INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATOLOGY

Climatology can be defined as the study of climate and its variability, analyses long-term weather
patterns over time and space and the controls that produce Earth’s diverse climatic conditions. One
type of climatic analysis locates areas of similar weather statistics and groups them into climatic
regions. Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940), a German Meteorologist and Climatologist is best known
for his delineation and mapping of the climatic regions of the world. He played a major role in the
advancement of Climatology and Meteorology for more than 70 years. The Science of Climatology
helps people better understand the atmospheric conditions that cause weather patterns and
temperature changes over time and to determine future climate expectations. This modern field of
study is regarded as a branch of the Atmospheric Sciences and a subfield of Physical Geography,
which is one of the Earth Sciences.

Climatology is different from Meteorology, which is concerned with short term weather
conditions. Because of its significance, the Science of Climatology can be divided into different
areas of study such as Physical Climatology, Dynamic Climatology, Tornado Climatology,
Regional Climatology, Bioclimatology, and Synoptic Climatology. The study of the hydrological
cycle over long time scales (hydro-climatology) is further subdivided into the subfields of Snow
Climatology and Hail Climatology. Climatology now includes aspects of Oceanography and
Biogeochemistry. As a Science therefore, Climatology studies the nature of climate, the causes and
interpretation of its spatial variations and its association with the elements of natural environment
and human activities. Just as climate itself encompasses many elements, including temperature,
precipitation and wind conditions, the climate system includes five basic components: the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.

There are many elements that make up both the weather and the climate of a geographical location.
The most significant of these elements are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, solar
irradiance, humidity, precipitation, condensation and topography. Climate is an important element
because it indicates the atmospheric condition of heat, moisture and circulation; it plays a dominant

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role in shaping vegetation, soils and hydrology and therefore affects virtually, all forms of life.
The factors affecting the climate of a place are referred to as controls and include latitude, altitude,
pressure and wind system, and distance from the sea, ocean currents, and topography. The
variations in air temperature control the pressure and wind system of a place.

Factors affecting climate

Many factors affect climate around the world as they vary in different parts globally. They include:

 Distance from the Sea/continentally

 Ocean Currents
 Direction of Prevailing Winds
 Topography
 Distance from the Equator/Latitude
 the El Niño Phenomenon
 Aspects
 ITCZ
 Man’s Activities

Over centuries, climate variations were believed to be due to interactions in the atmosphere by the
various physical players. It is now widely accepted however that, human activity is also affecting
climate, and that the impact is not the same everywhere. For example, changes appear to be
happening faster near the poles than in many other places. In this tutorial, we will look at some of
these factors in more detail.

1. Distance from the Sea (Continentally)

Distance from the sea (Continentally) affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and
wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the
sea. The centre of continents are subject to a large range of temperatures where summer
temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture from the sea evaporates before it reaches the
centre of the land mass. Mountains affect climate by blocking wind and receiving more rainfall
than low-lying areas. As air is forced over higher ground, it cools, causing moisture to condense

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and fall as rain. The higher a location is above sea level, the colder it is. Large bodies of water
such as oceans, seas, and large lakes affect the climate of an area. Water heats and cools more
slowly than land. Therefore, in the summer, the coastal regions will stay cooler and in winter
warmer. A more moderate climate with a smaller temperature range is created. Coastal areas are
cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air
from the sea. The centre of continents are subject to a large range of temperatures.

2. Ocean Currents

Ocean currents act much like a conveyor belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the
equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus, ocean currents
regulate global climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching
Earth's surface. Ocean currents can increase or reduce temperatures. Currents affect climate by
moving cold and warm water around the globe. In general, how do currents carry water? Currents
carry warm water from the tropics toward the poles and bring cold water back toward the equator.
Since cold air holds less moisture than warm air, these currents bring cool, dry weather. The main
ocean current that affects the UK is the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream is a warm ocean current in
the North Atlantic flowing from the Gulf of Mexico, northeast along the U.S coast, and from there
to the British Isles.

