the sheet is numericaly:
(a) 2 µC (b) 3 µC (c) 0 (d) 9 µC
Q. 29 A capacitor is charged by a battery. The battery is removed and another identical uncharged capacitor is
connected in parallel. The total electrostatic energy of resulting system
(a)increases by a factor of 4. (b) decreases by a factor of 2.
(c) remains the same. (d) increases by a factor of 2.
Q. 30 Two metal plates form a parallel plate capacitor. The distance between the plates is d. A metal sheet of
thickness d/2 and of the same area is introduced between the plates.
What is the ratio of the capacitance in the two cases?
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 3 : 1 (c) 1 : 2 (d) 5 : 1
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D c a b b c d c b c
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B d c b d a a a c a
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D a d c b b c a b c

Assertion-Reason type question

Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as
given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false and R is also false.
1. Assertion (A) -The work done by an electrostatic field in moving a charge from one point to another depends
only on the initial and the final points.
Reason (R)- Electrostatic force is a conservative fore.
2. Assertion (A)- For a uniform electric field E along the x -axis, the equipotential surfaces are planes parallel to
the y-z plane.
Reason (R)- Electric field lines are always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
3. Assertion (A)- A polar molecule is one in which the centres of positive and negative charges are separated.
Reason (R)- A polar molecules have a permanent electric dipole moment.
4Assertion (A)- When capacitors are connected in series net capacitance decreases.
Reason (R)- In series combination, charges on the two plates are the same on each capacitor.
5.Assertion (A)- When a charged capacitor is filled completely with a metallic slab, its capacitance decreases.
Reason (R) -The dielectric constant for metal is zero.
6.Assertion(A)- A charged capacitor is disconnected from a battery. Now, if its plates are separated further, the
charge on each plate will remains same.
Reason (R)- Energy stored in a capacitor is not equal to the work done when charging it.
7.Assertion(A)-Conductors having equal positive charge and volume must also have different potential.
Reason(R)- Potential depends on charge, volume and shape of the conductor.
8.Assertion(A)-Electric potential inside a hollow conductor is constant.
Reason(R)– Electric field inside a hollow conductor is constant.
9.Assertion(A)–Work done to move a charge on an equipotential surface is always zero.
Reason(R)– Electric field is zero at each point on an equipotential surface.
10. Assertion(A)– During charging a capacitor Energy stored on the capacitor increases.
Reason(R)– During charging a capacitor potential difference of the plates of a capacitor increases.
11.Assertion(A)– If the distance between parallel plates of a Capacitor is halved and a slab of dielectric constant 5
is introduced in between the plates then the capacitance becomes 10 times
REASON – Capacitance of a capacitor does not depend on the nature of the material of the plates.
12.Assertion(A)– A parallel plate capacitor is connected across a battery through a key ( key is closed) . A
dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is introduced between the plates. The Energy which is stored becomes K
times.
Reason(R)– The surface density of charge on the plates also becomes K times.
13.Assertion(A): A metal plate is introduced between the plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor, its capacitance
increased.
Reason(R): A metal plate is introduced between the plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor, the effective
separation between the plates is decreased.
14.Assertion (A): Sensitive instruments can protect from outside electrical influence by enclosing them in a
hollow conductor.
Reason(R): Potential inside the cavity is zero.
15. Assertion(A): Work done by the electrostatic force in bringing the unit positive Charge form infinity to the
point P is positive.
Reason(R): The force on a unit positive test charge is attractive, so that the electrostatic force and the
displacement (from infinity to P) are in the same direction.
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

a a b b d c a c c b b a a c a
 CHAPTER 03. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric current :- The time rate of flow of charge through Current Density: - Current per unit area is
any cross-section of a conductor is called current. defined as current density J , it is a vector
quantity.
ΔQ dQ
i  Lim  Direction of J is along drift velocity i.e.
Δt 0 Δt dt
perpendicular to the cross section area. Its unit
If flow of charge is uniform then i
Q
. is A /m2.
t
𝐼 neAvd ne2 τ
J=𝐴= = nevd Hence J = E
Current is a scalar quantity. It's S.I. unit is ampere (A) 𝐴 𝑚

Drift Velocity :- The average velocity of free electrons with which they get
drifted towards the +ve terminal under the influence of an external electric
field is called drift velocity.
Average time taken between two successive collisions is called relaxation time
().
𝑡1 + t2 + t3 + t4 + - - - - - - - t𝑛
𝜏=
𝑛
The drift velocityVd = Uav + a = 0 + a
acceleration a = F/m = eE/m
𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑒𝑉𝜏
Therefore𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚𝑙 Since V = E × l
e𝐸⃗ τ
In vector form ⃗d = -
𝑉 𝑚

Current in terms of drift velocity: - Consider a conductor of length ‘l’& area Mobility:- Mobility is defined
of cross section ‘A’ connected by a battery having electron density ‘n’ and drift as the magnitude of the drift
velocity vd = e V/ml velocity per unit electric field:
𝑣 𝑒𝜏
Distance travelled by electron in t sec is d = vd t µ = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑚
Volume occupied by the electrons which are entering into the given cross The SI unit of mobility is
section in t time is m2/Vs
V = A d = A (vd t )
Total no of electron occupied in t sec is N = n V = n A vd t
Total charge passing through the cross section in t sec is
q = N e = ( n A vd t) e
Electric current I = q / t = n A vd t e / t I = ne A vd .
Ohm’s Law:-It state that-“If there is no change in physical conditions such as-
temperature, length, density, area of cross section etc then, the current flowing
in a metallic conductor is proportional to the potential difference applied
across it”.
If I current is flowing through the circuit & potential difference developed is V.
Then from Ohm’s law I  V Hence V  I V = R I
This is mathematical form of Ohm’s law. If we plot a graph between voltage
and current we obtain a straight line for ohmic conductors.
Where R = V / I is a proportionality constant known as resistance of the
conductor.
Its value depends on length, area of cross section, temperature & nature of the
substance. A conductor having resistance is called resistor.
The resistance R of a conductor is the property due to which it opposes the
flow of current through it. The SI unit of resistance is ohm.
If the metallic conductor obeys the Ohm's law, we call it an Ohmic conductor e.g. metals
Many devices do not obey Ohm's law i.e. diode, transistor, thermistor, discharge tube, filament in a light. Those
substance for which graph between voltage and current is not a straight line are called Non-ohmic substance

Resistance – It is the opposition offered by a conductor to flow of charges through it. It depends on the length I, area of
cross-section A, nature of material of the conductor and temperature.
l
R 
𝑚 𝑙
 𝑛𝑒 2𝜏 𝐴
A
SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). The resistance of a conductor is 1 ohm if a current of I ampere flows through it on
applying a potential difference of I volt across its ends.
Resistivity or specific resistance - It is the resistance offered by a unit cube of the material of a conductor. It depends
on the nature of the material of the conductor and the temperature. Its unit is ohm-meter.
𝑚 1
𝜌= 2 and 𝜌 =
𝑛𝑒 𝜏 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑒

Conductance -It is the reciprocal of resistance. SI unit - mho or siemen.

𝑛𝑒 2
Conductivity - It is the reciprocal of resistivity. SI unit – mho/ m. 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇 = 𝑚
𝜏

Temperature dependence of resistance : Resistance of a conductor increase with temperature

If R0 = resistance of conductor at 0oC , Rt = resistance of conductor at toC
and ,  = temperature co-efficient of resistance
then 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2 ) for t> 300oC and
𝑅𝑡 −𝑅0
Rt = R0 (1 + α t ) for t 300oC or 𝛼 = 𝑅0 ×𝑡
𝑅 1+𝛼𝑡
If R1 and R2 are the resistances at t1oC and t2oC respectively then 𝑅1 = 1+𝛼𝑡1 .
2 2

The value of  is different at different temperature. Temperature coefficient of resistance averaged over the
𝑅 −𝑅
temperature range t1oC to t2oC is given by𝛼 = 𝑅 (𝑡2 −𝑡1 )
1 2 1

which gives R2 = R1 [1 +  (t2 – t1)]. This formula gives an approximate value.

Effect of temperature on resistivity - For metals α is positive i.e., resistivity of metals increases with the
increase in temperature because with the increase in temperature, kinetic energy of vibrating ions increases
and number of collisions increases.
For semiconductors and insulators, α is negative i.e., their resistivity decreases with the increase in
temperature because the number of charge carriers increases by very large amount.
For alloys like constantan and manganin, α is very small. So they are used for making standard resistors.
Heating effect of current - The phenomenon of the production of heat in a resistor by the flow of an electric
current through it is called heating effect of current or Joule heating.
𝑽𝟐
𝑯 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 = 𝒕
𝑹
ELECTRIC POWER- It is the rate at which an electric appliance converts electric energy into other forms of
energy. Or,
it is the rate at which work is done by a source of emf in maintaining an electric current through a circuit.
𝑽𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
𝑹
Electric energy - It is the total work done in maintaining an electric current in an electric circuit for a given
time.
𝑉2
W =VIt = I2 Rt = t joule
𝑅
Electromotive force (emf) - It is the energy supplied by the source in taking a unit positive charge once
round the complete circuit. It is equal to potential difference across the terminal of a cell when no current
passes through the cell or cell is in open circuit.
Terminal potential difference (V) - The potential drop across the terminals of a cell when current passes
through the cell is known as its terminal potential difference.
Terminal p.d. of a cell when current is drawn from the cell V = E - Ir
Terminal p.d. of a cell when it is being charged is V = E + Ir
Internal resistance - The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of current between its
electrodes is called internal resistance of the cell.
It depends on
(i) nature of the electrolyte, (ii) concentration of the electrolyte, (iii) distance between the electrodes,
(iv) common area of the electrodes dipped in the electrolyte and (v) temperature of the electrolyte.
𝐸−𝑉 𝐸−𝑉 𝐸
r= = R = (𝑉 – 1 )R here R=single external resistance in the
𝐼 𝑉
circuit
Cells in series - The equivalent emf and internal resistance for the series combination of two cells with emf
E1 and E2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 respectively,
Eeq  𝐸1 + 𝐸2 and
req  𝑟1 + 𝑟2
If n cells of emf E and internal resistance r each are connected in
𝑛𝐸
series, then current flowing through external resistance R is I =
𝑅+𝑛𝑟

Cells in parallel - The equivalent emf and internal resistance for the parallel combination of two cells with emf
E1 and E2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 respectively,
 𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1
Eeq  𝑟1 +𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2
and req  𝑟
1 +𝑟2
If m cells are connected in parallel, then current drawn through external
𝐸
resistance R is 𝐼 = 𝑅+𝑟/𝑚

Cells in mixed grouping - If n cells are connected in series in each row and m such rows are connected in parallel, then
current drawn through an external resistance R is
𝑛𝐸 𝑚𝑛𝐸
𝐼= =
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟/𝑚 𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
For maximum current, the external resistance must be equal to the total internal resistance, i.e.,
𝑛𝑟
R= 𝑚 ⇒mR = nr.
Kirchhoff’s laws –
(1) Junction rule: In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of all
the currents meeting at any junction is zero. Or, at any junction
of electrical circuit the sum of currents entering the junction
must be equal to the sum of currents leaving it
i.e. Σ I = 0.
This law is based on the conservation of charge
(2) Loop Rule:
Algebraic sum of changes in the potential around any closed loop must be zero i.e.
Σ V = 0 . This law is based on the conservation of energy.

Wheatstone bridge– It is an arrangement of four resistances P. Q, R and S joined to form a quadrilateral ABCD with a
battery between A and C and a sensitive galvanometer between B and D. The resistances are so adjusted that no current
flows through the galvanometer. The bridge is then said to be balanced.
In the balanced condition,
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆
A Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive when the resistances in its four arms are of the same order.
ApplyingKirchhoff’s second laws to the loop ABDA we get

I1P + IgG – I2R = 0 ………….(i)

Applying Kirchhoff’s second laws to the loop BCDB, we get

(I1 – Ig ) Q - (I2 + Ig ) S – G Ig = 0 ………..(ii)
In the balanced condition of the bridge , Ig = 0
The above equation become
I1P – I2R = 0 I1P = I2R ………….(iii)
I1 Q - I2S = 0 I1 Q =I2S ………….(iv)
From equation (iii) and (iv) we get
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q. Questions
NO
1 The resistivity of a wire
(a) Increases with the length of the wire (b)Decreases with the area of cross-section
(c) Decreases with the length and increases with the cross-section of wire
(d) None of the above statement is correct
2 On increasing the temperature of a conductor, its resistance increases because
(a) Relaxation time decreases (b)Mass of the electrons increases
(c) Electron density decreases (d)None of the above

3 Through a semiconductor, an electric current is due to drift of

(a) Free electrons (b)Free electrons and holes
(c) Positive and negative ions (d)Protons
4 The resistance of a wire of uniform diameter 𝑑 and length 𝐿 is 𝑅. The resistance of another wire of the same
material but diameter 2𝑑 and length 4𝐿 will be
(a) 2𝑅 (b) 𝑅 (c) 𝑅/2 (d) 𝑅/4
5 For which of the following the resistance decreases on increasing the temperature
(a) Copper (b) Tungsten (c)Germanium (d) Aluminium
6 The resistance of a wire is R. If the length of the wire is doubled by stretching, then the new resistance will be
(a) 2R (b) 4R (c) R (d) 𝑅/4
7 The magnitude and direction of the current in the circuit shown will be a
1 2
b
7 7 10V 4V
(a)3A from a to b through e (b) 3
A from b to a through e
(c) 1A from b to a through e (d) 1A from a to b through e
3
d c

8 A cell whose e.m.f. is 2 V and internal resistance is 0.1𝛺, is connected with a resistance of 3.9𝛺. The voltage across
the cell terminal will be
(a) 0.50𝑉 (b) 1.90𝑉 (c) 1.95𝑉 (d) 2.00𝑉
9 The figure shows a circuit diagram of a ‘Wheatstone Bridge’ to measure the
𝑃 𝑅
resistance G of the galvanometer. The relation 𝑄
= 𝐺 will be satisfied only
when
(a)The galvanometer shows a deflection when switch S is closed
(b)The galvanometer shows a deflection when switch S is open
(c)The galvanometer shows no change in deflection whether S is open or
closed
(d)The galvanometer shows no deflection
10 In the circuit shown here, the readings of the ideal ammeter and ideal 6 V, 1

voltmeter are 6
(a) 6 A,60 V (b) 0.6 A,6 V 4
(c) 6/11 A , 60/11 V (d) 11/6 A, 11/60 V
11 When no current is passed through a conductor,
. (a) the free electrons do not move
(b) the average speed of a free electron over a large period of time is not zero
(c) the average of the velocities of all the free electrons at an instant is zero (d) none of these
12 A current pass through a wire of non uniform cross-section. Which of the following quantities are independent of
. the cross-section?
(a) The charge crossing (b) Drift velocity (c) Current density (d) Free-electron density
13 A metal wire is subjected to a constant potential difference. When the temperature of the metal wire increases, the
. drift velocity of the electron in it
(a) increases, thermal velocity of the electron increases (b) decreases, thermal velocity of the electron increases
(c) increases, thermal velocity of the electron decreases (d) decreases, thermal velocity of the electron decreases
14 The relaxation time in conductors
. (a) increases with the increases of temperature (b) decreases with the increases of temperature
(c) it does not depend on temperature (d) all of sudden changes at 400 K
15 We are able to obtain fairly large currents in a conductor because
. (a) the electron drift speed is usually very large
(b) the number density of free electrons is very high and this can compensate for the low values of the electron drift
speed and the very small magnitude of the electron charge
(c) the number density of free electrons as well as the electron drift speeds are very large and these compensate for
the very small magnitude of the electron charge
(d) the very small magnitude of the electron charge has to be divided by the still smaller product of the number
density and drift speed to get the electric current
16 A strip of copper and another of silicon are cooled from room temperature to 80 K. The resistance of
. (a) each of these increases (b) each of these decreases
(c) copper strip increases and that of silicon decreases (d) copper strip decreases and that of silicon increases
17 The electric resistance of a certain wire of iron is R. If its length and radius are both doubled, then
. (a) the resistance and the specific resistance, will both remain unchanged
(b) the resistance will be doubled and the specific resistance will be halved
(c) the resistance will be halved and the specific resistance will remain unchanged
(d) the resistance will be halved and the specific resistance will be doubled

18 In a Wheat stone’s bridge, all the four arms have equal resistance R. If resistance of the galvanometer arm is also R,
. then equivalent resistance of the combination is
𝑅
(a) R (b) 4R (c) 2
(d)𝑅/4
19 Emf of a cell is
. (a) the maximum potential difference between the terminals of a cell when no current is drawn from the cell.
(b) the force required to push the electrons in the circuit.
(c) the potential difference between the positive and negative terminal of a cell in a closed circuit.
(d) less than terminal potential difference of the cell.
20 To draw a maximum current from a combination of cells, how should the cells be grouped?
. (a) Parallel (b) Series (c) Mixed grouping (d) Depends upon the relative values of internal and external
resistances.
21 The voltage V and current I graphs for a conductor at two different temperatures T1 and T2 are shown in the figure.
. The relation between T1 and T2 is?
 (a) T1 > T2 (b) T1≈ T2 (c) T1= T2 ( d) T1<T2

22 An energy source will supply a constant current into the load if its internal resistance is
. (a) very large as compared to the load resistance (b) equal to the resistance of the load
(c) non-zero but less than the resistance of the load (d) zero
23 The Kirchhoff’s second law (∑iR = ∑E), where the symbols have their usual meanings, is based on
. (a) conservation of momentum (b) conservation of charge
(c) conservation of potential (d) conservation of energy
24 Why is the Wheatstone bridge better than the other methods of measuring resistances?
. (a) It does not involve Ohm’s law (b) It is based on Kirchhoff’s law
(c) It has four resistor arms (d) It is a null method
25 If in the experiment of Wheatstone’s bridge, the positions of cells and galvanometer are interchanged, then balance
. point will
(a) change (b) remain unchanged (c) depend on the internal resistance of cell and resistance of galvanometer
(d) None of these
26 A cell having an emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a variable external resistance R. As the
. resistance R is increased, the plot of potential difference V across R is given by

27 A wire of resistance 160 Ω is melted and drawn in a wire of one-fourth of its length. The new resistance of the wire
. will be
(a) 640 Ω (b) 40 Ω (c) 16 Ω (d) 10 Ω

28 To verify Ohm's law, a student connects the voltmeter across the battery as, shown in the figure. The measured
. voltage is plotted as a function of the current, and the following graph is obtained:
 If V0 is almost zero, identify the correct statement :
(a) The value of the resistance R is 1.5 Ω (b) The emf of the battery is l.5 V and its internal resistance is 1.5 Ω
(c) The emf of the battery is l.5 V and the value of R is 1.5 Ω
(d) The potential difference across the battery is 1.5 V when it sends a current of 1000 mA
29 A current of 5 A passes through a copper conductor (resistivity = 1.7 × 10–8 Ωm) of radius of cross-section 5 mm.
. Find the mobility of the charges if their drift velocity is 1.1 × 10–3 m/s.
(a) 1.3 m2/Vs (b) 1.0 m2/Vs (c) 1.8 m2/Vs (d) 1.5 m2/Vs
30 A constant voltage is applied between two ends of a metallic wire. If the length is halved and the radius of the wire
. is doubled, the rate of heat developed in the wire will be:
(a) Doubled (b) Halved (c) Unchanged (d) Increased 8 times
ANSWERS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANSWER D a b b c b d c c c
Q. NO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
ANSWER C d b b b d c a a d
Q. NO 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
ANSWER a d d d b b d b b d
ASSERTION REASONING BASED QUESTION
For question numbers 1 to 10, two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false d) A is false and R is also false

Q. Questions
NO.
1 Assertion : The resistivity of a semiconductor increases with temperature.
Reason : The atoms of a semiconductor vibrate with larger amplitude at higher temperatures
thereby increasing its resistivity.
2 Assertion : The temperature coefficient of resistance is positive for metals and negative for p-type
semiconductor.
Reason : The effective charge carriers in metals are negatively charged whereas in p-type
semiconductor they are positively charged.
3 Assertion :In the following circuit emf is 2V and internal resistance of the cell is 1  and R = 1, then
reading of the voltmeter is 1V. V
E=2V

2 r=1
Reason :𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑟 where E = 2V, 𝑖 = 2 = 1𝐴 and R = 1  R=1 A
4 Assertion : There is no current in the metals in the absence of electric field.
Reason : Motion of free electron are randomly.
5 Assertion : The drift velocity of electrons in a metallic wire will decrease, if the temperature of the wire
is increased.
Reason : On increasing temperature, conductivity of metallic wire decreases.
6 Assertion : Electric field outside the conducting wire which carries a constant current is zero.
Reason : Net charge on conducting wire is zero.
 7 Assertion : A person touching a high power line get an electric shock.
Reason : The current carrying wires attract the man towards it.
8 Assertion : In a wire of uniform area of cross-section, the current is same everywhere.
Reason : The current in a wire is due to drift of electrons along the wire
9 Assertion : When a wire is stretched to double of its length, its resistivity doubles.
Reason : The current in a wire is due to drift of positive charge along the wire.
10 Assertion : Bending a wire does not effect electrical resistance.
Reason : Resistance of wire is proportional to resistivity of material.
11 Assertion : If potential difference between two points is zero and resistance between those two
points is zero, current may flow between the points.
Reason: Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge.
12 Assertion: Conductivity of metals is much higher than that of an electrolyte at room temperature.
Reason: Free electron density in metals is much larger than the density of ions in electrolytes and also
free electrons have greater mobility than ions.
13 Assertion: EMF of battery decreases with time.
Reason: Internal resistance increases with time.
14 Assertion: The relaxation time is nearly independent of applied electric field whereas it changes
significantly with temperature .
Reason: The relaxation time depends on the velocities of electrons and ions. The applied electric field
brings a very insignificant change in the velocities of electrons whereas on varying the
temperature the velocities of electrons and ions are changed very significantly
15 Assertion: The I-V characteristics of a resistor is observed to deviate from a straight line for higher
value of current.
Reason: For higher value of current, the resistor gets heated and consequently its resistance increases
ANSWERS ASSERTION REASONING QUESTIONS

Q. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANSWER d b a a b a c b d a
Q. NO 11 12 13 14 15
ANSWER b a d a a
 CHAPTER-4: MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
GIST OF THE CHAPTER
Magnetic Field: The space surrounding a magnet in which its magnetic force can be experienced is called
magnetic field.