The Gulf of Mexico has higher air temperatures than Britain, as it is closer to the equator. This
means that the air coming from the Gulf of Mexico to Britain is also warm. However, the air is
also quite moist as it travels over the Atlantic Ocean. This is one reason why Britain often receives
wet weather. The Gulf Stream keeps the west coast of Europe free from ice in the winter and, in
the summer, warmer than other places of a similar latitude.

3. Direction of Prevailing Winds

Winds that blow from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to inland areas. Winds
that blow to Britain from warm inland areas such as Africa will be warm and dry. Winds that blow
to Britain from inland areas such as central Europe will be cold and dry in winter. Britain's
prevailing winds come from a southwesterly direction over the Atlantic.

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These winds are cool in the summer, mild in the winter and tend to bring wet weather.
There are 3 major wind patterns found in the Northern Hemisphere and also 3 in the Southern
Hemisphere. These are average conditions and do not essentially reveal conditions on a particular
day. As seasons change, the wind patterns shift north or south. So does the intertropical
convergence zone, which moves back and forth across the Equator. Sailors called this zone the
doldrums because its winds are normally weak.

Prevailing wind is the most frequent wind direction a location experiences. In Britain, the
prevailing wind is from the Southwest, which brings warm, moist air from the Atlantic Ocean.
This contributes to the frequent rainfall. When prevailing winds blow over land areas it can
contribute to creating desert climates. As the Earth circles the sun, the tilt of its axis causes changes
in the angle of which sun’s rays contact the earth and hence changes the daylight hours at different
latitudes. Polar Regions experience the greatest variation, with long periods of limited or no
sunlight in winter and up to 24 hours of daylight in the summer. .

4. Distance from the Equator

The distance from the Equator affects the climate of places and regions since temperatures drop
with distance from the Equator due to the curvature of the earth. At the poles, energy from the sun
reaches the Earth's surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere than
at the Equator. As a result, more energy is lost and temperatures are cooler compared to the areas
around the Equator. Again, the poles usually experience the greatest difference between summer
and winter day lengths: in the summer, there is a period when the sun does not set at the poles;
conversely, the poles also experience a period of total darkness during winter. In contrast, day
lengths vary little at the equator.

As already explained, in the areas closer to the poles, sunlight has a larger volume of the
atmosphere to pass through since the sun is at a lower angle in the sky. Explained in terms of
latitude and angles of the sun’s rays, as the Earth circles the sun, the tilt of its axis causes changes
in the angle of which sun’s rays contact the earth and hence changes the daylight hours at different
latitudes. Polar regions experience the greatest variation, with long periods of limited or no
sunlight in winter and up to 24 hours of daylight in the summer.

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5. Topography

The Topography of an area can greatly influence climate of that area. The most important climatic
control is altitude. The places situated at higher altitudes which are far from equator receive lesser
sunlight and places which are located towards the equator receives more sunlight and are hotter
than the places located at higher latitudes. The topography of an area can greatly influence climate.
Mountain ranges are natural barriers to air movement. In California, winds off the Pacific Ocean
carry moisture-laden air toward the coast. The Coastal Range allows for some condensation and
light precipitation. Inland, the taller Sierra Nevada range brings more significant precipitation in
the air. On the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, sinking air warms from compression, clouds
evaporate, and dry conditions prevail.

Mountains receive more rainfall than low lying areas because as air is forced over the higher
ground it cools, causing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall. The higher the place is above
sea level the colder it will be. This happens because as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and
is less able to absorb and retain heat. That is why you may see snow on the top of mountains all
year round.