Oersted’s experiment:
Oersted found that a magnetic field is established
around a current carrying conductor.
Magnetic field exists as long as there is current in the
wire.

Current element :It is the product of current and length of infinitesimal segment of current carrying wire.

B
A
i
dl

The current element is taken as a vector quantity. Its direction is same as the direction of current.
→
Current element AB = 𝑖 𝑑𝑙

Biot-Savart’s law: Consider a current element𝑑𝑙 of a conductor carrying current I. let P be a point having
position vector 𝑟with respect to current element𝑑𝑙 . Let 𝜃 be the angle between 𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟
According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field dB at point P due to current element is
1
(i) dB I (ii) dB∝dl (iii) dB sin 𝜃 (iv) dB∝ 𝑟2
Combining all the four factors, we get
𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
dB So dB =
𝑟2 4 𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0
In free space, = 10−7 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1
4𝜋

⃗ is perpendicular to the plane of 𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟, so from the above

As the direction of 𝑑𝐵
equation, we get the vector form of the Biot-Savart law as
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ×𝑟
⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 ⃗ is the direction of the vector 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟 . It is given by right
The direction of 𝑑𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟3
hand screw rule of vector product.
Direction of Magnetic Field:
The direction of magnetic field is determined with the help of the simple law
Right hand thumb rule : According to this rule if a straight current carrying conductor is held in the right
hand such that the thumb of the hand represents the direction of current flow, then the direction of curled
fingers will represent the direction of magnetic lines of force.
Magnetic Field Due to Current carrying Circular loop along its axis:
Consider a circular loop of wire of radius
a and carrying current I, as shown in
figure.
Biot-Savart law, the field at point P due to
the current element is
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 Since 𝜇0 and I are constant, and r and a are same for all points on
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟 2
the circular loop, we have
Since 𝑑𝑙 ⊥ 𝑠, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝜃 = 90 , therefore 𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑟
0 𝜇 𝐼𝑎 0 𝜇 𝐼𝑎 0 𝜇 𝐼𝑎 2
3 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 4𝜋𝑟 3 . 2𝜋𝑎 = 2𝑟 3 [∵ ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 2𝜋𝑎]
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2 1
𝐴𝑠, 𝑟 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
The field 𝑑𝐵⃗ lies in the plane of paper and
𝜇0 𝐼𝑎2
is perpendicular to 𝑟, ∴𝐵= 3
For any two diametrically opposite 2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
elements of the loop, the components If the coil consists on N turns, then
perpendicular to the axis of the loop will 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2
𝐵= 3 .
be equal and opposite and will cancel out. 2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) ⁄2
Their axial components will be in the
same direction, i.e., along CP and get For x>>a
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 2𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝜋𝑎2
added up. 𝐵= 𝐵 =
2𝑥 3 4𝜋𝑥 3
So 𝐵 = ∫ dB sin 𝜑 By analogy with electric dipole magnetic field due
𝑎 𝜇0 2𝑀
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 = 𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑥 3
𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑎 to dipole at axial point
B = ∫ 4𝜋 . 𝑟 2 . 𝑟
𝑀 = 𝑁𝐼𝜋𝑎2
So by comparison
Magnetic field at the centre: For the field at the centre of the
loop, x= 0. Therefore
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 2𝑎

Current loop as magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment:

A current carrying circular coil behaves as a bar magnet whose magnetic moment is M = NiA; Where N =
Number of turns in the coil, i = Current through the coil and A = Area of the coil
Magnetic moment of a current carrying coil is a vector and it's direction is given by right hand thumb rule
(1) For a given perimeter circular shape have maximum area. Hence maximum magnetic dipole moment.

Current
S N 
M

Fig. 21.47
→ →
(2) For a any loop or coil 𝐵 at centre due to current in loop, and 𝑀 are always parallel
Ampere’s Law:
Ampere’s circuital law: This law states that the line point of the circular
integral of the magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ around any closed loop is directed along the
circuit is equal to 𝜇0 (permeability constant) times tangent to the circle at that
the total current I threading or passing through this point. By symmetry, the
closed circuit. magnitude of field 𝐵 ⃗ is
Mathematically ∮𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝐼 same at every point of the
Application of Ampere’s law to an infinitely long circular loop. Therefore,
 
straight conductor:  B.dl   B dl cos 0  B  dl  B.2 r
Figure shows a circular loop of radius r around an
infinitely long straight wire carrying a current I. Form Ampere’s circuital law,
⃗ at any
As the field lines are circular, the field 𝐵 𝜇0 𝐼
B.2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼 ∴ 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟

Straight Solenoid:
Cylindrical coil of many tightly wound
turns of insulated wire with generally
diameter of the coil smaller than its length
is called a solenoid.

The magnetic field along the axis of the

solenoid is given by the expression
𝐵𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇𝟎 𝑛𝑖
Where’ i’ is the current flowing in the
solenoid and ‘n’ is the number of turns per
unit length of the solenoid.
The magnetic field at the ends of the
solenoid is given by the expression
1
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 2 (𝜇𝟎 𝑛𝑖)

Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic field:

If a particle carrying a positive charge q and moving with velocity v enters a magnetic field B then it
→ →
experiences a force F which is given by the expression 𝐹 = 𝑞(→
𝑣 × 𝐵 )𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
→
where →𝑣 = velocity of the particle, 𝐵 = magnetic field
(1) Zero force : Force on charged particle will be zero (i.e.F = 0) if

(i) No field i.e. B = 0 F = 0 (ii) Neutral particle i.e.q = 0 F = 0 (iii) Rest charge i.e. v = 0 F = 0
(iv) Moving charge i.e. = 0o or  = 180oF = 0
 → →
(2) Direction of force : The force 𝐹 is always perpendicular to both the velocity →
𝑣 and the field 𝐵 in
accordance with Right Hand Screw Rule,


Fm Fm

 
B  B
  v
v 90°

Fig. 21.26

Direction of force on charged particle in magnetic field can also be find by Fleming's Left Hand Rule (FLHR).
Here, First finger (indicates)  Direction of magnetic field
Middle finger Direction of motion of positive charge or direction or Opposite to the motion of negative
charge.
Trajectory of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic:
→
(1) Straight line : If the direction of a →
𝑣 is parallel or antiparallel to 𝐵 ,  = 0 or  = 180o and therefore F = 0.
Hence the trajectory of the particle is a straight line.
 = 0o
q B
F
q
 = 180o

Fig. 21.28
→
(2) Circular path : If → 𝑣 is perpendicular to 𝐵 i.e. = 90o, hence particle will experience a maximum
magnetic forceFmax = qvB which act's in a direction perpendicular to the motion of charged particle.
Therefore the trajectory of the particle is a circle.
(i) In this case path of charged particle is circular and magnetic force provides the necessary centripetal force
i.e.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 𝑝 √2𝑚𝐾 𝟏 𝟐𝑚𝑉
𝑞𝑣𝐵 =  radius of path 𝑟 = = 𝑞𝐵 = = 𝐵√
𝑟 𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵 𝑞

where p = momentum of charged particle and K = kinetic energy of charged particle (gained by charged
particle after accelerating through potential difference V) then 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝐾 = √2𝑚𝑞𝑉
2𝜋𝑚
(ii) If T is the time period of the particle then 𝑇 = (i.e., time period (or frequency) is independent of
𝑞𝐵
speed of particle).
(3) Helical path : When the charged particle is moving at an angle to the field (other
than 0o, 90o, or 180o). Particle describes a path called helix.
𝑚(𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
(i) The radius of this helical path is 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵
2𝜋𝑚 𝑞𝐵
(ii) Time period and frequency do not depend on velocity and so they are given by 𝑇 = 𝑞𝐵
and 𝜈 = 2𝜋𝑚
(iii) The pitch of the helix, (i.e., linear distance travelled in one rotation) will be given by
𝑚
𝑝 = 𝑇(𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) = 2𝜋 (𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑞𝐵
(iv) If pitch value is p, then number of pitches obtained in length l given as
 𝑙 𝑙
Number of pitches= 𝑝 and time required 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic field and electric field (Lorentz Force) :
→ →
When the moving charged particle is subjected simultaneously to both electric field 𝐸 and magnetic field 𝐵 ,
→ → → →
the moving charged particle will experience electric force 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑞 𝐸 and magnetic force 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞(→
𝑣 × 𝐵 ); so the
→ → →
net force on it will be 𝑭 = 𝒒[𝑬 + (→
𝒗 × 𝑩 )]. Which is the famous ‘Lorentz-force equation’.
Force On a Current Carrying Conductor In Magnetic Field:
In case of current carrying conductor in a magnetic field force experienced by its small length element is
× × × × × × ×

× × × × × × ×

× × × × × ×
dF
× × × × × × ×
i
× × × × × ×
dl
× × × × × × ×

→ → → → → → →
𝑑 𝐹 = 𝑖𝑑 𝑙 × 𝐵 ; 𝑖𝑑 𝑙 = current element 𝑑 𝐹 = 𝑖(𝑑 𝑙 × 𝐵 )
→ → → → →
Total magnetic force 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑑 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑖(𝑑 𝑙 × 𝐵 ). If magnetic field is uniform i.e., 𝐵 = constant
→ → → → →
𝐹 = 𝑖[∫ 𝑑𝑙 ] × 𝐵 = 𝑖( 𝐿 × 𝐵 )
→ →
∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐿 ′ = vector sum of all the length elements from initial to final point. Which is in accordance with the
→
law of vector addition is equal to length vector 𝐿 joining initial to final point.
(For a straight conductor 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)
→ →
Direction of force : The direction of force is always perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑖 𝑑𝑙 and 𝐵 and is
→ → → →
same as that of cross-product

of two vectors ( 𝐴 × 𝐵 ) with 𝐴 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑙.
dF
 
 P idl
i dl  B P  
B

dF
→ ⃗ are perpendicular to each other can also be determined
The direction of force when current element 𝑖 𝑑𝑙 and 𝐵
by applying either of the following rules.
Fleming’s left-hand rule: Stretch the fore-finger, central finger, and thumb of left hand mutually
→
perpendicular. Then if the fore-finger points in the direction of field 𝐵 and the central in the
direction of current i, the thumb will point in the direction of force.
Force Between Two Parallel Current Carrying Conductors:

The magnetic field produced by current I1 at any point

on wire CD is
𝜇0 𝐼1
𝐵1 = •
2𝜋𝑑
This field acts perpendicular to the wire CD and points
into the plane of paper. It exerts a force on current
carrying wire CD. The force acting on length l of the
wire CD will be
 (i) Parallel currents attract, 𝜇 𝐼0 1
𝐹2 = 𝐼2 𝐼𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 9 0° = 𝐼2 𝑙. 2𝜋𝑑
𝜇 𝐼 𝐼
0 1 2
= 2𝜋𝑑 𝑙Force per unit
(ii) Anti parallel currents repel.
length,
Definition of ampere: 𝐹2 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2
If I1=I2 =1A and r =1m, then 𝑓= =
𝜇0 𝑙 2𝜋𝑑
𝑓= = 2𝛸10−7 𝑁𝑚−1
2𝜋

One ampere is that value of steady current, which on flowing in each of the two parallel infinitely long
conductors of negligible cross-section placed in vacuum at a distance of 1 m from each other, produces
between them a force of 2 X 10-7 newton per metre of their length.
Torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field:
Consider a rectangular coil PQRS suspended in a
uniform magnetic field𝐵 ⃗ , with its axis
perpendicular to the field
Let I be the current flowing through the coil
PQRS, a and b be the sides of the coil PQRS,
A = ab = area of the coil and 𝜃 is the angle between
the direction of 𝐵⃗ and normal to the plane of the
coil.
According to Fleming’s left hand rule, the magnetic
forces on sides PS and QR are equal, opposite and If the rectangular loop has N
collinear (along the axis of the loop),so their turns, the torque increases N
resultant is zero. times i.e.,
The side PQ experiences a normal inward force 𝜏 = NIBA sin𝜃
equal to IbB while the side RS experiences an equal But NIA = M, the
normal outward force. magnetic moment of the
These two forces form a couple which exerts a loop, so
torque given by 𝜏 = MB sin𝜃
𝜏 = Force x perpendicular distance In vector notation, the torque 𝜏is given by
= IbB x a sin𝜃 = IBA sin𝜃 𝜏=𝑀 ⃗⃗ 𝑥𝐵
⃗

Moving Coil Galvanometer:

A galvanometer is a device to detect current in a circuit, the magnitude of which depends on the strength of
current.
Principle: It works on the principle that a current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experience a torque.
𝜏 = NIBA sin𝜃
Construction: A pivoted-type galvanometer consists of
a rectangular coil of fine insulated copper wire wound
on a light aluminium frame. The motion of the coil is In equilibrium position,
controlled by a pair of hair springs of phosphor-bronze. Restoring torque
The springs provide the restoring torque. A light = Deflecting torque
𝑁𝐵𝐴𝐼
aluminium pointer attached to the coil measures its k𝛼 = NIBA so 𝛼 = 𝑘
deflection on a suitable scale. Thus the deflection
The coil is placed symmetrically between the concave produced in the
poles of a permanent horse-shoe magnet. There is a galvanometer coil is
cylindrical soft iron core which not only makes the field proportional to the
radial but also increases the strength of the magnetic current flowing through
field. it.
Theory and working: As the field is radial, the plane of Functions:
the coil always remains parallel to the field 𝐵⃗ . When a (i) A uniform magnetic field provides a
current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it. It is linear current scale.
𝜏 = Force x perpendicular distance = NIbB x a sin 90 = (ii) A soft iron core makes the field
NIB(ab) = NIBA ( Here 𝜃=90) radial. It also increases the strength of the
The torque 𝜏deflects the coil through an angle 𝛼. A magnetic field and hence increases the
restoring torque is set up in the coil due to the elasticity sensitivity of the galvanometer.
of the springs such that 𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘𝛼 Where k is the
torsion constant of the springs i.e., torque required to
produce unit angular twist.
.Current sensitivity (Si) : The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced
in the galvanometer per unit current flowing through it.
𝛼 𝑁𝐵𝐴
𝑆𝑖 = = Here C is torsion constant
𝑖 𝐶
Voltage sensitivity (SV) : Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the
galvanometer per unit voltage applied to it.
𝛼 𝛼 𝑆𝑖 𝑁𝐵𝐴
𝑆𝑉 = 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 = =
𝑅 𝑅𝐶
Increasing the current sensitivity of a galvanometer may not necessary increase its voltage sensitivity
because the voltage sensitivity depends on current sensitivity and the resistance of the galvanometer. If we
increase the current sensitivity then it is not certain that voltage sensitivity will be increased.
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter:
A galvanometer may be converted into ammeter by using very small
resistance in parallel with the galvanometer coil. The small resistance
connected in parallel is called ashunt. If G is resistance of galvanometer, Igis
current in galvanometer for full scale deflection, then for conversion of
galvanometer into ammeter of range I ampere, the shunt is given by
P.D. across Galv. = P.D. across Shunt
IgG = S (I – Ig) So S = Ig G / ( I – Ig)
Effective resistance = GS / (G+ S)
Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter:
A galvanometer can be converted in voltmeter by connecting a very large resistance in series to the galvanometer.
Large resistance connected in parallel given by 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝑅)
𝑉
𝑅 = − 𝐺
𝐼𝑔
 Multiple Choice questions
1. A charged particle is moving with velocity v under the magnetic field B. The force acting on the particle
will be maximum if:-
(a) v and B are in same direction (b) v and B are in opposite direction
(c) v and B are perpendicular (d) None
2 The radius of circular loop is r and a current i is flowing in it. The equivalent magnetic moment will be:-
(c) iπr2
𝑖
(a) ir (b) 2πr (d) 𝑟2
3 A magnetic field of 5.0 × 10–4 T just perpendicular to the electric field of 15 kV/m in their effect an
electron beam passes undeflected and perpendicular to both of them. The speed of the electrons is:-

(a) 75 m/s (b) 3 × 104 m/s (c) 7.5 × 104 m/s (d) 3 × 107 m/s
4. There are two straight long wires, insulated from each other, along x and y axis carrying equal currents
as shown in figure. AB and CD are lines in xy plane and at 45° with the axes. The magnetic field of the
system is zero at points on the line :-
(a) AB (b) OB but not on OA
(c) CD (d) OC but not on OD
5. Two long parallel wires are at a distance of 1m. If both of them carry 1A of current in same direction. The
magnetic force of attraction on unit length of each wire will be:-

(a) 2 × 10–7 N/m (b) 4 × 10–7 N/m(c) 8 × 10–7 N/m (d) 10–7 N/m
6. A long solenoid carrying a current produces a magnetic field B along its axis. If the current is doubled and
the number of turns per cm is halved, the new value of the magnetic field is:-
(a) B/2 (b) B (c) 2B (d) 4B
7. A closely wound flat circular coil of 25 turns of wire has diameter of 10 cm and carries a current of 4
ampere. Determine the magnetic flux density at the centre of the coil:-

(a) 1.679 × 10–5 T (b) 2.028 × 10–4 T (c) 1.257 × 10–3 T (d) 1.512 × 10–6 T
8. A proton and an α-particle moving with the same velocity and enter into a uniform magnetic field which
is acting normal to the plane of their motion. The ratio of the radii of the circular paths described by the
proton and a-particle respectively:-
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 4 (c) 1 : 16 (d) 4 : 1
9. In the shown figure magnetic field at point A will be :-
0 I 0 I 0 I
(a) 4 (b) 4R (c) 4 R (d) Zero
10. A galvanometer can be changed into voltmeter by providing
(a) low resistance in series (b) low resistance in parallel
(c) high resistance in series (d) high resistance in parallel
11. A current is flowing in a circular coil of radius R and the magnetic field at its centre is B o. It what distance

from the centre on the axis of the coil, the magnetic field will be Bo/8:-

(a) 3 R (b) 3 R (c) 2R (d) 8R

12. A rectangular coil 20 cm × 20cm, has 100 turns and carries a current of 1A. It is placed in a uniform
magnetic field 0.5T with the direction of magnetic field parallel to the plane of the coil. The magnitude of
the torque required to hold this coil in this position is:-
(a) zero (b) 200N-m(c) 2N-m (d) 10N-m

13. A current loop of area 0.01m2 and carrying a current of 10A is held perpendicular to a magnetic field of
0.1T, the torque in N–m acting on the loop is :-
(a) 0 (b) 0.001 (c) 0.01 (d) 1.1
14. In a region constant uniform electric and magnetic field are present. Both field are parallel. In this region
a charge released from rest, then path of particle is:-
(a) Circle (b) Helical (c) Straight line (d) Ellipse
15. If the number of turns in a moving coil galvanometer is increased, its current sensitivity
(a) increases (b) remains same (c) decreases (d) may increase or decrease

16. A and B are two concentric circular loops carrying current i1 and i2 as shown in figure. If ratio of their
radii is 1:2 and ratio of the flux densities at the centre O due to A and B is 1:3 then the ratio of current will
be :-
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/3

(c) 1/4 (d) 1/6

17 Biot-Savart law indicates that the moving electrons (velocity v) produce a magnetic field B such that
(a) B ⊥ v. (b) B || v.
(c) it obeys inverse cube law.
(d) it is along the line joining the electron and point of observation.
18 A current carrying closed loop of an irregular shape lying in plane when placed in uniform magnetic field,
the force acting on it-
(a) will be more in the plane where its larger position is covered. (b) is zero.
(c) is infinite. (d) may or may not be zero.
19 A positive charge enters in a magnetic field and travels parallel to but opposite the field. If experiences
(a) an upward force.
(b) a downward force.
(c) an accelerated force.
(d) no force
20 If the beams of electrons and protons move parallel to each other in the same direction, then they
(a) attract each other.
(b) repel each othe (c) no relation.
(d) neither attract nor repel.
 Answers of MCQ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c c d A a B c a b c
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
a c a C a D a b d a
 CHAPTER-5: Magnetism and Matter
BAR MAGNET:

A bar magnet consist of two equal and opposite magnetic

pole separated by a small distance.
Poles are not exactly at the ends. The shortest distance
between two poles is called effective length (Le)
Le is less than its geometric length (Lg). for bar magnet Le =
2l and Le = (5/6) Lg. for semi circular magnet Lg  R
and Le  2 R

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

The magnetic field line is an imaginary curve whose tangent
at any point determines the direction of magnetic field B at
that location

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

1. Magnetic field lines always create closed continuous loops.

2. Magnetic field lines extend from the north pole to the south pole outside the magnet's body and south to
north inside the magnet.
3. The direction of the net magnetic field(B) at any given point is represented by the tangent at that point
to the magnetic field line.
4.The number of magnetic field lines travelling normally through unit area represents the magnetic field at
that point.
5. lines that are densely packed represent a strong magnetic field, where as lines that are sparsely packed
represent a weak magnetic field
6.Magentic field lines never intersect each other because if they do so at the point of intersection their will two
direction of magnetic field which is impossible.
Magnetic Diople: A magnetic dipole is made up of two equal and opposite poles separated by some distance.
Magnetic Dipole Moment: The product of the pole strength (m) and the magnetic length (2l) of the magnet is the

magnetic dipole moment. M=mx2l

The magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity. Direction=> S to N

SI unit of M isjoule/tesla or Am2 SI unit of pole strength is Am.

Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid
A current loop is behaved like a magnetic dipole because Magnetic field lines for a bar magnet and a current carrying
solenoid are similar as shown in figure.

Electrostatics magnetism
Charge q Pole strength m
1 𝜇0
𝜖0
Electric Dipole moment p Magnetic dipole moment M
Electric field E Magnetic field B
Magnetic Field intensity due to a magnetic dipole ( Bar Magnet)
2𝜇0 →
(a) long its axis→= 𝑀
𝐵 4𝜋𝑟 3

−𝜇0 →
(b) perpendicular to its axis:→= 𝑀
𝐵 4𝜋𝑟 3

Torque on a magnetic dipole(Bar Magnet) in a uniform magnetic field:

𝜏= MB sin θ
when θ =0, torque will be 0 (Stable equilibrium)
when θ =180, torque will be 0 (Unstable equilibrium)
When θ =90, torque=MB (maximum)

Relation between different magnetic quantities (B,H,I,𝝁, χ)

𝐼 𝜇
B = μH, B = μ0 (H + I), χ = 𝐻 , 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇
0

I
μH = μ0 (H + I) =>μ = μ0 (1 + 𝐻) So 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + χ

Magnetic Properties of Materials – Para- , Dia- and ferro- magnetic substances with examples:

Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic substance

substance magnetic
substance
1. Effect of magnets They are feebly They are feebly They are strongly attracted by magnets
repelled by magnets attracted by
magnets
2. In external Acquire feeble Acquire feeble Acquire strong magnetization in the
magnetic field magnetization in the magnetization in direction of the magnetizing field
opposite direction of the direction of the
 the magnetizing field magnetizing field

3. In a non-uniform Tend to move slowly Tend to move Tend to move quickly from weaker to
magnetic field from stronger to slowly from stronger parts of the field
weaker parts of the weaker to stronger
field parts of the field
4. In a uniform A freely suspended A freely suspended A freely suspended ferromagnetic rod
magnetic field diamagnetic rod paramagnetic rod align itself parallel to the field
align itself align itself parallel
perpendicular to the to the field
field
5. Susceptibility Susceptibility is Susceptibility is Susceptibility is very large and positive.
value(χm) small and negative. small and positive. χm≥1000
-1 ≤ χm≤ 0 0 ≤ χm≤ ε
6. Relative Slightly less than 1 Slightly greater Of the order of thousand
permeability value (µr) 0 ≤µr ≤1 than 1 µr > 1000
0 < µr< 1+ ε
7. Effect of Susceptibility is Susceptibility varies Susceptibility decreases with temperature
temperature independent of inversely as in a complex manner.
temperature temperature χmα 1/( T- Tc)
χmα 1/ T (T >Tc

8. Removal of Magnetisation lasts As soon as the Magnetisation is retained even after the
magnetizing field as long as the magnetising field is magnetising field is removed.
magnetizing field is removed
applied ,Magnetisation lost.
9. Variation of M M changes linearly M changes linearly M changes with H non-linearly and
with H with H with H and attains ultimately attains saturation.
saturation at low
temperature and in
very strong field
10. Examples Bi, Cu, Pb, Si, N2 (at Al, Na, Ca, O2 (At Fe, Ni, Co, Fe2O3
STP), H2O, NaCl STP), CuCl2 Alnico
Multiple Choice Questions (One Mark)

1. The resemblance of magnetic field lines for a bar magnet and a solenoid suggest that
(a) A bar magnet may be thought of as a large number of circulating currents in analogy with a solenoid
(b) Cutting a bar magnet in half is like cutting a solenoid
(c)both(a)and (b) (d) neither(a)nor(b)

2. Maximum potential energy of a bar magnet is 30 joule. Its value when bar magnet is parallel to
magnetic field.
(a)30 joule (b)0 joule (c)15joule (d)21.21 joule
3. A small bar magnet of moment M is placed in a uniform field B. If magnet makes an angle of 30° with
field then the torque acting on the magnet is:-
(a) MB (b)MB/2 (c)MB/3 (d)MB/4
4. When a diamagnetic substance is placed near a magnet then it is
(a) Attracted (b) Repelled (c)No effect (d)None of these
5. The magnetic permeability of a paramagnetic substance can have
(a) Less than 1 (b)More than 1 (c) Zero (d) Any value
6. Which of the magnetic materials have negative susceptibly
(a)Diamagnetic materials (b) Paramagnetic materials
(c) Ferromagnetic materials (d) None of these
7. A small rod of bismuth is suspended freely between the poles of a strong electromagnet. It is found to
arrange itself at right angles to the magnetic field. This observation establishes that bismuth is

(a)Diamagnetic (b)Paramagnetic (c)Ferromagnetic (d)Anti-ferromagnetic

8. A liquid flows from low to high magnetic field, it may be
(a) Diamagnetic (b)Paramagnetic
(c) Ferromagnetic (d) Paramagnetic or Ferromagnetic
9. Which of the following has higher magnetic susceptibility?
(a)diamagnetic(b)paramagnetic(c) ferromagnetic (d) None of these
10. Three needles N1 N2 and N3 are made of a ferromagnetic, a paramagnetic and a diamagnetic substance
respectively. A magnet, when brought close to them, will
(а)Attract N1 strongly but repel N2 and N3 weakly.
(b) Attract all three of them.
(c)Attract N1 and N2 strongly but repel N3.
(d) Attract N1 strongly, N2 weakly and repel N3 weakly
ANSWERS MCQ:
1.c 2. b 3. b 4. b 5. b
6. a 7. a 8. b 9. c 10. d
 CHAPTER-06, Electro Magnetic Induction
Area Vector(dA) : Direction of Area vector with respect to Magnetic field
An area vector is a vector whose magnitude is equal lines
to the area of a plane and whose direction is normal
to the plane of the area. Case -I
When magnetic field and area vector are parallel(Ɵ=00)
Case-II When magnetic field and area vector are
perpendicular(Ɵ=900)

Magnetic Flux
The total number of magnetic lines of force
dA
passing normally through an area placed in a 
magnetic field is equal to the magnetic flux linked B

with that area. B

  ( is the angle between area vector and magnetic
Net flux through the surface    B  d A  BA cos θ
field vector)
Unit and Dimension :Magnetic flux is a scalar If  = 0o then  = BA, If  = 90o then  = 0
quantity.
Other units :Tesla × m2  N  m  Joule  Volt  Coulomb
It’s S.I. unit is weber (wb), Amp Amp Amp
CGS unit is Maxwell or Gauss × cm2;  Volt  sec
= Ohm × Coulomb = Henry × Amp.
( 1 wb  10 8 Maxwell ). It’s dimensional formula [] = [ML2T–2A–1]

Electro Magnetic Induction: -The phenomenon of generation/induction of current or (Electro Motive force)
emf by changing the magnetic flux linked with the circuit is known as Electromagnetic Induction.

Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction :-

First law :( Cause of emf) The induced emf is due to Second law : (magnitude of emf)The induced emf is equal to
changing magnetic Flux linked with the closed rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit i.e.
d
loop/coil. e  . For Nturns e   N d ; Negative sign indicates
dt dt
that induced emf (e) opposes the change of flux.
 = BAcos ; Hence  will change if either, B, A or  will change
Faraday’s Experiment Motional emf AC-generator
Change in B , A and  remain Change in A , B and  Change in  , A and B remain same
same remain same
Lenz's Law:- This law gives the direction of induced emf/induced current. According to this law, the direction of
induced emf or current in a circuit is such as to oppose the cause that produces it. This law is based upon law of
conservation of energy.

Position of magnet
S S N N S
N S
Observer bserver Observer
Observer
Direction of Anticlockwise Clockwise direction Clockwise Anticlockwise direction
induced current direction direction

Behaviour of face
of the coil As a north pole As a south pole As a south pole As a north pole
Type of magnetic
force opposed Repulsive force Attractive force Repulsive force Attractive force

Magnetic field Cross (×), Cross (×), Decreases Dots() Increases Dots() Decreases
linked with the coil Increases
and it’s progress as
viewed from left
Induced emf(e) Induced Induced charge (q) Induced power(P)
current(I)
N d N e2 N 2  d 
2
e , dq  i dt    d P   
dt e N d R R R  dt 
i  .
N ( 2  1 ) R R dt
e Induced charge is time It depends
t on time and
NA( B2  B1 ) cos  independent resistance
e
t

NBA (cos  2  cos 1 )


t

Dynamic (Motional) EMF Due to

Translatory Motion:-
If the length RQ = x (variable) and RS = l, the
magnetic flux Ф enclosed by the loop PQRS
will be
Ф= Blx
Since x is changing with time, the rate of change
of flux will induce an emf given by:

e = Blv
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: If the thumb,
forefinger and middle finger of right hand are
stretched mutually perpendicular to each other
such that the forefinger points the direction of
magnetic field, thumb points towards the
direction of magnetic force, then middle finger
points towards the direction of induced current in
the conductor.
Motional EMI Due to Rotational Motion:-
Conducting rod :A conducting rod of length l Cycle wheel : A conducting wheel each spoke of length l is
whose one end is fixed, is rotated about the axis rotating with angular velocity  in a given magnetic field as
passing through it’s fixed end and perpendicular shown below in fig.
to it’s length with constant angular velocity .
Magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to the plane
of the paper.

Due to flux cutting each metal spoke becomes identical cell

of emf e (say), all such identical cells connected in parallel
fashion e net  e (emf of single cell). Let N be the number of
emf induces across the ends of the rod spokes hence
1
where  = frequency (revolution per sec) e net  Bwl 2 ;  2
2
andT = Time period. Total emf does not depends on number of spokes ‘N’.

Induced Induced Magnetic Power dissipated in moving Electrical power

emf current force the conductor H  Bvl 
2
B 2v 2 l 2
2
Pthermal  i R   .R ; Pthermal 
e = Blv i
e  Bvl  dW 2
B vl2
t  R  R
Fm  Bil  B l Pmech  Pext   Fext . v  v
R  R  dt R (It is clear that Pmech. = Pthermal which is
Bvl B 2v 2 l 2
 B 2vl 2
 consistent with the principle of
R 
R R
conservation of energy.)

EMI due to change the orientation between coil and magnetic field:-
Suppose a rectangular coil having N turns placed
initially in a magnetic field such that magnetic field is
perpendicular to it’s plane as shown.
 – Angular speed
 – Frequency of rotation of coil
R – Resistance of coil
For uniform rotational motion with , the flux
linked with coil at any time t
  NBA cos   NBA cos t
  0 cos ωt where 0 = NBA = maximum flux
 Induced emf in coil :Induced emf also changes in Induced current in Coil: At any timet,
periodic manner that’s why this phenomenon called i   0 sin  t  i0 sin  t where i0 = current amplitude or
e e
periodic EMI R R
d e0 NBA   0 
e  NBA  sin  t  e  e sin ωt wheree0 = emf max. current i0 
0 R

R

R
dt
amplitude or max. emf  NBA    0

Self Induction:- Mutual Induction:-

Whenever the electric current passing through a coil Whenever the current passing through a coil
changes, the magnetic flux linked with it will also
change. As a result of this, in accordance with changes, the magnetic flux linked with a
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, an emf
is induced in the coil which opposes the change that neighbouring coil will also change. Hence an emf will
causes it. This phenomenon is called ‘self induction’
be induced in the neighbouring coil or circuit. This
and the emf induced is called back emf, current so
produced in the coil is called induced current. phenomenon is called ‘mutual induction’.

Coefficient of self-induction :Number of flux Coefficient of mutual induction : Total flux linked
linkages with the coil is proportional to the current i. with the secondary coil due to current in the primary
i.e. N  i or N  Li (N is the number of turns in
coil is N 2 2 ,
coil and N – total flux linkage). Hence L  N  =
i N 2 2 i1
coefficient of self-induction. N 2 2 =Mi1 where N1 - Number of turns in primary coil
(1) If i = 1amp, N = 1 then, L = i.e. the coefficient ,
of self induction of a coil is equal to the flux linked
N 2 - Number of turns in secondary,
with the coil when the current flowing through it is 1
amp. 2 - Flux linked with each turn of secondary,
(2) By Faraday’s second law induced emf e   N d  i1 - Current flowing through primary;
dt
di di
M-Coefficient of mutual induction or mutual
. Which gives e  L ; If  1 amp / sec then |e|= L.
dt dt inductance.
Hence coefficient of self induction is equal to the (1) According to Faraday’s second law emf induces in
emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of d di
current in the coil is unity. secondary e 2   N 2 2 ; e 2   M 1
dt dt
(3) Units and dimensional formula of ‘L’ : di
(2) If 1  1 Amp then |e2| = M. Hence coefficient of
It's S.I. unit dt sec
 weber Tesla  m 2 N m Joule Coulomb  volt mutual induction is equal to the emf induced in the
  2
 2

Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp 2
secondary coil when rate of change of current in
volt  sec
  ohm  sec . But practical unit is henry primary coil is unity.
amp
(H). (3) Units and dimensional formula of M :Similar to
2 –2 –2
It’s dimensional formula [L] = [ML T A ] self-inductance (L)

The various formulae for L The various formulae for M

Circular coil Two concentric
i
L
 0N r 2
co-planer
2
circular coils R P
r
 0 N 1 N 2 r 2
M  S
2R

Solenoid Two Solenoids

l
 0 r N A N A
2 2 l
L  (   0 r )
l l
μ0 N1 N 2 A
i
M i1
Secondary
l Primary
(N2 turns)
(N1 turns)
Self-Inductance for a long Solenoid:-Consider a Mutual-Inductance between pairs of long Solenoid:-
solenoid of N turns with length l and area of cross
section A. It carries a current I. If B is the magnetic field at
any point inside the solenoid, then Magnetic flux per
turn =B × area of each turn
But, B=μ0NI/l
n=N/l no. of turns per unit length
Hence, the total magnetic flux ϕ=μ0NI/l(A×N)
i.e. ϕ=μ0 N2 IA/l ....(1)
If L is the coefficient of self induction of the solenoid, then
ϕ=LI....(2) Let r1 and r2 be radii of inner and outer co-axial solenoids
From equation (1) and (2), respectively,
2
LI= μ0 N IA /l n1 and n2 be number of turns per unit length of the two
2
L= μ0 N A/l solenoids.
If the core is filled with a magnetic material of Let N1 and N2 be total number of turns in two solenoids and
permeability μ, each of length l.
2
Then, L=μN A/l Let the outer solenoid carry current I2 . This current sets up
magnetic flux 1 through inner solenoid.
Relation between M, L1 and L2 :For two magnetically The total flux linkages with inner solenoid are given by N11
coupled coils M  k L1 L 2 ; where k – coefficient of =M12I2
coupling or coupling factor which is defined as
Magnetic field at the center of the outer solenoid due to a
Magnetic flux linked in secondary
k ; 0 k 1 current I2 is given by B2=μ0n2I2
Magnetic flux linked in primary

The total flux linkages with the primary solenoid are given by

(A) k = 1 N11=(n1l)B2 (I2)

N11=(μ0π n1 n2 l r12)I2
M12=N1 1 /I2=(μ0 π n1 n2 l r12)
(B) 0 <k< 1 Similarly M21=(μ0π n1 n2 l r22)

(4) Dependence of mutual inductance

(C) k = 0
(i) Number of turns (N1, N2) of both coils
(ii) Coefficient of self inductances (L1, L2) of both the
coils
Magnetic Energy Stored in the inductor is (iii) Area of cross-section of coils
(iv) Magnetic permeability of medium between the
U=1/2 LI2 coils (r) or nature of material on which two coils are
wound
(v) Distance between two coils (As d increases so M
decreases)
(vi) Orientation between primary and secondary coil
(for 90o orientation no flux relation M = 0)
(vii) Coupling factor ‘K’ between primary and secondary
coil

Assertion Reason Type Questions

Two statements are given –one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the answer to these
questions from the codes (a) , (b) , (c ) and (d) as given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A,
b) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct explanation of A,
c) A is true but R is false,
d) A is false and R is also false.
1. Assertion : Faraday’s laws are consequences of conservation of energy.
Reason : In a purely resistive ac circuit, the current lags behind the e.m.f. in phase.
2. Assertion : Only a change in magnetic flux will maintain an induced current the coil.
Reason : The presence of large magnetic flux through a coil maintains a current in the coil if the circuit is
continuous.

3. Assertion : Faraday established induced e.m.f. experimentally.

Reason : Magnetic flux can produce induced e.m.f.
4. Assertion : Induced e.m.f. is proportional to rate of change of magnetic field while induced current depends
on resistance of wire.
Reason: The induced e.m.f. and current will be same in two identical loops of copper and aluminium, when
rotated with same speed in the same magnetic field.
5. Assertion : Inductance coil are made of copper.
Reason : Induced current is more in wire having less resistance.
6. Assertion : Self-inductance is called the inertia of electricity.
Reason : Self-inductance is the phenomenon, according to which an opposing induced e.m.f. is produced in a
coil as a result of change in current or magnetic flux linked in the coil.
7. Assertion : When two coils are wound on each other, the mutual induction between the coils is maximum.
Reason : Mutual induction does not depend on the orientation of the coils.
8. Assertion : Acceleration of a magnet falling through a long solenoid decreases.
Reason : The induced current produced in a circuit always flow in such direction that it opposes the change or
the cause the produced it.
9. Assertion : A spark occur between the poles of a switch when the switch is opened.
Reason : Current flowing in the conductor produces magnetic field.
10. Assertion : In the phenomenon of mutual induction, self induction of each of the coils persists.
 Reason : Self induction arises when strength of current in same coil changes. In mutual induction, current is
changing in both the individual coils.
11. Assertion : Induced e.m.f., opposes always the change in magnetic flux responsible for its production.

Reason : Lenz’s law violates the principle of conservation of energy.

12. Assertion : The induced emf in a conducting loop of wire will be non zero when it rotates in a uniform
magnetic field.
Reason : The emf is induced due to change in magnetic flux.
13. Assertion : An induced emf is generated when magnet is withdrawn from the solenoid.
Reason : The relative motion between magnet and solenoid induces emf.
14. Assertion : A transformer cannot work on dc supply.
Reason : dc changes neither in magnitude nor in direction.
15. Assertion : Soft iron is used as a core of transformer.
Reason : Area of hysteresis is loop for soft iron is small.
16. Assertion : In single coil, we consider self-induction only.
Reason : An ac generator is based on the phenomenon of self-induction.
17. Assertion : When number of turns in a coil is doubled, coefficient of self- inductance of the coil becomes 4
times.
Reason : This is because L α N2.
18.Assertion : Figure shows a metallic conductor moving in magnetic field. The induced emf across its ends is zero.

Reason : The induced emf across the ends of a conductor is given by e = Bvℓ sinθ.
19.Assertion : Figure shows a horizontal solenoid connected to a battery and a switch. A copper ring is placed on a smooth
surface, the axis of the ring being horizontal. As the switch is closed, the ring will move away from the solenoid.

Reason : Induced emf in the ring, e=-dΦ/dt

20.Assertion An EMF is generated when magnet is inserted in the solenoid .

Reason The emf is induced in the solenoid connected in the closed circuit whenever there is a change in the
magnetic flux through it.

Answers:-
1 C 6 B 11 C 16 C
2 C 7 C 12 A 17 A
3 C 8 A 13 A 18 A
4 C 9 B 14 A 19 A
5 A 10 A 15 A 20 C
 Multiple choice types Question
1. A coil having an area A 0 is placed in a magnetic field which changes from B0 to 4 B0 in a time interval t. The
e.m.f. induced in the coil will be
3 A0 B0 4 A0 B0 3 B0 4 B0
(a) (b) (c) (d)
t t A0 t A0 t
2. Lenz's law is consequence of the law of conservation of
(aCharge (b) Momentum (c) Mass (d) Energy
3. A metallic ring is attached with the wall of a room. When the north pole of a magnet is brought near to it, the
induced current in the ring will be
(a) First clockwise then anticlockwise
(b) In clockwise direction
(c) In anticlockwise direction
(d) First anticlockwise then clockwise

4. A square coil 10 2 m 2 area is placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of intensity 10 3 Wb / m 2 . The
magnetic flux through the coil is
(a) 10 weber (b) 10 5 weber (c) 10 5 weber (d)100 weber
5. A coil having 500 square loops each of side 10 cm is placed normal to a magnetic field which increases at the
rate of 1.0 tesla/second. The induced e.m.f. in volts is
(a) 0.1 (b) 0.5 (c) 1 (d)5
6. Two different loops are concentric and lie in the same plane. The current in the outer loop is clockwise and
increasing with time. The induced current in the inner loop then, is
(a) Clockwise (b)Zero (c) Counter clockwise (d)In a direction that depends
on the ratio of the loop radii
7. In the diagram shown if a bar magnet is moved along the common axis of two single turn coils A and B in the
direction of arrow
(a)Current is induced only in A& not in B
A B
(b) Induced currents in A&B are in the same direction
(c) Current is induced only in B and not in A
(d) Induced currents in A&B are in opposite N S

directions
8. The coil of area 0.1 m2has 500 turns. After placing the coil in a magnetic field of strength 4  10 4 Wb / m 2 , if
rotated through 90o in 0.1 s, the average emf induced in the coil is
(a) 0.012 V (b) 0.05 V (c) 0.1 V (d) 0.2V
9. When a wire loop is rotated in a magnetic field, the direction of induced e.m.f. changes once in each
1 1
(a) revolution (b) revolution(c)1 revolution (d)2 revolution
4 2
10. A conducting wire is moving towards right in a magnetic field B. The direction of induced current in the wire is
shown in the figure. The direction of magnetic field will be
(a) In the plane of paper pointing towards right
(b) In the plane of paper pointing towards left
B i v
(c) Perpendicular to the plane of paper and
down-wards
(d) Perpendicular to the plane of paper and upwards
11. A conducting square loop of side L and resistance R moves in its plane with a uniform velocity v perpendicular
to one of its sides. A magnetic induction B constant in time and space, pointing perpendicular and into the plane
of the loop exists everywhere. The current induced in the loop is
Blv Blv
(a) clockwise (b) anticlockwise B   C  
R R 
B
   
2 Blv
(c) anticlockwise (d) Zero   
v 
R
   

   
 A   D 

12. An e.m.f. of 5 volt is produced by a self-inductance, when the current changes at a steady rate from 3 A to 2 A
in 1 millisecond. The value of self-inductance is
(a) Zero (b) 5 H (c) 5000 H (d)5mH
13. Average energy stored in a pure inductance L when a current i flows through it, is
Li 2 2
(a) Li 2 (b) 2Li 2 (c) (d) Li
4 2
14. In a transformer, the coefficient of mutual inductance between the primary and the secondary coil is 0.2 henry.
When the current changes by 5 ampere/second in the primary, the induced e.m.f. in the secondary will be
(a) 5 V (b) 1 V (c) 25 V (d)10V
15. The inductance of a coil is 60 H . A current in this coil increases from 1.0 A to 1.5 A in 0.1 second. The
magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is
(a) 60  10 6 V (b) 300  10 4 V (c) 30  10 4 V (d) 3  10 4 V

16. If the current is halved in a coil, then the energy stored is how much times the previous value
1 1
(a) (b) (c) 2 (d) 4
2 4
17.Two coils P and Q are lying a little distance apart coaxially. If a current I is suddenly set up in the coil P then the
direction of current induced in coil Q will be
(a) anti-clockwise (b) towards north
(c) clockwise (d) towards south

18.A metallic circular ring is suspended by a string and is kept in a vertical plane. When a magnet is brought towards
the ring it will
(a) get displaced towards the magnet (b) remain stationary
(c) get displaced away from the magnet (d) none of them

19. The emf generated in a loop when it enters a magnetic field with a velocity as shown in is best depicted in
20.The value of coefficient of mutual induction for the arrangement of two coils shown in the figure is

(a) positive (b) maximum (c) negative (d) zero

21.A cycle wheel with 64 spokes is rotating with N rotations per second at right angle to the horizontal component of
magnetic field. The induced emf generated between its axle and rim is E. If the number of spokes is reduced to 32,
then the value of induced emf will be
(a) E/4 (b) E/2 (c) E (d) 2E
22.The coils of wire A and B are mutually at right angles to each other as shown in the figure. If current in one of the
coils is changed then the current in the second coil will
(a) be induced in clockwise direction
(b) be inducted in anticlockwise direction
(c) will not be induced
(d) cannot be predicted
23. A helium nucleus enters a perpendicular magnetic field B with a velocity v. The magnetic force acting on it will
be
(a) 2 Bev (b) zero (c) evB (d) evB/2
24. If a bar magnet is dropped vertically into a long metallic tube then its final acceleration a will be
(a) a= 0 (b) a = g(c) a >g(d) a <g
25. The self inductance of a coil is 2 Henry and its resistance is 20 Ω. The value of current in it changes from 10A to 9A
in 0.01 s. The time constant of the coil will be
(a) 1 ms (b) 10 ms (c) 0.1 s (d) 2 s
26. The increasing current flows from A to B is as shown in the figure. The direction of the induced current in the
loop is

(a) clockwise. (b) anticlockwise. (c) straight line. (d) no induced e.m.f. produced.
27. The magnetic flux linked with a coil of N turns of area of cross section A held with its plane parallel to the field
B is

28. When the rate of change of current is unity, the induced emf is equal to
(a) thickness of coil (b) number of turns in coil
(c) coefficient of self-inductance (d) total flux linked with coil
29. A square of side L metres lies in the x-y plane in a region, where the magnetic field is given by B = B0 {i + 3j
+ 4k) T, where Bo is constant. The magnitude of flux passing through the square is-
(a) 2BoL² Wb. (b) 3BoL² Wb. (c) 4BoL² Wb. (d) √29 BoL² Wb
30 The laws of electromagnetic induction have been used in the construction of a
(a) galvanometer (b) voltmeter (c) electric motor (d) ac generator
Answers:-
1 a 6 c 11 d 16 b 21 c
2 d 7 d 12 d 17 c 22 c
3 c 8 d 13 d 18 c 23 a
4 a 9 b 14 b 19 b 24 a
5 d 10 c 15 d 20 d 25 C
26 a 27 d 28 c 29 c 30 d
 Chapter-07, Alternating current
Transformer:-
It is a device which Increase or decreases the voltage
or current in ac circuits through mutual induction.
Principle :It is based on the principle of mutual
induction.
Working :
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, Types of transformer :
magnetic flux linked with it changes which links to the Step-up Transformer :It increases voltage
secondary and induces an emf in it due to mutual and decreases current. transformation Ratio
induction. must be graeter than 1. Ns> Np.

Step-Down Transformer: – It increases

current and decreases voltage.
transformation Ratio must be less than 1.
Ns< Np.

Energy losses in a transformer :

(i) Copper loss
(ii) Hysteresis loss
(iii) Flux leakage
(iv) Humming losses
(v) Eddy current loss

AC generator :-
An electrical machine used to convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
Principle: It works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction .
Parts of AC-Generator:-
1. Armature:- Armature coil (ABCD) consists of
large number of turns of insulated copper wire
wound over a soft iron core.
2. Strong field magnet:- A Strong magnetic field e
Nd 
 NBA  sin t = e0 sint
dt
 provided perpendicular to the axis of rotation of where e0 = NBA
the coil. i
e e
 0 sin t  i0 sin t
R R
3. Slip rings:- The armature coil are connected to
two brass slip rings R1 and R2.
4. Carbon Brushes:- : Two carbon brushes (B1
and B2), are pressed against the slip rings.

Working : When the armature coil ABCD rotates in the

magnetic field it cuts the magnetic lines of force. Thus
the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and
hence induced emf is set up in the coil. The direction of
the induced emf or the current in the coil is
determined by the Fleming’s right hand rule.
Equation for i and V : Alternating current or voltage
varying as sine function can be written as
2
i = i0 sint = i0 sin 2 t = i0sin t
T
2
and V  V0 sin t  V0 sin 2t  V0 sin t
T
where i and V are Instantaneous values of current
and voltage, i0 and V0 are peak values of current and
voltage,  = Angular frequency in rad/sec,  =
Frequency in Hz and T = time period
Peak value (i0 or V0) :The maximum value of alternating quantity (i or V) is defined as peak value
or amplitude.
Root mean square (r.m.s.) value :Root of mean of square of voltage or current in an ac circuit for one
complete cycle is called r.m.s. value. It is denoted by Vrms or irms
T

 i dt
2
i12  i22  ... i0 V0
irms   i2 
0
T
 = 0.707 i0 = 70.7% i0Similarly Vrms   0 . 707 V0  70 . 7 % of V0
 dt
n 2 2
0

 1
 sin ( t)  cos ( t)  2 
2 2
The r.m.s. value of alternating current is also called virtual value or effective
 
value.
Mean or Average value (iav or Vav) :The average value of alternating quantity for one complete
cycle is zero.
The average value of ac over half cycle (t = 0 to T/2)
T /2

iav 
 0
i dt

2i0
 0 .637 i0  63 .7 % of i0, Similarly Vav 
2 V0
 0 .637 V0  63 .7 % of V0.
T /2
 
0
dt

Phasor diagram :A diagram representing alternating current and alternating voltage (of same
frequency) as vectors
(phasors) with the phase angle between them is called a phasor diagram diagram.
 AC- Measurement DC- measurement

(1) All ac meters read r.m.s. value. (1) All dc meters read average value
(2) All ac meters are based on heating effect (2) All dc meters are based on magnetic effect of
of current. current
(3) Deflection in dc meters
(3) Deflection in hot wire meters
 i
  irms
2

Reactance (X) : The opposition offered by inductor or capacitor or both to the flow of ac through it is
defined as reactance. It is of following two type
Inductive reactance (XL) :Offered by inductive circuit X L  L  2L  dc  0 so for dc, XL = 0.
Capacitive reactance (XC) :Offered by capacitive circuit XC 
1

1
for dc XC = .
C 2C
Impedance (Z) : The opposition offered by RLC ac circuits to the flow of ac through it is defined it's
impedance. It’s unit is ohm().
Susceptance (S) : the reciprocal of reactance is defined as susceptance  S  1
. It is of two type
 X
1 1 1
inductive susceptance S L   and Capacitive susceptance, SC    C  2 C .
X L 2 L XC

Resistive Circuit R
Inductive Circuit L

(1) Current : i  i0 sin  t (1) Current : i  i0 sin  t 


 i
V i  2
(2) Peak current : i0  0 (2) Peak current :
R
V0 V V0
i0   0 
XL L 2L
(3) XL α ν
(3) Resistance independent on frequency of applied
source .
(4) Phase difference between
voltage and current : = 0o
(5) Power factor : cos   1 (4) Phase difference between

(6) Power : P  Vrms irms 
V0 i0 voltage and current   90 o (or  )
2 2
(7) Phasor diagram : Both are in same phase (5) Power factor : cos   0 (6) Power : P = 0
(7) Phasor diagram : Voltage leads the current
by 
2

Capacitive Circuit C RL-Circuit R L

(1) Current : i  i0 sin  t    i 2V V

 2 i VR = iR ,
(2) Peak current : VL = iXL VR i

V0
i0   V0 C  V0 (2 C )
XC (1) Applied voltage : V  VR2  VL2
 (2) Impedance : Z  R 2  X L2  R 2   2 L2  R 2  4 2 2 L2
(3) XC α 1/ ν (3) Current : i  i0 sin  t   
(4) Phase difference
between voltage and (4) Peak current i0 
V0

V0

V0
Z R 
2
X L2 R  4 2 2 L2
current :   90 o (or   ) (5) Power factor : cos   0
2

2 XL L
(6) Power :P = 0(7) Phasor diagram : Current leads (5) Phase difference :   tan
1
 tan 1
R R
the voltage by /2 (6) Power factor : cos   R
2
R  X L2

(7) Leading quantity : Voltage

RC-Circuit:- Series LCR-Circuit
R L C
VL
(VL – VC) V
VR = iR, i
VR VL VC
i
R C
VC = iXC VR 
 i VR i
VR VC V = V0 sint VC
i VC HzPhasor
V R = iR, VL = iXL, VC = iXC
diagram

(1) Applied voltage : V  VR2  VC2

2
(2) Impedance : Z  R 2  X C2  R 2   
1
 C 
(3) Current : i  i0 sin  t   
V0 V0 V0
(4) Peak current : i0   
Z R 
2
X C2 R2 
1
4  C 2
2 2 (1) Equation of current : i  i0 sin( t   ) ;
V0
(5) Phase difference :   tan 1
XC
 tan 1
1 where i0 
R CR Z
R (2) Equation of voltage : From phasor
(6) Power factor : cos  
R 2  X C2 diagram
(7) Leading quantity : Current V  VR2  (VL  VC )2
Watt less Current (3) Impedance of the circuit :
The component of current which does not
2
 1 
Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2  R 2   L  
 C
contribute to the average power dissipation is
called watt less current (4) Phase difference : From phasor diagram
1 1
(i) The average of watt less component over one  L 2 L 
VL  VC X L  XC C 2 C
tan     
cycle is zero VR R R R

(ii) Amplitude of watt less current = i0 sin (5) If net reactance is inductive : Circuit
and r.m.s. value of watt less current = behaves as LR circuit
i
irms sin   0 sin  .
(6) If net reactance is capacitive : Circuit
V
2 i cos behave as CR circuit
(7) If net reactance is zero : Means

i X  XL  XC  0

XL = XC . This is the condition of resonance

i sin
 (8) At resonance (series resonant circuit)
(i) XL = XCZmin = Ri.e. circuit behaves as resistive circuit
(ii) VL = VCV = VRi.e. whole applied voltage appeared across the resistance
(iii) Phase difference : = 0op.f. = cos  = 1
(iv) Power consumption P = Vrms irms  1 V0i0
2
V0
(v) Current in the circuit is maximum and it is i0 
R
(vi) These circuit are used for current amplification and as tuning circuits in wireless telegraphy.
(9) Resonant frequency (Natural frequency)
At resonance X L  XC  0 L  1
 0 
1 rad
 0 
1
Hz (or cps)
0 C LC sec 2 LC

(Resonant frequency doesn't depend upon the resistance of the circuit)

Assertion Reason Type Questions
Two statements are given –one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the answer to
these questions from the codes (a) , (b) , (c ) and (d) as given below.
e) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A,
f) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct explanation of A,
g) A is true but R is false,
h) A is false and R is also false.
1. Assertion : In series LCR circuit resonance can take place.
Reason : Resonance takes place if inductance and capacitive reactances are equal and opposite.

2. Assertion : The alternating current lags behind the e.m.f. by a phase angle of  / 2 , when ac flows
through an inductor.
Reason : The inductive reactance increases as the frequency of ac source decreases.
3. Assertion : Capacitor serves as a block for dc and offers an easy path to ac.
Reason : Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency.
4. Assertion : When capacitive reactance is smaller than the inductive reactance in LCR current, e.m.f.
leads the current .
Reason : The phase angle is the angle between the alternating e.m.f. and alternating current of the
circuit.
5. Assertion : If the frequency of alternating current in an ac circuit consisting of an inductance coil is
increased then current gets decreased.
Reason : The current is inversely proportional to frequency of alternating current.
6. Assertion : On introducing soft iron core in the solenoid, the inductance increases.
Reason : A bulb connected in series with a solenoid is connected to ac source. If a soft iron core is
introduced in the solenoid, the bulb will glow brighter.
7. Assertion : Alternating current varies with time.
Reason : An alternating current does not show any magnetic effect.
 8. Assertion : The dc and ac both can be measured by a hot wire instrument.
Reason : The hot wire instrument is based on the principle of magnetic effect of current.
9. Assertion : ac is more dangerous than dc
Reason : Frequency of ac is dangerous for human body.
10. Assertion : Average value of ac over a complete cycle is always zero.
Reason : Average value of ac is always defined over half cycle.
11. Assertion : The division are equally marked on the scale of ac ammeter.
Reason : Heat produced is directly proportional to the current.
12. Assertion : When ac circuit contain resistor only, its power is minimum.
Reason : Power of a circuit is independent of phase angle.
13. Assertion : An electric lamp connected in series with a variable capacitor and ac source, its
brightness increases with increase in capacitance.
Reason : Capacitive reactance decrease with increase in capacitance of capacitor.
14. Assertion : An inductance and a resistance are connected in series with an ac circuit. In this circuit
the current and the potential difference across the resistance lag behind potential difference across the
inductance by an angle /2.
Reason : In LR circuit voltage leads the current by phase angle which depends on the value of
inductance and resistance both.
15. Assertion : A capacitor blocks dc and allows ac only.
Reason : A capacitor of suitable capacitance can be used in an ac circuit in place of the choke coil.
Answers:-
1 a 6 c 11 d
2 c 7 b 12 d
3 a 8 d 13 a
4 b 9 a 14 b
5 a 10 b 15 c
Multiple Choice Type Questions
1. The peak value of an Alternating current is 6 amp, then r.m.s. value of current will be
(a) 3 A (b) 3 3 A (c) 3 2 A (d) 2 3A
2. The resonance point in L
X  f and CX  f curves is
XL
PA R S
Q fV

XC

(a) P (b) Q (c) R (d) S

3. The variation of the instantaneous current (I) and the instantaneous emf (E) in a circuit is as shown in fig.
Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) The voltage lags behind the current by  / 2 E I
(b) The voltage leads the current by  / 2
/ 3/
(c) The voltage and the current are in phase O
2  2 
(d) The voltage leads the current by  t
4. The voltage of an ac supply varies with time (t) as V  120 sin 100  t cos 100  t. The maximum voltage and frequency
respectively are
(a) 120 volts, 100 Hz (b) 120 volts, 100 Hz (c) 60 volts, 200 Hz (d) 60 volts, 100 Hz
2
5. In the circuit shown in figure neglecting source resistance the voltmeter and ammeter reading will
respectively, will be V
(a) 0V, 3A (b) 150V, 3A
(c) 150V, 6A (d) 0V, 8A R = 30V XL = 25 XC = 25V L
Ae

6. In the circuit given below, what will be the reading of the voltmeter 240 V

(a) 300 V (b) 900 V VV 100V 100V

(c) 200 V (d) 400 V

200V, 100

7. In a circuit L, C and R are connected in series with an alternating voltage source of frequency f . The current
leads the voltage by 45°. The value of C is
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2f (2fL  R) f (2fL  R) 2f (2fL  R) f (2fL  R)
 
8. If a current I given by I0 sin   t   flows in an ac circuit across which an ac potential of E  E0 sin  t has been
 2
applied, then the power consumption P in the circuit will be
E0 I0 E0 I0
(a) P (b) P  2 E0 I0 (c) P (d) P=0
2 2
9. A bulb is connected first with dc and then ac of same voltage then it will shine brightly with
(a) AC (b) DC (c)Brightness will be in ratio 1/1.4 (d) Equally with both
10. The phase angle between e.m.f. and current in LCR series ac circuit is
(a) 0 to / 2 (b)  / 4 (c) / 2 (d) 
11. In aLCR circuit capacitance is changed from C to 2C. For the resonant frequency to remain unchanged, the
inductance should be change from L to
(a) 4L (b) 2L (c)L/2 (d) L/4
12. An alternating voltage E  200 2 sin(100 t) is connected to a 1 microfarad capacitor through an ac ammeter.
The reading of the ammeter shall be
(a) 10 mA (b) 20 mA (c) 40 mA (d) 80 mA
13. The power factor of LCR circuit at resonance is
(a) 0.707 (b) 1 Y (c) Zero (d) 0.5
+ 10
14. The r.m.s. voltage of the wave form shown is
(a) 10 V (b) 7V 0 t

(c) 6.37 V (d) None of these – 10

15. In the circuit shown below, what will be the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter:
100 

(a) 800 V, 2A (b) 300 V, 2A VO

AN
(c) 220 V, 2.2 A (d) 100 V, 2A 300 V 300 V

220 V, 50 Hz
 Answers:-
1 c 6 c 11 c
2 c 7 c 12 b
3 b 8 d 13 b
4 d 9 d 14 a
5 d 10 a 15 c
 CHAPTER-08 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves-A stationary charge produces only electrostatic field while a charge in uniform
motion produces electric and magnetic fields. An important result of Maxwell's theory is that ‘accelerated
charges radiate electromagnetic waves. An oscillating charge produces an oscillating electric field in space
which produces an oscillating magnetic field, which in turn is a source of oscillating electric field and so on.

Displacement Current-Displacement current arises due to rate of change of electric field with time and
𝑑𝛷
termed as 𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0 ( 𝑑𝑡𝐸 )

Need of displacement current

1. To remove the inconsistency in Ampere’s circuital law as modified Ampere’s Circuital Law (Maxwell’s
generalization of Ampere’s circuital law)

2. To Remove the inconsistency in Kirchhoff’s junction law of current during charging and discharging of a
capacitor. During charging and discharging, outside the capacitor conduction current flows and inside
displacement current flows. 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑

Properties of em waves
1. Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature, i.e. electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each
other and to the direction of wave propagation. Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
2. E (electric field) and B (magnetic field) in electromagnetic waves are in same phase.
1
3. Speed of electromagnetic wave is given by this formula in vacuum 𝑐 =
√µ0 ℰ0

1
In a medium 𝑣 =
√µℰ
𝑐
Or 𝑣=
√µ𝑟 ℰ𝑟

4.The energy in electromagnetic wave is divided on average equally between electric and magnetic fields.
5.Energy associated with an electromagnetic wave is
1 𝐵2
𝑈 = ℰ0 𝐸 2 +
2 2µ0

6.Linear momentum delivered to the surface p= U/c

7. The em waves show properties of reflection, refraction, polarization, interference, diffraction.
8.The ratio of the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields is equal to the velocity of the electromagnetic
𝐸
wave. 𝑐 = 𝐵0
0

9.The refractive index of a material is given by: 𝑛 = √µ𝑟 ℰ𝑟

10.For electromagnetic waves 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are always perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. The direction of propagation is the direction of 𝐸⃗ 𝑋𝐵
⃗ .

Diagram of electromagnetic wave

Equations of em waves
The wave propagating in x direction and electric field vector is in y direction
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)𝑗̂

The wave propagating in x direction and magnetic field vector is in Z direction the magnetic field
𝐵𝑧 = 𝐵0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
̂𝑧 = 𝐵0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)𝑧̂
𝐵
𝜔 𝐸 𝐸0
Speed of wave in the medium 𝑣 = , and the ratio = =𝑣
𝑘 𝐵 𝐵0

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Em wave ϒ-ray x-ray Ultraviolet visible Infrared Microwave Radio
(U.V.) wave
Frequency 1020 – 1024 1017 – 1020 1015 – 1017 (4x1014- 1013 – 3 x 1011 – < 3 x 1011
(Hz) 7x1014) 1014 1013

Wave <10-12m 10-9 to 4X10-7m to 10-3m to 0.1m to >0.1m

length(m) 10-12m 10-9m (7x10-7m 7X10-7m 10-3m
to4x10-7m)

Production Nuclear Bombarding Sun, By sun and By hot Magnetron, Oscillating

reaction, of energetic Gaseous incandescent bodies, so and charge,
Radioactive electrons on discharge bodies and called Klystron (LC
decay, heavy tube, Arc ionized gas, heat circuits)
vibrations metals Lamps, transition of waves,
of nucleus mercury electrons in vibrations
vapor atoms of atoms
lamps
USES of em waves
1. Radiowaves : Radio waves are used in radio and television transmission, wireless communications.
2. Microwaves: Microwaves are used in radar communication systems, speed detectors, in microwave oven,
to study molecular structure.
3. Infrared Rays: (i) They are used for taking photographs during the conditions of fog, smokes, etc. This is
called "infrared photography".
i) Infrared rays are characterized by heating effect. This is because water molecules heat up when they
absorb infrared waves. This property makes them useful to keep the plants warm, to produce heat in solar
water heaters and cookers. That is why infrared rays are sometimes called heat waves.
(ii) Infrared rays can cause photoelectric effect (i.e., emission of electrons from some metals e.g., Cs). This
property makes them useful for "infrared sensitive photoelectric burglar alarms."
(iii) Infrared rays are used in checking the purity of chemicals and in the study of molecular structure by
taking the infrared absorption spectrum.
Greenhouse Effect: Infrared radiations have quite a long wavelength range. An important property of glass is
that it transmits infrared radiation of very short wavelength while it reflects infrared radiations of long
wavelengths. This property of glass is used to keep the plants safe in severe winter in greenhouses. The glass
of greenhouse allows the visible light and infrared radiations of short wavelength to pass through these
radiations are absorbed by plants inside it. As a result they become warm. The warm objects emit infrared
radiations of longer wavelengths. These longer wavelength radiations are reflected by glass walls of
greenhouse and so are retained inside. Thus, the heat remains inside the greenhouse.
4. Visible light: The use of visible light is self-evident because no one can see in the absence of visible light.
Visible light finds use in all optical devices, e.g, microscopes, telescopes, camera, etc. It is used to study
molecular structure and arrangement of electrons in external shells of atoms.
5. Ultraviolet Rays: ) They are used to detect invisible writing, forged documents, molecular structure and
finger-prints.
(i) They are used to destroy bacteria and for sterilizing surgical instruments, LASIK eye surgery.
(ii) They are used to preserve foodstuff.
(iv) They are used in burglar alarms.
6. X-rays:
(i) X-rays are used to reveal the structure of molecules and arrangement of electrons in inner atomic shells.
(ii) In the field of medicine, they are used to diagnose diseases e.g., cracks in bones, detection of tumors, stone
in kidney and gall bladder, etc. X-rays damage living tissues and organisms, therefore unnecessary exposure of
X-rays on human beings must be avoided.
(iii) In engineering they are used for detecting faults, cracks, flaws and holes in final metal products.
(iv) In customs department they are used to detect explosives, diamond, gold, etc. in the possession of
smugglers.
7. Y-rays: They are used to study the structure of atoms nuclei, treatment of cancer cells.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The Direction of em wave is same as in direction of-
 (a) 𝐸⃗ 𝑋 (𝑏)𝐵
⃗ 𝑋 (𝑐) 𝐵
⃗ (d)𝐸⃗

2. The phase difference between electric field and magnetic field at any instant in EM waves
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 2 (b)π (c) 4 (d)0

3. A propagating Electromagnetic wave can be produced by

(a) Charge moving at a constant speed

(b) Collision of charged particles
(c) Stationary charge
(d) An accelerating charge

4. The relative permeability of glass is 0.375 and relative permittivity is 8,its refractive index is

(a) 1.33 (b)1.41 (c)1.72 (d)1.50

5. The penetrating power is maximum for

(a) Gamma rays (b)X Rays (c)UV rays (d)Radio wave

6. An EM wave is travelling in vacuum. Amplitude of the electric field vector is 6 × 104 V/m. The amplitude of magnetic
field vector is

(a) 18 X 1012T (b)2 X 10-4T (c)2 X 10-9T (d)Zero

7. If 𝜆𝑥, 𝜆, 𝜆𝑣 represents wavelength of X-Rays, microwaves & visible rays then

(a) 𝜆>𝜆𝑥>𝜆𝑣 (b) 𝜆>𝜆𝑣>𝜆𝑥 (c) 𝜆𝑣>𝜆𝑥>𝜆 (d) 𝜆𝑣>𝜆>𝜆𝑥

8. Human body radiates

(a) Microwave (b) X-rays (c) Infrared rays (d) Gamma rays.
9. Which of the following transport by EM waves?
(a) Charge & momentum (b) Frequency & wavelength
(c) Energy & momentum (d) Wavelength & energy
10. Why does a microwave oven heat up a food item containing water molecules most efficiently?

(a) Microwaves are heat waves, so always produce heating

(b) Infrared waves produce heating in a microwave oven
(c) Energy from the microwaves is transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of water
molecules at their resonant frequency.
(d) The frequency of microwaves has no relation with natural frequency of water molecules.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

a d d c a b b c c c
 ASSERTION (A) AND REASONING (R) TYPE QUESTIONS

a. Both assertion and reason are True, and reason is the correct explanation.
b. Both assertion and reason are True, but reason is not the correct explanation.
c. Assertion is True, but reason is False. (d) Both assertion and reason are False.
1. Assertion: The energy contained in a small volume through which an em wave is passing, oscillates
with the frequency of the wave.
Reason: Energy density of the wave is given by: ½ εοE02.

2. Assertion: Like Light radiation, thermal radiations are also e.m. radiations.
Reason: Thermal radiations require no medium for propagation.

3. Assertion: X-rays cannot be deflected by electric or magnetic fields.

Reason: These are electromagnetic waves.
4. Assertion: EM waves are transverse in nature.
Reason: Waves of wavelength 10mm are radio wave and microwave.

5. Assertion: Displacement current goes through the gap between the plates of a capacitor when the
charge of the capacitor does not change.
Reason: The displacement current arises in the region in which the electric field is constant with
time.

1 2 3 4 5
d b a b d
 CHAPTER 09

RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Lens maker formula Essential condition for REFRACTION THROUGH A
For refracting surface ABC, Total internal reflection PRISM
1. Light must travel from
denser to rarer medium.
2. angle of incidence >
𝒏𝟐
−
𝒏𝟏
=
(𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏)
…………….(1) critical angle
𝒗′ 𝒖 𝑹𝟏

For refracting surface ADC,

 = (𝑖 + 𝑒) – 𝐴
At minimum deviation,
RAY OPTICS 𝒊 = 𝒆 and 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒓
𝑨+𝒎
MIND MAP 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏{
𝟐
}
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 (𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏) 𝒏𝟐𝟏 = = 𝑨
− = ………..(2) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒗 𝒗′ −𝑹𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= (𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) [ − ]
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
GIST OF RAY OPTICS
Compound microscope Reflecting type telescope:- Telescope
Advantages are (1) Image is much
brighter (2) No chromatic aberration
and (3) Less mechanical support and
high resolution.
When image is formed at near point D
(Near point adjustment)
When image is formed at far point i.e. at
Magnifying power –
infinity
𝜷 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 ( Normal adjustment)
𝒎= = = 𝑚𝑜 𝑚𝑒
𝜶 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶
𝑣𝑜 𝐷 Magnifying power –
= (1 + ) 𝑂𝑅
−𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝜷 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 −𝑓𝑜
𝒎= = 𝑚=
𝜶 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 𝑓𝑒
𝐿 𝐷
𝑚=− (1 + ) Note:-tube length=f0+fe
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

Reflection of light: - The bouncing

back of light into the same medium from interface of a surface is called reflection of light.
 Laws of reflection: -
i) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of incidence.
ii) The incidence ray, the reflected ray and normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
  Types of spherical mirrors: Concave and Convex.
 The relation between object distance, image distance and the focal length of a mirror is called mirror
formula.
 The ratio of size of image to the size of object is called the magnification produced by the mirror.
Derivation of mirror formula:
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶and∆𝐴´𝐵´𝐶 are similar
A’B’/AB = B’C/CB= PC-PB’)/ (PB-PC) …..(1)
∆𝐴𝐵𝑃and∆𝐴´𝐵´𝑃 are also similar
A’B’/AB =PB’/PB …..(2)
Compare eqn (1) and (2) …
PB’/PB = (PC-PB’)/ (PB-PC)
-v/-u = (2f + v )/ (-u+2f)

2uv = 2vf + 2vf

Dividing by 2uvf on both sides we get,

Refraction of light: - Bending of light from its actual path, when it passes obliquely from one medium to another
having different optical densities.

Snell's Law: -The ratio of the sine of the incident Examples :- An object under water (any medium )
angle to the sine of the refracted angle is a constant. appears to be raised due to refraction when
sin i / sin r = n2 / n1 observed inclined
OR sin i / sin r = n21 n = (Real depth / Apparent depth) and Shift in
n1sin i = n2 sin r  1
OR the position (apparent) of object is x  t 1  
v2 sin i = v1sin r  n
Where t is the actual depth of the medium.

Critical angle (ic): - The angle of incidence in denser medium for which the
angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90° is called the critical angle.
𝟏 𝒏𝒓
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒄 = 𝒏𝒂𝒘 = Note:- If rarer medium is not air then 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒄 =
𝒏𝒘𝒂 𝒏𝒅
Total internal reflection: - When the light
travels from denser medium to rarer medium with
angle of incidence greater than critical angle then
instead of refraction complete reflection is
obtained this phenomenon is called total internal
reflection.
Applications of Total internal reflection:
Totally reflecting prisms:- Bend the light at either
900 fig (a) or 1800 fig (b)

Fiber-optic: -Fine fiber of glass or quartz in which

2
light enter from one end and comes out from
another end due to total internal reflection is called 1
optical fiber.
Used in endoscopy and communication

Here ncore >n clading

Refraction through Spherical surface:

From fig, in  MOC, 𝒊 = 𝜶 + 𝜸 ----------(1)
and in  MCI, 𝜸 = 𝒓 + 𝜷 ⇒ 𝒓 = 𝜸 − 𝜷 ------(2)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒏
From laws of refraction,𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓 = 𝒏𝟐 --------(3)
𝟏
𝒊 𝒏
For small angles, = 𝒏𝟐 ⇒ 𝒏𝟏 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒓---------(4)
𝒓 𝟏
Using (1) and (2) in (4),
𝒏𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜸) = 𝒏𝟐 ( 𝜸 − 𝜷) -----------(5)
𝑴𝑳 𝑴𝑳 𝑴𝑳 𝑴𝑳
𝒏𝟏 ( + ) = 𝒏𝟐 ( − )
𝑷𝑶 𝑷𝑪 𝑷𝑪 𝑷𝑰
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏
⇒ + = − ⇒ + = –
𝑷𝑶 𝑷𝑪 𝑷𝑪 𝑷𝑰 𝑷𝑰 𝑷𝑶 𝑷𝑪 𝑷𝑪
𝒏 𝒏 (𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏)
⇒ 𝑷𝑰𝟐 + 𝑷𝑶𝟏 = 𝑷𝑪 -----------(6)
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 (𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏)
Using sign convention, − =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹
Thin lens formula:- Let, O = optic centre, F1
and F2 be the principal focii. Object AB is place
beyond F2 and the real
image formed by it is A'B' beyond F2
From fig,  A’B’F2 ONF2,
𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑭𝟐 𝑨′ 𝑶𝑨′ −𝑶𝑭𝟐 𝒗−𝒇
= = = = ------(1)
𝑶𝑵 𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑭𝟐 𝑶𝑭𝟐 𝒇
Again,  A’B’O  ABO,
𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑶𝑨′ 𝒗
= 𝑶𝑨 = −𝒖 ----(2)
𝑨𝑩
From (1) and (2),
𝒗−𝒇 𝒗
= −𝒖 ⇒ 𝒖𝒇 − 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒖𝒗
𝒇
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Dividing by uvf −𝒖 = 𝒇 ------(3)
𝒗 𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝒗
Magnification m = = 𝒖 ………….. (4)
𝑨𝑩
Lens maker formula:-
For refracting surface ABC,
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 (𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏)
− = …………….(1)
𝒗′ 𝒖 𝑹𝟏
For refracting surface ADC,
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 (𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏)
− = ………..(2)
𝒗 𝒗′ −𝑹𝟐
Adding (1) and (2)
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− = (𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏 ) [ − ]
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 − 𝒖 = (𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) [𝑹 − 𝑹 ]
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒇 = (𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) [𝑹 − 𝑹 ] ………(3)
𝟏 𝟐

Lens Immersed in a Liquid:If a lens

(made of glass) of refractive index ng is
immersed in a liquid of refractive index nl
then its focal length in liquid, fl is given by
1  1 1 
 ( l n g  1)   
fl  R1 R2 
fl ( a n g  1)
 
fa ( l n g  1)
Note:- If nl> ng Lens changes its nature
and if nl< ng Lens doesn’t change nature.

Power of lens:-The power of a lens is its ability to converge or diverge the rays incident on it. It is defined
as the reciprocal of focal length. Its S.I. unit is dioptre (D).
1 1 1
So P = 𝑓 = (𝑛21 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ]
1 2
Note:- Since ƛr>ƛv and n α 1/ƛ so fr>fv and Pr<Pv
Combination of thin lenses:-𝒇𝟏 𝟏
=𝒇 +𝒇
𝟏
, Net Power P = P1 + P2 , Net magnification m = m1 x m2
𝒄 𝟏 𝟐

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM:-

From  QMR,
 = (𝑖 − 𝑟1 ) + (𝑒 − 𝑟2 ) = (𝑖 + 𝑒) − ( 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )--------(1)
From Quad. AQNR,
A+900+900+QNR=3600A +QNR=1800 -----(2)
From  QNR,
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 +QNR=1800 ----------(3)
from (2)&(3),𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ----------(4)
Using (4) in (1), = (𝑖 + 𝑒) – 𝐴 ------------(5)
At angle of minimum deviation (𝒎 ) , refracted ray
inside the prism is parallel to the base of the prism.
therefore,𝒊 = 𝒆 and 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒓-------(6)
𝐴+
Using (6) in (5),𝑚 = 2𝑖 – 𝐴 𝑖 = 2 𝑚 --------(7)
Also using (6) in (4),𝐴 = 2𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝐴/2-------(8)
On applying Snell’s Law at surface AB,
𝑨+𝒎
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏{ }
𝟐
𝒏𝟐𝟏 = = 𝑨 --------(9)
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM :-

Dispersion is the splitting of light into its constituent
colour.
When white light enters the prism, due to the angle of
the prism and different wavelengths, itsplits into seven
different colours(VIBGYOR). This phenomenon is called
dispersion of white light.
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Simple Microscope:- It is a converging lens of small focal length.
For near point adjustment
Magnification m = 1 + D / f

For normal adjustment

Magnification m = D / f

Compound microscope:-- It is used to obtain magnified images of tiny or micro objects. A compound microscope
consists of two converging lenses (fe>fo). The object to be magnified is placed just beyond the focus of the
objective lens which forms a real, inverted image. This image is either at the focus or within the focus of the
eye lens. The eye lens acts as a simple microscope and forms final image that is virtual, erect and magnified (at
D or at infinity).
When image is formed at far point i.e. at infinity
( Normal adjustment)

Magnifying power –
𝜷 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷
𝒎= = = 𝑚𝑜 𝑚𝑒
𝜶 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶
𝐿 𝐷 𝑣𝑜 𝐷
𝑚 = − OR 𝑚 =
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 −𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒
Note:- tube length = 𝑣𝑜 + [−𝑢𝑒 ]

When image is formed at near point D (Near point

adjustment)

Magnifying power –
𝜷 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷
𝒎= = = 𝑚𝑜 𝑚 𝑒 𝑚
𝜶 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶
𝑣𝑜 𝐷
= (1 + ) 𝑂𝑅 𝑚
−𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒
𝐿 𝐷
=− (1 + )
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
Telescope:-A telescope is an optical instrument to observe distant objects. It increases the angular size of
the final image many times the angular size of the object, which is far away.
(A) Refracting telescope These telescopes consist of two lenses, one objective of long focal length, which
forms a real image of the distant object and the other eyepiece of small focal length.
When image is formed at far point i.e. at infinity
( Normal adjustment)

Magnifying power –
𝜷 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 −𝑓
𝒎 = 𝜶 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 𝑚 = 𝑓 𝑜 Note:- tube length=f0+fe
𝑒

When image is formed at near point D (Near

point adjustment)

Magnifying power –
𝜷 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷
𝒎= =
𝜶 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶
−𝑓𝑜 𝑓
𝑚= [ 1 + 𝑒]
𝑓𝑒 𝐷
(B) Reflecting type telescope:- Advantages are (1) Image is much brighter (2) No chromatic aberration and
(3) Less mechanical support and high resolution (4) No spherical aberration.
Magnifying power
𝑓𝑜 𝑅/2
𝑚= =
𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒

Note :-Advantage of reflecting over refracting telescope

There is no chromatic aberration as the objective is a mirror in reflecting type telescope. Also the image is
brighter compared to the one formed in refracting type telescope.
There is no spherical aberration as the objective is a mirror in reflecting type telescope.

Difference between Compound Microscope and Refracting Telescope

S No Compound Microscope Refracting Telescope
1 The objective lens has a short focal length. The objective lens has a large focal length.
2 It is used to view near and small objects. It is used to view distant objects (At infinity).
3 The distance between the objective lens and The distance between the objective lens and eye
eye piece is greater than f0+fe. piece is f0+fe.
4 Length of the tube is v0+∣-ue∣. Length of the tube is f0+fe.
5

When image is formed at far point i.e. at When image is formed at far point i.e. at infinity
infinity ( Normal adjustment) ( Normal adjustment)
𝑣 𝐷 −𝑓𝑜
Magnifying power 𝑚= 𝑜 Magnifying power 𝑚=
−𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒
6

When image is formed at near point D (Near When image is formed at near point D (Near
point adjustment) point adjustment)
𝐿 𝐷 −𝑓 𝑓
Magnifying power 𝑚=− (1 + ) Magnifying power 𝑚 = 𝑓 𝑜 [ 1 + 𝐷𝑒 ]
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑒

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Anequiconvexlensoffocallength15cmiscutintotwohalvesasshowninfigure.Thefocallengthof each part is

(a) -30cm (b) -20cm (c)30cm (d) -15cm

2. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if red light is used instead of violet light?
(a)Focal length is increased when red light is used (b) Focal length is decreased when red light is used
(c)Focal length remains same when red light is used (d) Not depends on color of light.

3. A glass lens is immersed in water. What will be the effect on the power of lens?
(a) Increase (b)decrease (c) constant (d) not depends
4. How does the magnifying power of a telescope change on increasing the linear diameter of its objective?
(a) Power increases on increasing diameter (b) Power decreases on increasing diameter
(c) Power remain constant on increasing diameter (d) Power doesn’t depends on diameter
5. What is the magnification and focal length of a plane mirror.
(a) 1, ∞ (b)1,0 (c) -1, ∞ (d) 0,1
6. The refractive indices (R.I.) of glass and water with respect to air are 3/2 and 4/3 respectively. The R.I. of
glass with respect to water is:
(a) 8/9 (b) 9/8 (c) 7/6 (d) 2
 7. An astronomical telescope has a large aperture to:
(a) increase span of observation (b) have low dispersion
(c) reduce spherical aberration (d) have high resolution

8. The optical density of turpentine is higher than that of water while its mass density is lower shows a layer
of turpentine floating over water in a container. For which one of the four rays incident on turpentine in
the path shown is correct?

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c)3 (d) 4

9. Out of the following colour of white light, which deviated most when passes through a prism?
(a) Red light (b) Violet light (c) Yellow light (d) Green
10. A short pulse of white light incident from air to glass slab at normal incidence. After travelling through the
slab the first colour to emerge is
(a) Violet (b)blue (c) green (d) red
11. Two lenses of focal lengths 20 cm and -40 cm are held in contact. If an object lies at infinity, image formed
by the lens combination will be at
(a) Infinity (b)20cm (c)40cm (d) 60cm

12. Optical fibers are based on the phenomenon of

(a) Reflection (b)refraction (c)dispersion (d) total internal reflection

13. The characteristic feature of light which remains unaffected on refraction is

(a) Speed (b)frequency (c)wavelength (d) None of these
14. The velocity of light in a medium is half its velocity in air. If ray of light emerges from such a medium into air,
the angle of incidence, at which it will just suffer total internal reflection, is

(a) 15o (b)30 o (c) 45 o (d) 60 o

15. Relation between critical angles of water and glass is
(a) Cw>Cg (b) Cw<Cg (c) Cw = Cg (d) Cw = Cg = 0
16. If Foand Fe are the focal length of the objective and eye-piece respectively of a telescope, then its magnifying
power will be
1
(a) Fo  Fe (b) Fo  Fe (c) Fo / Fe (d) (Fo  Fe )
2

17. The radius of curvature for a convex lens is 40 cm, for each surface. Its refractive index is 1.5. The focal length
will be
(a) 40 cm (b) 20 cm (c) 80 cm (d) 30 cm
18. The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm. Its focal length is 12 cm.
What is the refractive index of glass?
(a) n = 1.33 (b) n = 2.1 (c) n = 1.5 (d) n = 1.8
 19. A lens of power + 2 dioptres is placed in contact with a lens of power – 1 dioptre. The combination will behave
like
(a) A convergent lens of focal length 50 cm (b) A divergent lens of focal length 100 cm
(c) A convergent lens of focal length 100 cm (d) A convergent lens of focal length 200 cm
20. Two lenses are placed in contact with each other and the focal length of combination is 80 cm. If the focal
length of one is 20 cm, then the power of the other will be
(a) 1.66 D (b) 4.00 D (c) –1.00 D (d) – 3.75 D
21. A glass convex lens ( g  1 .5) has a focal length of 8 cm when placed in air. The focal length of the lens when it
4
is immersed in water (µw=3) is
(a) 2m (b) 4 cm (c) 16 cm (d) 32 cm
22. The ray diagram could be correct
ng
(a) If n1  n2  ng (b) If n1  n2 and n1  ng n1
n2
(c) If and n1  ng (d) Under no circumstances Lens
n1  n2

23. Focal length of a convex lens will be maximum for

(a) Blue light (b) Yellow light (c) Green light (d) Red light
24. A point object O is placed in front of a glass rod having spherical end of radius of curvature 30 cm. The image
would be formed at
(a) 30 cm left (b) Infinity (c) 1 cm to the right (d) 18 cm to the left
O Air Glass
30 cm
15 cm

25. A parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident at one surface of a equilateral prism. Angle of incidence is
55° and angle of emergence is 46°. The angle of deviation will be (a) Less than 41° (b) Equal to 41° (c)
More than 41° (d) None of the above
26. A magician during a show makes a glass lens with n = 1.47 disappear in a trough of liquid. What is the refractive
index of the liquid?
(a) n = 1.33 (b) n = 2.2 (c) n = 1.47 (d) insufficient data
27. Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (n = 1.5 and radius of curvature = 20 cm). The
distance of the light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. The image will be formed at
(a) 100cm (b) 40cm (c) 160cm (d) 32 cm
28. An object is placed at 10 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 15 cm. The position of the image
is.
(a) 30cm (b) -15cm (c) 15cm (d) -30cm
29. A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam 12cm from P. If
the lens is a convex lens of focal length 20cm, the new position of convergence of beam is
(a) 8cm (b) 7.5cm (c) 10cm (d) 5cm

30. A biconvex lens of power +2 D is cut into two halves along principal axis. The focal length of each part is-
(a) 40cm (b) 100cm (c) 50cm (d) 25cm
 Answer key
1 c 7 d 13 b 19 c 25 b
2 a 8 b 14 b 20 d 26 c
3 b 9 b 15 a 21 d 27 a
4 d 10 d 16 c 22 c 28 d
5 a 11 C 17 a 23 d 29 b
6 b 12 d 18 c 24 a 30 c

Assertion- Reason Type Questions

Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the correct
answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false and R is also false.
1. Assertion : The air bubble shines in water.
Reason : Air bubble in water shines due to refraction of light.
2.Assertion : The refractive index of diamond is 6 and that of liquid is 3 . If the light travels from diamond
to the liquid, it will totally reflected when the angle of incidence is 50o.
1
Reason : n  , where n is the refractive index of diamond with respect to liquid.
sin C
3.Assertion : A single lens produces a coloured image of an object illuminated by white light.
Reason :The refractive index of the material of lens is different for different wavelengths of light.
4.Assertion : The focal length of lens changes when red light is replaced by blue light.
Reason : The focal length of lens depends on colour of light used.
5.Assertion : If objective and eye lenses of a microscope are interchanged then it can work as telescope.
Reason : The objective of telescope has small focal length.
6.Assertion : If the angles of the base of the prism are equal, then in the position of minimum deviation, the
refracted ray will pass parallel to the base of prism.
Reason : In the case of minimum deviation, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence.
7.Assertion : A convex lens of focal length 30 cm can’t be used as a simple microscope in normal setting.
Reason: For normal setting, the angular magnification of simple microscope is M=D/f
8.Assertion : A double convex lens (n= 1.5) has focal length 10 cm. When the lens is immersed in water (n =
4/3) its focal length becomes 40 cm.
1 nl  n m  1 1 
Reason : Because the focal length of lens in liquid    
f nm  R1 R2 
 9.Assertion : The frequencies of incident, reflected and refracted beam of monochromatic light incident
from one medium to another are same
Reason: The incident, reflected and refracted rays are coplanar.

10.Assertion : The images formed by total internal reflection are much brighter than those formed by mirror
or lenses.
Reason: There is no loss of intensity in total internal reflection.
11.Assertion : The refractive index of a prism depends only on the kind of glass of which it is made of and the
colour of light.
Reason : The refractive index of a prism depends upon the refracting angle of the prism and the angle of
minimum deviation.
12. Assertion : Critical angle of light passing from glass to air is minimum for violet colour.
Reason : The wavelength of blue light is greater than the light of other colours.
13. Assertion : The images formed by total internal reflections are much brighter than those formed by mirrors or
lenses.
Reason : There is no loss of intensity in total internal reflection.
14. Assertion : A ray of light entering from glass to air suffers change in frequency.
Reason: Velocity of light in glass is more than that in air.
15. Assertion : Nature of lens can be changed by placing the lens in a medium of refractive index more than that of
the lens.
Reason : Focal length of a lens depends on refractive index of medium in which it will be immersed.
16. Assertion : A convex lens of glass (μ =1.5) behaves as diverging lens when immersed in carbon disulphide of
higher refractive index (μ = 1.65)
Reason : A divergent lens is thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges.
Answer key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c a a a d a A a b a
11 12 13 14 15 16
a c a d a b
 CHAPTER-10 WAVEOPTICS
A wavefront is a surface of Huygen’s principle of
constant phase the secondary
wavelets-Each point on
the wavefront is the
source of a secondary
wavelets.

WAVE
OPTICS
MIND
MAP

Interference of light Diffraction

Path difference
𝑫

𝐧𝐃𝜆
Position of nth bright fringe𝒙 = 𝒏 (where
𝒅
n=0,1,2,3…)

Path difference Position of nthdark fringe𝒙=

(𝟐𝐧−𝟏)
𝒏 (where
𝟐𝒅
Δ=BP-AP=BE=a sin ɵ n=1,2,3…

Position of minima- Fringe width𝛽=𝒙 −𝒙𝒏 𝒏−𝟏 =𝖰 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 =𝖰 =𝝀𝑫

𝒅
𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌
Position of nthdark
Fringe width in medium =𝖰𝒗𝒂𝒄
fringe 𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝝁

A sin ɵn=nλ 𝖰 𝝀
Angular width of fringe 𝜽= =
𝑫 𝒅
(where n =1,2,3…
)3.Position of secondary
maxima-

asinɵn’=(2n+1)λ/2wher
e n =1,2,3…4.angular
width of central
maxima=2ɵ

=2λ/a
 1. Wavefront-It is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of the medium
vibrating in the same phase at any instant. A wavefront is a surface of constant phase. The
speed with which the wavefront moves outwards from the source is called the phase speed
(wave speed).
Note-1.Rays are perpendicular to wavefront.. 2.No backward wavefront is possible.

2. Types of wavefront- It depends on the source of disturbance.

Spherical Wavefront formed by the point

wavefront
source

Cylindrical Wavefront formed by linear or

wavefront
cylindrical shape source

As a spherical or cylindrical
Plane wavefront advances, its curvature
wavefront
decreases, so small portion of such a
wavefront at a large distance from
the source will be a plane wavefront

i) Huygen’s principle of the secondary

Wavelets-It is the basis of wave theory of
light. It describes how does a wavefront
propagate through a medium. It is based on the
following assumptions. Each point on a wave
front acts as new source of light which emits
secondary wavelets. These secondary wavelets spread out in all directions with the speed of light in
the given medium.

ii) The wave front at any later time is given by the forward envelope of the secondary
wavelets at that time.

3. During refraction-Frequency of light remains constant, wavelength and speed of

light get changed depending on the refractive index. (λ’= λ/n and v’= v/n) (here n is the
refractive index)
4. Behaviour of a prism, lens and mirror-

6.
Reflection on the basis of wave theory Refraction on the basis of wave theory
i)

In ⧍ABC and ⧍ DCB From ⧍ABC, sin i=BC/AC

∠BAC=∠CDB (Each From ⧍ADC, sin r=AD/AC
90o)BC=BC So sin i /sin r = BC / AD = V1/V2
AC=BD(each equal toct) Or sin i /sin r = n2/n1 = n21 (R.I. of second
ii) ∴⧍ABC≌ ⧍DCB medium w.r.t first medium)
Hence ∠i=∠r

Note-for denser to rarer medium

8. Coherent and Incoherent Sources-Two sources are coherent if they have the
same frequency and with a constant phase difference. They are incoherent if phase
difference is not constant.

9.Interference of light- When two light waves of the same frequency and having
constant phase difference(coherent),travelling in the same direction superpose each other,
the intensity gets redistributed, becoming maximum at some points and minimum at
others, this phenomenon is called interference of light.
Let two waves from two coherent source of light be 𝑦1=𝑎cos𝜔𝑡 and 𝑦2=a cos(𝜔𝑡+ Ø)

Where a is amplitude of each wave and Ø is the phase difference, then from principle of superposition
Y = y1 + y2 = 𝑎cos𝜔𝑡 + a cos(𝜔𝑡+ Ø) = 2aCos (Ø/2)Cos(𝜔t+Ø/2)
So Y= R Cos (𝜔t+Ø/2)
Here resultant amplitude :-
R = 2a Cos Ø/2
and resultant intensity is:-I = KR2
so I = 4 I0 Cos2Ø/2 where I0 = K a2 is intensity of each wave
Note:- If amplitudes are not same, then
Let two waves from two coherent source of light be 𝑦1=𝑎sin𝜔𝑡 and 𝑦2=𝑏sin(𝜔𝑡+ Ø)
Where a and b are amplitudes and Ø is the phase difference
Soy=y1 +y2 after solving we get y=R sin(𝜔t+𝜃)

 Where A is the resultant amplitude so Rnet=√(a2+b2+2abcosØ

 And Resultant intensity is Inet=I1+I2 +2√I1I2cosØ

 Resultant amplitude when a=b

 Resultant intensity when I1=I2=I

NOTE-Ratio of maximum intensity to minimum intensity……

Imax/Imin= (a + b)2/(a-b)2OR (√I1 + √I2 )2 / (√I1 - √I2 )2

10. Types of Interference-

s.no Constructive interference Destructive interference
1 Point where resultant intensity is max Point where resultant intensity is minimum
2 FOR IMAX cos ∅ = +1 FOR Imin cos ∅ = -1
Phase difference Phase difference
∅ = 0,2π,4π,6π……… 2nπ ∅ = π,3π,5π……… (2n-1)π
Path difference Path difference
⧍= 0,ƛ,2 ƛ,3 ƛ………..n ƛ ⧍= ƛ/2, 3 ƛ/2, 5 ƛ/2 ………..(2n – 1 )ƛ/2
Here n = 1,2,3…… Here n = 1,2,3……
Note:-
path differnce=( ƛ/2π) x phase R𝑚in= a - b
differnce
R𝑚ax =a + b I𝑚in= (√I1 - √I2 )2
I𝑚ax = (√I1 + √I2 )2
3 Resultant intensity at a point is Resultant intensity at a point is
maximum when the phase difference minimum when the phase difference is
is even multiple of π or path odd multiple of π or path difference is
difference is an integral multiple of an odd multiple of wavelength λ/2
wavelength λ
 11. Young’s Double Slit Experiment-It is the practical verification of interference.
In this we get two coherent sources by dividing wavefront. We always get bright fringe at
the center of the screen and both side alternately bright and dark fringes are made.
Fringe width in YDSE-

a) Path difference

(a) Position of nth bright fringe

Xn = n 𝜆 D / d where n = 0,1,2,3…

( C)

Position of nth dark fringe

Xn = (2n−1)D𝜆 / 2d
where n=1,2,3…
(a) Fringe width –Separation between position two consecutive maxima or minima. Width of
bright and dark fringe will be same.

(b) Fringe width in medium

(c) Angular width of fringe

OR 𝜃 = ƛ / d

(d) Overlapping of fringes

If n1th bright fringe overlapped on n2th bright fringe then n1λ1=n2λ2

If bright overlapped on dark then n1λ1=(2n2 -1)λ2/2

 (e) Fringe Width β = λD / d
(f) Dependency of fringe width (β α λ, β α D ,β α 1/d)

(j) Intensity distribution curve

Condition for sustained interference-
i) Two source of light must be coherent(ii) Having same frequency (iii)source should be
monochromatic (iv)wave must travel in same direction(v) for a better contrast amplitude
of waves should be approximately equal

12. Diffraction

It is the phenomena of bending of light around corners of an obstacle or aperture in the

path of light. Due to this bending, light goes into the geometrical shadow region of the
obstacle or aperture.
This bending becomes more when the dimensions of the aperture or the obstacle are
comparable of the wavelength of light.
i.e. a~ƛ
13. Diffraction of light from a single slit-

a) Central maxima-maximum intensity at point o because path difference at o is zero.

b) Path difference Δ=BP-AP=BE=a sinɵ

 c) Position of minima-Position of nth dark fringe a sinɵn = nλ Where n=1,2,3…

d) Position of secondary maxima- a sin ɵn’ = (2n+1) ƛ/2

Where n=1,2,3

(e) Width of central maxima- the direction of

first minima ɵ=λ/a, this angle is called half
angular width of central maxima Note-width of secondary
Angular width of central maxima = 2ɵ = 2λ/a Maxima α
(f) Linear width of central maxima =2x or D(2ɵ) = 2λD/a

(g)Intensity curve :-
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q1. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the separation between the slits is 0.1 mm, the
wavelength of light used is 600nm and the interference pattern is observed on a screen 1m
away. Find the separation between bright fringes.
(a) 6.6 mm (b) 6.0 mm (c) 6 m (d) 60cm
Q2. In the Young double slit experiment, the fringe pattern as seen on the screen is:
(a) Parabola (b) Hyperbola (c) Ellipse (d) Spiral
Q3. What is the effect on the angular width of interference fringes in Young’s double slit
experiment when the screen moved near to the plane of slits.
(a) Increases (b) decreases (c) constant (d) not defined
Q4. The phase difference between two waves at the place of constructive interference is given as
a multiple of:
(a) Multiple of π (b) multiple of (2n-1)π
(c) even multiple of π (d) odd multiple of π
Q5. The path difference between two waves at the place of destructive interference is given by:
(a) Multiple of π (b) multiple of π/2
(c) even multiple of π/2 (d) odd multiple of π /2
Q6. The wave-front due to source situated at the infinity is
(a) Spherical (b) Plane
(c) Cylindrical (d) Rectangular
Q7. Colours appear on a thin film of a soap and a soap bubble is due to
(a) Diffraction (b) Refraction (c) Dispersion (d) Interference
Q8. The ratio of intensities of two waves is 9 : 1. They are producing interference. The ratio of
maximum and minimum intensities will be
(a) 10 : 8 (b) 9 : 1 (c)4 : 1 (d) 2 : 1
Q9. A slit of size 0.15 cm is placed at 2.1 m from a screen. On illuminated it by a light of wavelength 5  10–
5cm. The width of central maxima will be

(a) 70 mm (b) 0.14 mm (c) 1.4 mm (d) 0.14 cm

Q10. Conditions of diffraction is
(a) a
1 (b) a
 1 (c) a  1 (d) None of these
  
Q11. Diffraction and interference of light suggest :-
(a) Nature of light is electro-magnetic (b) Wave nature (c) Nature is quantum (d) Nature of light is
transverse
Q12. The bending of beam of light around corners of obstacles is called
(a) Reflection (b) Diffraction (c) Refraction (d) Interference
Q13 If an interference pattern have maximum and minimum intensities in 36 :1 ratio then what will be the
ratio of amplitudes :
(a) 5 : 7 (b) 7 : 4 (c) 4 : 7 (d) 7 : 5
Q14In Young's experiment, if the amplitude of interfering waves are unequal then the :
(a) contrast in the fringes decreases (b) contrast in the fringes increase
(c) number of fringes will increase (d) number of fringes will decrease
Q15 In Y.D.S.E. the fringe width is 0.2 mm. If wavelength of light is increase by 10% and separation between
the slits is increased by 10% then fringe width will be :
(a) 0.20 mm (b) 0.165 mm (c) 0.401 mm (d) 0.242 mm
Q16 If intensity of each wave in the observed interference pattern in Young's double slit experiment is I0. then
for some point P where the phase difference is φ , intensity I will be :
(a) I = I0cosφ (b) I = I0 cos2 φ (c) I = I0 (1+cosφ ) (d) I = 2 I0 (1+cosφ )
Q17 In Young's double slit experiment, one of the slits is so painted that intensity of light emitted from it is
half of that of the light emitted from other slit. Then:
(a) fringe system will disappear (b) bright fringes will become brighter and dark fringes will be
darker
(c) both bright and dark fringes will become darker (d) dark fringes will become less dark and bright
fringes will become less bright
Q18 In white light interference, nearest to the central (bright) fringe, will have which of the following colour
(a) violet (b) yellow (c) red (d) green
Q19 In a double slit experiment if light of wavelength 5000 Å is used then fringe width of 1 mm is obtained. If
now light of wavelength 6000 Å is used without altering the system then new fringe width will be :
(a) 1 mm (b) 0·5 mm (c) 1·2 mm (d) 1·5 mm
Q20 If intensity ratio of two interfering waves is 9 : 1 then ratio of maximum to minimum amplitude of
resultant wave is :-
(a)2 : 1 (b) 3 : 2 (c) 1 : 3 (d) 5 : 2
Q21 Young's double slit experiment is performed with light of wavelength 550 nm. The separation between
the slits is 1.10 mm and screen is placed at distance of 1m. What is the distance between the consecutive
bright or dark fringes.
(a) 1.5 mm (b) 1.0 mm (c) 0.5 mm (d) None of these
Q22 In Young's double slit experiment when wavelength of 700 nm is used then fringe width of 0.7 mm is
obtained. If wavelength of 500nm is used then what is the fringe width?
(a)0.35 mm (b) 0.5 mm (c) 3.5 mm (d) 5 mm
Q23 The waves of 600µm wave length are incident normally on a slit of 1.2mm width. The value of diffraction
angle corresponding to the first minima will be (in radian) :
(a) π/ 2 (b) π/ 6 (c) π/ 3 (d) π/4
Q24 What happens, when the width of the slit aperture is increased in an experiment of single slit diffraction
experiment :
(a) spread of diffraction region is increased (b) spread of diffraction region is decreased
(c) spread of diffraction region will be decreased and mid-band becomes narrow (d) none of the above
Q25 In Young's double slit experiment, wavelength of light is 6000Å. Then the phase difference between the
light waves reaching the third bright fringe from the central fringe will be :
(a) zero (b) 2π (c) 4π (d) 6π
 Q26 If intensity of each of the two waves is I and they are having phase difference of 120 0 , when the waves
are superimposed, then the resultant intensity will be :
(a) I (b) 2I (c) I/2 (d) 4I
Q27 Two wave are represented by the equations y1 = a sin ωt and y2 = a cos ωt. The first wave :
(a) Leads the second by π (b) Lags the second by π (c) Leads the second by π/ 2 (d) Lags the second by
π/2
Q28 In Young's double slit experiment, the two slits act as coherent sources of equal amplitude A and
wavelength λ. In another experiment with the same set up the two slits are sources of equal amplitude A
and wavelength λ but are incoherent. The ratio of the intensity of light at the mid-point of the screen in
the first case to that in the second case is :
(a)4 : 1 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 1 (d) None of the above
Q29 In Young's experiment, one slit is covered with a blue filter and the other with a yellow filter. Then the
interference pattern :
(a) Will be blue (b) Will be yellow (c) Will be green (d) Will not be formed
Q30 A diffraction pattern is obtained by using a beam of red light. What will happen if red light is replaced by
blue light?
(a) bands disappear (b) bands become broader and farther apart
(c) no change will take place (d) diffraction bands become narrower and crowded together.
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B B C c d B D c b A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B B D a a d d a c A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C B B c d a c b d B
Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the correct
answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below. (a) Both A and R are true and
R is the correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct explanation of A ( c) A
is true but R is false ( d) A is false and R is also false.
1. Assertion : When a light wave travels from a rarer to a denser medium, it loses speed. The reduction in
speed implies a reduction in energy carried by the light wave.
Reason : The energy of a wave is proportional to velocity of wave.
2. Assertion : No interference pattern is detected when two coherent sources are infinitely close to each
other.
Reason : The fringe width is inversely proportional to the distance between the two slits.
3. Assertion : For best contrast between maxima and minima in the interference pattern of Young’s double
slit experiment, the intensity of light emerging out of the two slits should be equal.
Reason : The intensity of interference pattern is proportional to square of amplitude.
4. Assertion : When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from some distance, a bright spot is
seen at the centre of shadow of the obstacle.
 Reason : Destructive interference occurs at the centre of the shadow.
5. Assertion : Thin films such as soap bubble or a thin layer of oil on water show beautiful colours when
illuminated by white light.
Reason : It happens due to the interference of light reflected from the upper surface of the thin film.
6. Assertion : Interference pattern is made by using blue light instead of red light, the fringes becomes
narrower.
D
Reason : In Young’s double slit experiment, fringe width is given by relation B .
d

7. Assertion : In Young’s experiment, the fringe width for dark fringes is different from that for bright
fringes.
Reason : In Young’s double slit experiment the fringes are performed with a source of white light,
then only black and bright fringes are observed.
8. Assertion :In Young’s experiment, the fringe width for dark fringes is different from that for white fringes.
Reason : In Young’s double slit experiment the fringes are performed with a source of white light, then
only black and bright fringes are observed.
9. Assertion : All bright interference bands have same intensity.
Reason : Because all bands receive same light from two sources.
10. Assertion :Coloured spectrum is seen when we look through a muslin cloth.
Reason : It is due to the diffraction of white light on passing through fine slits.
11. Assertion : When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from some distance, a bright spot is
seen at the centre of shadow of the obstacle.
Reason : Destructive interference occurs at the centre of the shadow.
12. Assertion :In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed.
Reason :There is no gain or loss of energy, which is consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.
13. Assertion :Interference pattern is made by using blue light instead of red light, the fringes becomes
narrower.
𝜆𝐷
Reason : In Young’s double slit experiment, fringe width is given by relation β= 𝑑

14. Assertion :Coherent sources produce sustained interference pattern of light

Reason : Coherent sources have constant phase difference of light
15. Assertion :Thin films such as soap bubble or a thin layer of oil on water show beautiful colours when
illuminated by white light.
Reason : It happens due to the interference of light reflected from the upper surface of the thin film

ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D A b c c a d d c a
11 12 13 14 15
C A a a a
 CHAPTER-11: DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
Work Function
The minimum energy needed by an electron to come out from a metal surface (Wo or φo).

Electron emission
The electrons from a metal surface can be emitted by supplying energy greater than W o by
suitably heating (thermionic emission) or applying strong electric field (field emission) or
radiating it by light of suitable frequency (photoelectric emission).

K.E. gained by an accelerated electron

An electron accelerated from rest trough a p.d. of V volts,

Gain in K.E=½mv2=e V

Electron Volt
Kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated through a p.d. of V volts.

1eV=1.6x10-19J,1MeV=1.6x10-13J

Particle nature of light: The photons

According to Planck’s quantum theory of radiation, an electromagnetic wave travels in the form
of discrete packets of energy called quanta. One of quantum of light radiation is called a photon.

Photon nature of electromagnetic radiation

1. In its interaction with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made of particles, called
photons.
2. Each photon carries an energy (E =hv) and momentum (p=(h/λ), which depends upon
The frequency of radiation and not on its frequency.
3. Photons are electrically neutral not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
 4. In photon–electron collision, total energy and total momentum are conserved but the
number of photons may not be conserved.
5. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
6. The equivalent mass of a photon is given by E
=mc2=hυ or m= hυ/c2

Photo electric effect

The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when electromagnetic radiation
of suitable frequency is incident on it. Metals like Li, Na, K, Ce show photoelectric effect with
visible light while metal like Zn, Cd,Mg respond to ultra violet light.

Photo electric Current

The current constituted by photoelectrons. It depends on (i)the intensity of incident light, (ii)p.d.
applied between the two electrodes, and (iii)the nature of emitter material.
Experimental study of Photoelectric Effect:
Variation of photoelectric current with
intensity of light:

Experimental setup:- Photoelectric current increases with the

intensity of light.
Variation of photoelectric current with
potential keeping frequency constant: Variation of photoelectric current with
potential keeping frequency constant:
 1. The frequency and intensity of the 1. The intensity of incident light is kept
incident are kept constant 2. constant.
2. As the potential of A is increased, 3. Greater the frequency of the incident
photo current is also increased. radiation , larger is the corresponding
3. When a negative potential is applied stopping potential.
to A, the photo current starts to 4. This implies that as the frequency is
decrees. increased the photoelectrons are
4. The photocurrent becomes zero at a emitted with greater kinetic energies so
particular negative potential Vo that the greater retarding potential is
called stopping potential or cut-off needed to stop the photoelectron.
potential.
5. The cut-off potential does not
depend on the intensity of incident
light.
1. Stopping potential varies linearly with
Variation of stopping potential with
frequency.
frequency:
2. Below a certain frequency called
threshold frequency no electrons are
emitted, hence stopping potential is
zero
3. The slope of this graph is h/e and
constant and does not depend on the
material

Cut off or stopping potential

The minimum value max
of negative potential applied to the anode of a photocell to make the photo
electric current zero. It depends on (i) frequency of incident light and (ii) the nature of emitter
material. For a given frequency of incident light, it is independent of its intensity. It is related to
the maximum K.E. of the emitter electrons as Kmax = ½mv2 = e Vo
Threshold frequency
The minimum value of the frequency of incident radiation below which the photo electric
emission stops altogether, it is a characteristic of the metal.

Laws of Photo electric emission

1. For a given metal and a radiation of fixed frequency, the rate of emission of photo
electrons is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
2. For every metal, there is a certain minimum frequency below which no photo electrons
are emitted; however high is the intensity of the incident radiation. This frequency is
called threshold frequency.
 3. For the radiation of frequency higher than the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic
energy of the photo electrons is directly proportional to the frequency of incident
radiation and is independent of the intensity of incident radiation.
4. The photo electric emission is an instantaneous process.

Failure of wave theory to explain photo electric effect

The picture of continuous absorption of energy from the radiation could not explain

1. The independent of Kmax on intensity,

2. The existence of threshold frequency vo, and
3. The instantaneous nature of photo electric emission.

Einstein’s theory of photo electric effect

When a radiation of frequency v is incident on a metal surface, it is absorbed in the form of
discrete photons each of energy hv. Photoelectric emission occurs because of single collision of a
photon with a free electron. The energy of the photon is used to

 E = 0 + K.E.
1
 h = ho + mv 2
2
eV0=
1 2 1 1 
mv max  h    h  h 0  hc  
2   0 
This is Einstein’s photo electric equation

Explanation of photo electric emission on the basis of Einstein’s photo electric

emission
1. Clearly, above the threshold frequency υ0, Kmax is directly proportional to υ0 i.e. the
maximum K.E. of the emitted electrons depends linearly on the frequency of incident
radiation.
2. When υ<υ0, Kmax become negative. The kinetic energy becomes negative which has no
physical meaning. Hence there is no photo electric emission below the threshold
frequency υ0.
3. It is obvious from the photo-electric equation that the maximum K.E. of photo-electrons
does not depend on the intensity of incident high.
Dual nature of radiation:
Light has dual nature. It manifests itself as a wave in diffraction, interference, polarization etc.
while it shows particle nature in photoelectric effect, Compton scattering etc.

Dual nature of matter:

According to De-Broglie hypothesis, material particles in motion display wave like properties.
This hypothesis was based on (i) de-Broglie concept of nature loves symmetry, and (ii) matter
can be converted into energy and vice versa. So moving particles like protons, neutrons,
electrons etc. are associated with de-Broglie waves and their wavelength is given by

λ=h/p=h/mv
De-Broglie wavelength of an electron:
The wavelength associated with an electron beam accelerated through a potential difference of V
volts is given by λ=h/√2meV = (12.27/ √V) A0

Multiple Choice Questions ( One Marks)

1. The work function of a metal is hc/𝝀0. If light of wavelength 𝝀 is incident on its surface, then the
essential condition for the electron to come out from the metal surface is
(a) 𝝀≥ 𝝀0 (b) 𝝀≥ 2𝝀0 (c) 𝝀≤ 𝝀0 (d) 𝝀≤ 2𝝀0
2. A photon of energy 3.4 eV is incident on a metal surface whose work function is 2 eV. Maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectron emitted by the metal surface will be
(a) 1.4 eV (b) 1.7 eV (c)5.4 eV (d) 6.8eV
3. The work function of caesium is 2.14eV.The threshold frequency for caesium is
(a) 5.16 x 1014Hz (b) 2.08 x 1014 Hz

(c) 5.16 x 1013Hz (d) 5.16 x 1010Hz

4. Which of the following waves can produce photoelectric effect?

(a) Ultrasound (b)infrared

(c) radio waves (d) X – rays

5. In photoelectric effect the kinetic energy of electrons emitted from the metal surface depends
upon
(a) Intensity of light (b)Frequency of incident light

(c) velocity of incident light (d)both intensity and velocity of light

6. A light having wavelength 300nm falls on a metal surface. Work function of metal is 2.54 eV.
Stopping potential will be
(a) 2.3 V (b) 2.59 V (c) 1.60 V (d) 1.29 V.
 7. When photons of energy hυ0 are incident on the surface of photosensitive material of work
function h υ 0, then
(a) the K.E. of all emitted electron is hυ0 (b) kinetic energy of emitted electros is h(υ - υ0)
(c) kinetic energy of the fastest electros is h(υ - υ 0)
(d) kinetic energy all of emitted electros is less than hυ0
8. The de- Broglie wavelength of electron having energy 40 keV is
(a) 0.12 Å (b) 1.2 Å (c)12.2 Å (d) none of these
9. Electron volt is unit of
(a) energy (b) potential (c) current (d) charge
10. Which of the following has the longest wavelength if they are moving with the same velocity?
(a) neutron (b) proton (c) α- particle (d) β- particle
11. The work function for a metal is 3 eV. To emit a photoelectron of energy 2 eV from the surface of
this metal, the Wavelength of the incident light should be:
(a) 6187 Ao (b) 4125 Ao (c) 12375 Ao (d) 2486 Ao
12. A proton, a neutron, an electron and alpha particle have same energy. Then their de- Broglie
wavelength compare as
(a) λp= λn>λe> λα (b) λα<λp = λn>λe
(c) λe<λp= λn> λα (d) λp= λn = λe= λα
13. According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, the graph between the kinetic energy
of photoelectron ejected and the frequency of incident radiation is

14. The kinetic energy of a proton and that of an alpha particle are 4 eV and 1 eV
respectively. The ratio of the de- Broglie wavelength associated with them will be
(a)2 : 1 (b) 1 : 1 (c) 1: 2 (d) 4 : 1
15. If an electron and a photon propagate in the form of waves having same wavelength,
it implies that they have same
(a) speed (b) momentum (c) energy (d) all the above
16. The photoelectric work function for a metal surface is 4.14 ev. The cutoff wavelength for this is :
(a) 4125 Å (b) 2062.5 Å (c) 3000 Å (d) 6000 Å
17.When radiation of given frequency is incident upon different metals, the maximum kinetic energy of
electrons emitted –
(a) decrease with increase of work function (b) increase with increase of work function
(c) remains same with the increase of work function (d) does not depend upon work function.
18. Maximum kinetic energy of emitted electron depends on the frequency of incident photon when
frequency of incident photons is-
(a) equal to the threshold frequency (b) half of threshold frequency
(c) greater then threshold frequency (d) one third of threshold frequency
19. Two particles have equal momentum. What is the ratio of their de-Broglie wavelength?
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 3 (d) 0.5
20.The threshold wavelength for a metal having work function ϕ0 is λ0 , what is the threshold wavelength
for a metal whose work function is ϕ0 /2 .
(a) 4 λ0 (b) 2 λ0 (c) λ0 /2 (d) λ0 /4
ANSWERS MCQ:
1. b 2. a 3. a 4. d 5. b
6. c 7. c 8. a 9. a 10. d
11. d 12. b 13. d 14. b 15. b
16. c 17. a 18. c 19. b 20. b
 CHAPTER 12&13 ATOMS AND NUCLIE
Thomson’s model of atom- Every atom consists of uniformly positively charged
sphere in which electrons are embedded like seeds in water melon.
Drawbacks: couldn’t explain large angle scattering of alpha particles & the origin of
spectral series.

Rutherford’s model of atom-

(i) Every atom consists of a tiny central core, called the atomic nucleus, in which the entire positive charge and
almost entire mass of the atom are concentrated.
(ii) The size of nucleus is of the order of 10-15m , which is very small as compared to the size of the atom which is of
the order of 10-10m.
(iii)The atomic nucleus is surrounded by certain number of electrons. As atom on the whole is electrically neutral,
the total negative charge of electrons surrounding the nucleus is equal to total positive charge on the nucleus.
(iv)These electrons revolve around the nucleus in various circular orbits as do the planets around the sun. The
centripetal force required by electron for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the
electrons and the nucleus.

Limitations:
couldn’t explain the stability of the nucleus & the emission of line
spectra of fixed frequencies

Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension) :

The minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the -particle
approach, is called the distance of closest approach (r0).
2𝑍𝑒 2
r0 = 1
4𝜋𝜀0 ( 𝑚𝑣 2 )
2
 Impact parameter:-The perpendicular distance of the velocity
vector ( v ) of the -particle from the centre of the nucleus when it is
far away from the nucleus is known as impact parameter. It is given
as
𝑍𝑒 2 cot𝜃⁄2
b= 1
4𝜋𝜀0 ( 𝑚 𝑣 2 )
2
Bohr’s Model-Postulates of Bohr’s theory
(i) Bohr’s first postulate - an electron in an atom could revolve around the nucleus in certain stable orbits without
the emission of radiant energy. Each atom has certain definite stable states in which it can exist, and each possible
state has definite total energy called the stationary states of the atom.
(ii) Bohr’s second postulate - the electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π where h is the Planck’s constant
i.e. L=mvr = nh/2π ,n= 1,2,3…..
(iii) Bohr’s third postulate when an electron make a transition from one of its specified non-radiating orbits to
another , a photon is emitted or absorbed having energy equal to the energy difference between the final and initial
states. The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by hν=| Ef – Ei|
Limitations
1. Bohr’s model applicable only for hydrogen like atoms and not for the atoms or ions having more than one electron.
2. Splitting of spectral lines was not explained in Bohr’s postulates.
3. Orbits were taken as circular but according to Sommerfield these are elliptical
Radius of orbit : For an electron around a stationary Speed of electron : From equation (i) and (ii) ,
nucleus the electrostatics force of attraction provides
speed of electron in nth orbit can be calculated as
the necessary centripetal force
2 2kZe 2 Ze 2  c  Z 6 Z
i.e. 1 (Ze2)e  mv ………..(i) vn    .  2 .2  10 m / sec
4 0 r r nh 2 0 nh  137  n n
nh
Also mvr  ………(ii) where (c = speed of light 3  108m/s)
2
From equation (i) and (ii) radius of nth orbit
n2h2 n 2 h 2 0 n2 2 1
rn    0 .53 Å  rn  n , ( k  )
4 kZme
2 2
mZe 2
Z Z 4  0

Energy of the electron :- Total energy: Total energy (E) is the sum of potential
P.E. of the electron in nth orbit energy and kinetic energy
(Ze ) (e ) kZe 2 i.e.E = K + U
U  k. 
rn rn
kZe 2 n 2 h 2 0
E  also rn  .
K.E. of the electron in nth orbit 2rn mze 2
mv 2 k . (Ze ) (e )
As we know   me 4  z 2  me 4  z2
rn rn2 Hence E    .
2 2 
   2 3  ch
 n2
 8 0 h  n  8  0 ch
2

kZe 2 | U |
Kinetic energy K   Z2 Z2 4
2rn 2   R ch  13 . 6 2 eV , where R  me2 3
n 2
n 8  0 ch
Short Cut Formula –
R= Rydberg's constant= 1.09  107per m.
K.E. = - ( Total Energy )
P.E. = - 2 K.E. = 2( Total Energy ) For hydrogen atom, total energy of the electron in nth
𝟏𝟑.𝟔
orbit En = − 𝒏𝟐
eV
 Spectral series of Hydrogen atom :-
When electron makes transition from higher energy level
(n2) to lower energy level (n1),the frequency of emitted
photon is given by
hν =En2 – En1
1 1 1
𝜈̅ = =𝑅 [ − ]
𝜆 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
where 𝜈̅ is called wave number.
(a) Lyman Series: 1=1, 2 = 2, 3, 4 …. (Ultraviolet
region)
(b) Balmer Series: 1=2, 2 =3, 4, 5 … (visible region)
(c) Paschen Series: 1=3, 2 =4, 5, 6…. (Infrared region)
(d) Brackett Series: 1=4, 2 =5, 6, 7…. (Mid infrared
region)
(e) Pfund Series: 1=5, 2 =6, 7, 8… (Far infrared region
Composition of Nucleus:
An atom is almost empty. If an atom is enlarged to the size of a classroom, the nucleus would be of the size of
pinhead. Nevertheless, the nucleus contains most (more than 99.9%) of the mass of an atom. Nucleus of an atom
contain neutrons and protons. ZX A
Here, X is any element, Z = atomic no. A = mass no. No of electron = No of proton = Z
No of Neutrons = A – Z
Size (Radius) of Nucleus
R=R0A1/3
where A = mass number and R0=constant. Where, R0 = 1.2 x 10 -15m
Nuclear Density (ρ)
Nuclear density is independent of mass number A.
Nuclear density, ρ = Mass of nucleus / nuclear volume
= mA / (4/3)π(R0A 1/3) 3
=3 m / 4πR03 =2.3 X 10 17Kg/m3 (constant)
Atomic Mass Unit (u) :-One atomic mass unit is defined Electron Volt (eV) :- It is the energy acquired by an
1
as th of the actual mass of c-12 atom. electron when it is accelerated through a potential
12
1 difference of 1 volt.
1u= X mass of C-12 atom 1 eV = 1.6 X 10-19 J
12
1
= 12 X 1.992678 X 10-26 kg & 1 MeV = 1.6 X 10-13 J
= 1.66 X 10-27 kg.
Isotopes :- The atoms of an element, which have the Isotones :- The nuclii having the same number of
same atomic number but different mass numbers are neutrons are called isotones.
called isotopes. For examples (i) 3717𝐶𝑙 & 19𝐾 ,
39

(ii) 80𝐻𝑔& 197

198
79𝑃𝑢
For examples Isobars :- The atoms having the same mass number
(i) Isotopes of helium Hydrogen 11𝐻, 21𝐻& 31𝐻 but different atomic numbers are called isobars.
(ii) Isotopes of helium--- 32𝐻𝑒, 42𝐻𝑒 For examples (i) 31𝐻& 32𝐻𝑒
(iii) Isotopes of Carbon-- 126𝐶 , 136𝐶 , 146𝐶 (ii) 37
17𝐶𝑙 & 16𝑆
37

(iii) 20𝐶𝑎& 18𝐴𝑟

40 40

Nuclear Force: The nuclear force is the force that holds

Potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a separation
protons and neutrons together in a nucleus.
between two nucleons
Properties of nuclear Forces :-
(i) Nuclear forces are very short range attractive forces.
(ii) Nuclear forces are charge independent.
(iii) Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
 (iv) Nuclear forces do not obey inverse square law
(v) Nuclear forces is attractive for distances larger than
0.8 fm and repulsive for less than 0.8 fm.
(vi) Nuclear forces are saturated forces.
(vii)Nuclear forces are strongest forces in nature.

Mass -Energy Relation :- E = mc2

Relation between amu & MeV : 1amu=931.5MeV
Mass Defect (∆M) :-
Mass defect is the difference in the mass of nucleus and its constituents nucleon (neutrons and protons).
Mass Defect ∆M = [Z mp + (A – Z) mn ] − M
Wheremp= mass of proton , mn= mass of neutron , M = mass of nucleus
Binding Energy ( Eb):-
The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy required to break up a nucleus in to its constituent
protons and neutrons and to separate them to such a large distance that they may not interact with each other.
It is equivalent energy of mass defect.
2
i,e, Eb = ∆𝑀c
2
⇨Eb = [{Z mp+ (A – Z) mn} − M] c
Binding Energy per nucleon ( Ebn) :-
Ebn =Eb /A

Binding energy curve :-

From the binding energy curves the following conclusions can be drawn
(i)The binding energy per nucleon has a low value for both very light and very heavy nuclei.
(ii) In the region A < 20, the B.E./A of the nuclei is quite low except for the nuclei He, cl and O. In an attempt to have
greater value of B.E./A, the nuclei in the region A < 20 unite to form a heavier nucleus and therefore, the nuclei in this
region are prone to nuclear fusion.
(iii) In the region A > 210, the B.E./A of the nuclei is again quite low. The nuclei in this region have a tendency to split
so as to improve the value of their B.E./A. Hence, in region A > 210, the nuclei are prone to nuclear fission.
(iv) In the region 40 < A < 120, the nuclei are most stable. It is indicated by the flat shape of the graph. The value of
the B.E./A in this region is maximum (= 8:8 MeV per nucleon)

Nuclear fission: - Nuclear fission is the process

by which a nucleus breaks up in such a way that the two
products obtained are of comparable sizes.
Fission of 92U 235 by fast moving neutrons is represented
as,
92 U
235
 0 n1  92 U
236
 56 Ba141  36 Kr
92
 3 0 n1  Q
(unstable nucleus)

The energy released in U235 fission is about 200 MeV or 0.8 MeV
per nucleon.
Nuclear fusion: - A fusion reaction is one in which two
lighter nuclei get fused together to form a heavy
nucleus. It is a highly exothermic reaction and produces
energy, on a scale, much higher than that produced in
fission.
1
1H  11 H  12 H      e
2
1H  11 H  32 He  
3
2 He  32 He  42 He  11 H  11 H

4 1 H 1 2 He 4  2    2  26 .73 MeV
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q. NO Questions
1 13 .6
In the nth orbit, the energy of an electron En   eV for hydrogen atom. The energy required to take the
n2
electron from first orbit to second orbit will be
(a) 10 .2 eV (b) 12 .1 eV
(c) 13 .6 eV (d) 3.4 eV
2 Which one of the series of hydrogen spectrum is in the visible region
(a) Lyman series (b) Balmer series
(c) Paschen series (d) Bracket series
3 Energy levels A, B, C of a certain atom corresponding to increasing values of C
1
energy i.e. E A  E B  EC . If 1 , 2 , 3 are the wavelengths of radiations B
corresponding to the transitions C to B, B to A and C to A respectively,
2 3
which of the following statements is correct
A
 1  2
(a) 3  1  2 (b)  3 
1   2
(c) 1  2  3  0 (d) 23  12   22

4 Ratio of the wavelengths of first line of Lyman series and first line of Balmer series is
(a) 1: 3 (b) 27 : 5
(c) 5 : 27 (d) 4 : 9
5 Nuclear binding energy corresponds to
(a) Mass of proton (b) Mass of neutron
(c) Mass of nucleus (d) Mass defect of nucleus
6 Size of nucleus is of the order of
(a) 10 10 m (b) 10 15 m
(c) 10 m
12
(d) 10 19 m
7 Which of the following is quantised according to Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom
(a) Linear momentum of electron(b)Angular momentum of electron
(c) Linear velocity of electron (d)Angular velocity of electron
8 The binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus of 26Fe56is approximately
(a) 8 eV (b) 8 KeV
(c) 8.7MeV (d) 8 J
9 In a nuclear reaction, which of the following is conserved
(a)Atomic number (b)Mass number
(c)Atomic number, mass number and energy(d)None of these
10 When alpha particles are sent through a thin gold foil, most of them go straight through the foil, because
(a) Alpha particles are positively charged (b) Mass of alpha particle is more than mass of electron
(c) Most of the part of an atom is empty space (d) Alpha particles moves with high velocity
11 In an experiment of scattering of alpha particle showed for the first time that the atom has,
(a) Electron (b) Proton (c) Neutron (d) Nucleus
12 The existence of positively charged nucleus was established by,
(a) Bohr’s model of H-atom (b) Positive ray analysis
(c) Scattering experiment (d) model of atom
13 According to Bohr’s postulates, an electron revolve around the nucleus in ______ orbits.
(a) Dynamic (b) Stationary (c) Lower (d) First
14 The angular momentum of the electron in the nth permissible orbit is;
(a) 𝑝ℎ/2𝜋 (b) ℎ/2𝜋(c) 2ℎ/𝜋(d) 𝑛ℎ/2𝜋
15 In equation En=-13.6/𝑛2, what does this negative sign indicates.
(a) Electrons are free to move (b) Electron is bound with nucleus.
(c) Kinetic energy is equal to potential energy (d) Atom is radiating energy
16 Kinetic energy of electron in hydrogen atom is
(a) 𝑒2/4𝜋𝜀0𝑟 (b) 𝑒2/8𝜋𝜀0𝑟 (c) 𝑒3/8𝜋𝜀0𝑟 (d) 𝑒2/3𝜋𝜀0𝑟
17 What is the order of velocity of electron in a hydrogen atom in ground state.
(a)106m/s (b)102m/s (c) 1010m/s (d)109m/s
 18 The Bohr’s model is applicable to which kind of atoms
(a)Having one electron only (b)Having two electrons
(c)Having eight electrons (d) Having more than eight electrons.
19 The minimum energy required to knock an electron completely out of the atom is called as
(a) Kinetic Energy (b) Potential Energy
(c) Ionisation Energy (d) Excitation energy
20 The radius of the innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is r1. What is the ratio of radii of the n =2
and n=3 orbits?
(a) 4/9 (b) 9/4 (c)10/15 (d) 2/5
21 The average binding energy per nucleon is maximum for the nucleus.
(a) 2He4 (b) 8O16 (c)26Fe56 (d) 92U238
22 What is the ratio of nuclear radii if the mass numbers of two nuclei are 4 and 32
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 3 (c) 1: 4 (d) 1 : 5
23 In the Bohr's hydrogen atom model, the radius of the stationary orbit is directly proportional to
(n = principle quantum number)
(a) n-1(b) n(c) n-2(d) n2
24 The kinetic energy of the revolving electron is 3.4ev, then potential energy will be
(a) -3.4 ev (b)-6.8 ev (c) +6.8 ev (d) 3.4 ev
25 The radius of electron's second stationary orbit in Bohr's atom is R. The radius of the third orbit will be
(a) 3R (b) 2.25R (c) 9R (d) R/3
26 A hydrogen atom (ionisation potential 13.6 eV) makes a transition from third excited state to first excited
state. The energy of the photon emitted in the process is:
(a) 1.89 eV (b) 2.55 eV (c) 12.09 eV (d) 12.75 eV
27 In Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the lowest orbit corresponds to :
(a) Infinite energy (b) The maximum energy(c) The minimum energy (d) Zero energy
28 If an electron jumps from 1st orbital to 3rd orbital, then it will
(a) Absorb energy (b) Release energy (c) No gain of energy (d) None of these

29 Which of the transitions in hydrogen atom emits a photon of lowest frequency (n = quantum number)
(a) n = 2 to n = 1 (b) n = 4 to n = 3(c) n = 3 to n = 1 (d) n = 4 to n = 2
30 Which one of these is non-divisible
(a) Nucleus (b) Photon (c) Proton (d) Atom
ANSWERS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANSWER a b B c d b B c c c
Q. NO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
ANSWER d c B d b b a a c a
Q. NO 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
ANSWER c a D b b b c a b b
 CHAPTER 14.
Semiconductor Electronics: material, Devices and Simple Circuits
Differences Between Conductors, Semiconductors & Insulators:
Characteristics Conductor Insulator Semiconductor
Definition A conductor is a An insulator is a material A semiconductor is a material
material that allows that does not allow the whose conductivity lies between
the flow of current flow of current conductor & insulator
when applied with a
voltage.
Conductivity very high very low conductivity intermediate conductivity
conductivity (10-11 -10-19 Ʊ /m), ((105 Ʊ /m -10-6 Ʊ /m)
(102 -108 Ʊ /m)

Resistivity Low (10-2 -10-8 Ω/m) Very High (1011-1019 Ω/m) Normal
(10-6Ω/m -105 Ω/m)

Temperature Resistance increases Resistance decreases with Resistance decreases with an

with an increase in an increase in increase in temperature.
temperature. temperature.

Examples Gold, Copper, Silver, Rubber, Glass, Wood, Air, Silicon, Germanium, Selenium,
Aluminum etc Mica, Plastic, Paper etc. antimony, Gallium Arsenide etc.

Energy gap Eg=0eV Eg>3eV Eg<3Ev

Energy
Band
diagrams
Energy Bands: This theory is based on the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
Valence band: The energy band formed by a series
of energy levels containing valence electrons is
known as valence band. At 0 K, the electron fills the
energy levels in valence band starting from lowest
one.
(i) This band is always filled with electrons.
(ii) Electrons are not capable of gaining energy
from external electric field.
(iii) No flow of current due to electrons present in
this band.
(iv) The highest energy level which can be
occupied by an electron in valence band at 0 K is
called fermi level.

Conduction band : The higher energy level band is

called the conduction band.
Forbidden energy gap (Eg) : Energy gap
(i) This band is partially filled by the electrons.
between conduction band and valence band
(ii) In this band the electrons can gain energy from
E g  (C.B.) min  (V .B.) max
external electric field.
(iii) The electrons in the conduction band are
max called the free electrons. They are able to move
.
C.B.
anywhere within the volume of the solid.
min.
(iii) Current flows due to such electrons.
Eg
max
V.B. .
min.

(i) No free electron is

present in forbidden energy gap.
(ii) Width of forbidden energy gap depends
upon the nature of substance.
(iii) As temperature increases (), forbidden
energy gap decreases () very s
lightly.
Intrinsic Semiconductors: Extrinsic Semiconductors:
(1) A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic (1) An impure semiconductor is called extrinsic
semiconductor. It has thermally generated semiconductor
current carriers . (2) When pure semiconductor material is mixed
(2) They have four electrons in the outermost with small amounts of certain specific impurities
orbit of atom and atoms are held together by with valency different from that of the parent
covalent bond . material, the number of mobile electrons/holes
(3) Free electrons and holes both are charge
carriers and n e (inC.B.)  n h (in V.B.) drastically changes. The process of addition of
(4) In pure semiconductor, impurity must be impurity is called doping.
less than 1 in 10 8 parts of semiconductor. (3) Penta valent impurities : The elements whose
(5) In intrinsic semiconductor ne  nh  ni ; atom has five valance electrons are called penta
valent impurities e.g. As, P, Sb etc. These impurities
where ne  Electron density in conduction
are also called donor impurities because they
band, nh  Hole density in V.B., ni  Density of donate extra free electron.
intrinsic carriers. (4) Trivalent impurities : The elements whose
(6) The fraction of electrons of valance band each atom has three valance electrons are called
present in conduction band is given by trivalent impurities e.g. In, Ga, Al, B, etc. These
 E / kT
f e g ; where Eg = Fermi energy or k = impurities are also called acceptor impurities as
Boltzmann's constant and T = Absolute they accept electron.
temperature (5) The compounds of trivalent and pentavalent
(7) Because of less number of charge carriers elements also behaves like semiconductors e.g.
at room temperature, intrinsic semiconductors GaAs, InSb, In P, GaPetc.
have low conductivity so they have no practical (6) In extrinsic semiconductors ne  nh , ne nh  ni2
use.
(7) Their conductivity is high and they are used for
practical purposes.
(8) Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types
(i)N-type semiconductor (ii) P-type semiconductor.
Holes in Semiconductors :
 A hole is considered as a seat of positive charge, having magnitude of equal to that of an
electron.
 Holes acts as virtual charge, although there is no physical charge on it.
 Effective mass of hole is more than electron.
 Mobility of hole is less than electron.
Energy bands in semiconductors:
Intrinsic Semiconductors: Extrinsic Semiconductors:
Pure semiconductor N-type P-type
At T<0K At T>0K

N-type Semiconductors P-type semiconductors

 Majority charge carriers – electrons  Majority charge carriers – holes
 Minority charge carriers – holes  Minority charge carriers – electrons
 ne>nh; ie>>ih  nh>>ne ; ih>>ie
 N-type semiconductor is electrically  P-type semiconductor is also electrically neutral
neutral (not negatively charged) (not positively charged)
 Impurity is called Donor impurity because  Impurity is called Acceptor impurity.
one impurity atom generate one electron.  Acceptor energy level lies just above the valence
 Donor energy level lies just below the band.
conduction band.

P-N Junction diode :

A p-n junction is an arrangement made by adding N-Type and P-Type Impurities in a single
semiconducting crystal.

Diffusion current = the movement caused by variation

in the carrier concentration.
Drift current = the movement caused by electric fields.
Diffusion process : due to high concentration of
charge carriers
Drift Process:-due electric field present at
junction.

Depletion Layer : Due to diffusion, neutrality of both N and P-type semiconductor is disturbed, a
layer of negative charge appear near the junction in the P-crystal and a layer of positive charge
appears near the junction in N-crystal. This layer is called depletion layer
– +
 The thickness of depletion layer is 1 micron = 10–6m. VB
1
 Width of depletion layer 
Dopping

 Depletion layer is decrease with increase temperature. P N

Depletion layer
Potential Barrier : The potential difference created across the P-N junction due to the diffusion of
electron and holes is called potential barrier.
On the average the potential barrier in P-N
junction is ~ 0.5 V and the width of depletion region
~ 10–6m.
So the barrier electric field
V 0 .5
E   5  10 5 V / m
d 10 6

P-N Junction Biasing: - It means the way of connecting battery to P-N junction diode. It is two types
Forward Biasing: Positive terminal of the Reverse Biasing : Positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the P-Type and negative battery is connected to the N-Type and negative
terminal connected to N- Type. terminal connected to P- Type.
current in
Forward

Knee Forward
voltag

 Forward biasing width of depletion layer

decreases.  In reverse biasing width of depletion layer
 In forward biasing resistance offered increases.
RForward minimum.  In reverse biasing resistance offered
 Forward bias opposes the potential RReverse high.
barrier and for V>VB a forward current is set up  Reverse bias supports the potential
across the junction. barrier and no current flows across the
Cut-in (Knee) voltage : The voltage at which the junction due to the diffusion of the
current starts to increase rapidily. For Ge it is 0.1 majority carriers.
V and for Si it is 0.7 V.  (A very small reverse currents may exist
in the circuit due to the drifting of
current in mA

minority carriers across the junction)

Forward

Reverse
Knee voltage
Forward Break
voltage
down Reverse
current in r
P-N junction Diode as a rectifier:-
Rectifier is a device which converts ac to dc. It is of following two types
Half wave rectifier : An electronic circuit Full wave rectifier:- An electronic circuit that
which converts half cycle of alternating converts the complete cycle of alternating current
current into direct current is known as half- into direct current is known as full-wave rectifier.
wave rectifier.

Note:The frequency () for half wave

rectifier is same as that of ac.

Note: frequency : The ripple frequency of full wave

rectifier = 2  (Frequency of input ac)

Assertion Reason Type Questions:

Two statements are given –one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the answer
to these questions from the codes (a) , (b) , (c ) and (d) as given below.
i) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A,
j) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct explanation of A,
k) A is true but R is false,
l) A is false and R is also false.

1. Assertion : If the temperature of a semiconductor is increased then it's resistance decreases.

Reason :The energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very small.
2. Assertion : An N-type semiconductor has a large number of electrons but still it is electrically neutral.
Reason : An N-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with a
pentavalent impurity.
3. Assertion : Current is determined by the rate of flow of charge carriers.
Reason : Semiconductors do not Obeys Ohm's law.
4. Assertion : P-N junction diode behave as conductor at room temperature.
 Reason : V-I characteristic of P-N junction diode is same as that of any other conductor.

5. Assertion: The resistivity of the semiconductor increases with temperature.

Reason: The atoms of semiconductor vibrate with larger amplitude at higher temperature
thereby increasing its resistivity.
6. Assertion: Semiconductors are solids with conductivities in the intermediate range from 10−6
104ohm−1m−1.
Reason: Intermediate conductivity in semiconductors is due to partially filled valence bands
7. Assertion: |In n' type semiconductor, number density of electrons iS greater than the number density of
holes but the crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality.
Reason : The charge of electrons donated by donor atoms is just equal and opposite to that of the
ionised donor
8. Assertion : The forbidden energy gap between the valence and conduction bands is greater in silicon
than in germanium
Reason : Thermal energy produces fewer minority carriers in silicon than in germanium
9. Assertion : The electrical conductivity of n-type semiconductor is higher than that ofp-type
semiconductor at a given temperature and voltage applied.
Reason : The mobility of electron is higher than that of hole.
10. Assertion: The temperature coefficient of resistance is positive for metals and negative for p-type
semiconductors.
Reason : The effective charge carriers in metals are negatively charged electrons, whereas in p-type
semiconductors, they are positively charged.
11. Assertion : Diamond behaves such as an insulator.
Reason : There is a large energy gap between valence band and conduction bond of diamond.
12. Assertion : The drift current in a p-n junction is from the n-side to the p-side.
Reason : It is due to free electrons only.
13.Assertion : The diffusion current in a p-n junction is from the p-side to the n-side.
Reason : The diffusion current in a p-n junction is greater than the drift current when the
junction is in forward biased.
14.Assertion : When two semiconductor of p and n type are brought in contact, they form p-n junction
which act like a rectifier.
Reason : A rectifier is used to convent direct current into alternating current.
 Answers:

1 a 2 b 3 b 4 c 5 d 6 c 7 a
8 b 9 a 10 a 11 a 12 c 13 b 14 d

Multiple Choice Type Questions

1. If the following input signal is sent through a PN-junction diode, then the output signal across RL will
be
10 V
P N
0V
RL

–10 V

2. In the half-wave rectifier circuit shown. Which one of the following wave forms is true for VCD , the
output across C and D?

A C

P Q VCD RL

B D

3. The i-V characteristic of a P-N junction diode is shown below. The approximate dynamic resistance
of the P-N junction when a forward bias of 2volt is applied
i (mA)
800

(a) 1  (b) 0.25  400

(c) 0.5  (d) 5

2 2.1 V (volt)

4. A N-type semiconductor is
(a) Negatively charged (b)Positively charged (c) Neutral (d) None of these
5. The forbidden energy band gap in conductors, semiconductors and insulators are EG1 , EG 2 and EG 3
respectively. The relation among them is
(a) EG1  EG 2  EG 3 (b) EG1  EG 2  EG 3 (c) EG1  EG 2  EG 3 (d) EG1  EG 2  EG 3

6. Let nP and ne be the number of holes and conduction electrons respectively in a semiconductor.
Then

(a) n P  n e in an intrinsic semiconductor (b) n P  n e in an extrinsic semiconductor

 (c) n P  n e in an intrinsic semiconductor (d) n e  n P in an intrinsic semiconductor

7. In the depletion region of an unbiased P-N junction diode there are;

(a) Only electrons (b) Only holes (c)Both electrons and holes (d) compensated ions

8. The cause of the potential barrier in a P-N diode is

(a) Depletion of positive charges near the junction

(b)Concentration of positive charges near the junction

(c) Depletion of negative charges near the junction

(d) Concentration of positive and negative charges near the junction

9. Which is reverse biased diode

–20V
(a) (b)
5V
–10V

15V 10V
10V – 5V

(c) (d)
10. In figure given, assuming the diodes to be ideal

(a) D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased and hence current flows from A to B.
(b) D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased and hence no current flows from B to A and vice
versa.
(c) D1 and D2 are both forward biased and hence current flows from A to B.
(d) D1 and D2 are both reverse biased and hence no current flows from A to B and vice versa.

11. When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a small amount of trivalent impurity, then

(a)its resistance increases (b) it becomes a P-type semiconductor

(c) there will be more free electrons than holes in the semiconductor
(d) dopant atoms become donor atoms.
 12. In a semiconductor
(a) there are no free electrons at 0 K (b) there are no free electrons at any temperature
(c) the number of free electrons increases with pressure
(d) the number of free electrons is more than that in a conductor
13.Electric conduction in a semiconductor takes place due to
(a) electrons only (b) holes only
(c) both electrons and holes (d) neither electrons nor holes

14.The electrical conductivity of pure germanium can be increased by

(a) increasing the temperature (b) doping acceptor impurities
(c) doping donor impurities (d) All of the above
15.What is the resistivity of a pure semiconductor at absolute zero ?
(a) Zero (b) Infinity
(c) Same as that of conductors at room temperature
(d) Same as that of insulators at room temperature
16. In a p-type semiconductor, the acceptor valence band is
(a) close to the valence band of the host crystal
(b) close to conduction band of the host crystal
(c) below the conduction band of the host crystal
(d) above the conduction band of the host crystal
17. In semiconductors, at room temperature
(a) the conduction band is completely empty
(b) the valence band is partially empty and the conduction band is partially filled
(c) the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is partially filled
(d) the valence band is completely filled
18.When an impurity is doped into an intrinsic semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remains the same (d) becomes zero
19. If a small amount of antimony is added to germanium crystal
(a) it becomes a p–type semiconductor
(b) the antimony becomes an acceptor atom
(c) there will be more free electrons than holes in the semiconductor
(d) its resistance is increased
20.A semiconductor device is connected in a series circuit with a battery and a resistance. A current is
found to pass through the circuit. If the polarity of the battery is reversed, the current drops to almost
zero. The device may be a/an
(a) intrinsic semiconductor (b) p-type semiconductor
(c) n-type semiconductor (d) p-n junction diode
21.In a semiconductor diode, the barrier potential offers opposition to
(a) holes in P-region only (b) free electrons in N-region only
(c) majority carriers in both regions (d) majority as well as minority carriers in both regions
 22. Hole is-
(a) an anti-particle of electron (b) a vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent bond
(c) an artificially created particle (d) absence of free electrons
23. Barrier potential of a P-N junction diode does not depend on
(a) doping density (b) diode design
(c) temperature (d) forward bias
24. In the middle of the depletion layer of a reverse- biased p-n junction, the
(a) electric field is zero (b) potential is maximum
(c) electric field is maximum (d) potential is zero
25. When p-n junction diode is forward biased then
(a) both the depletion region and barrier height are reduced
(b) the depletion region is widened and barrier height is reduced
(c) the depletion region is reduced and barrier height is increased
(d) Both the depletion region and barrier height are increased
26. Holes are charge carriers in –
(a) intrinsic semiconductor only (b) p- type semiconductor only
(c)n- type semiconductor only (d) Both intrinsic semiconductor and p- type semiconductor
27. When trivalent impurity is mixed in pure semiconductor, the conduction is mainly due to-
(a) the electrons (b) holes (c)protons (d) positive ions
28.The ratio of number of holes and number of conduction electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor is –
(a) 1:1 (b) 1:2 (c)2:1 (d) none of the above
29.The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature because –
(a) number density of free current carriers increases (b) relaxation time increases
(c)number density of current carriers increases, relaxation time decreases, but effect of decrease in
relaxation time is much less than increase in number density
(d) Both number density of carriers and relaxation time increases
30.Pieces of copper and of silicon are initially at room temperature. Both are heated to temperature T.
The conductivity of –
(a) both increases (b) both decreases (c)copper increases and silicon decreases
(d) copper decreases and silicon increase

1 c 2 b 3 b 4 c 5 b 6 c 7 d 8 d 9 b 10 b
11 c 12 b 13 c 14 b 15 b 16 b 17 b 18 a 19 c 20 d
21 c 22 b 23 b 24 a 25 a 26 d 27 b 28 a 29 c 30 d

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