6. Altitude

Normally, climatic conditions become colder as altitude increases. “Life zones” on a high
mountain reflect the changes, plants at the base are the same as those in surrounding countryside,
but no trees at all can grow above the timberline. Snow crowns the highest elevations. Altitude
refers to the height above sea level. Temperature decreases with increasing height above sea level.
This makes the higher areas to have lower temperatures than the lower areas. A rise in altitude
causes a fall in temperature and a cooling effect, which causes condensation. Locations at higher
altitudes have colder temperatures and temperature usually decreases by 1°C for every 100 metres
rise in altitude. This means that coastal locations tend to be cooler in summer and warmer in winter
than places inland at the same latitude and altitude. The Earth's surface absorbs most of the heat
from the sun. This is because there is less pressure higher in the atmosphere, allowing the air
molecules to spread out more. So, the higher one travels into the troposphere, the lower the
temperature becomes.

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In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with altitude. The reason is that the
troposphere's gases absorb very little of the incoming solar radiation. Instead, the ground absorbs
this radiation and then heats the tropospheric air by conduction and convection. Pressure decreases
with increase in altitude. The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be interpreted as the
total weight of the air above a unit area at any elevation. At higher elevations, there are fewer air
molecules above a given surface than a similar surface at lower levels. As you go to higher
altitudes, there are less air molecules pushing down on you (lower pressure). When the pressure
of a gas decreases, the temperature also decreases (the reverse is also true – when the gas pressure
increases, the temperature increases).

7. How does ITCZ influence climate?

Earth's deep-tropical climate is dominated by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a narrow
band of rising air and intense precipitation. Precipitation in the ITCZ is driven by moisture
convergence associated with the northerly and southerly trade winds that collide near the equator.
It moves north in the Northern Hemisphere in summer and south in the Northern Hemisphere in
winter. Therefore, the ITCZ is responsible for the wet and dry seasons in the tropics. Further away
from the equator, the two wet seasons merge into one, and the climate becomes more monsoonal,
with one wet season and one dry season. Seasonal shifts in the location of the ITCZ drastically
affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather
than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
lies in the equatorial trough, a permanent low-pressure feature where surface trade winds, laden
with heat and moisture, converge to form a zone of increased convection, cloudiness, and
precipitation.

How does the location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) change over time? The ITCZ
migrates south of the equator in Northern Hemisphere winter and north of the equator in Northern
Hemisphere summer. ... Equatorial regions receive more direct sunlight than other areas. The ITCZ
(Intertropical Convergence Zone) play important role in the global circulation system and also
known as the Equatorial Convergence Zone or Intertropical Front. It is a basically low-pressure
belt encircling Earth near the Equator. It is a zone of convergence where the trade winds meet. The

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ITCZ is a global belt of low pressure produced by the convergence of air coming out of the high-
pressure belt to the north and the high-pressure belt to the south.

The ITCZ has a mean position north of the equator because there is much more landmass in the
Northern Hemisphere as compared to the Southern Hemisphere. The ITCZ is an area of low
atmospheric pressure that forms where the Northeast Trade Winds meet the Southeast Trade Winds
near (actually just north of) the earth's equator. As these winds converge, moist air is forced
upward, forming one portion of the Hadley cell. This means that, in summer, air over land is heated
more than air over ocean, which shifts the ITCZ toward land regions. In regions where continents
lie north or south of the equator, as in Asia and Australia, this causes the ITCZ to shift farther off
the equator during the summer season.

8. Aspect
The aspect relates to the direction in which a place is facing and only affects local climate, it
therefore has no global implications on climates. In the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes
(more open to sunlight and warm winds) receive far more sunlight than north-facing slopes and
therefore will generally be warmer and drier due to higher levels of evapotranspiration than a
north-facing slope.

9. Distance from the Sea

The sea can have a great influence over climates in maritime regions. The south facing slopes in
the Northern hemisphere are warmer than the slopes facing the North since they never receive
direct sunshine while the slopes facing south do. The slopes facing north are always experiencing
low temperature than the one facing south. In the Southern hemisphere, the slopes facing north are
warmer than ones facing south. This is because the sun is found within the tropics all around the
year. Windward slope receive more rainfall than the leeward slopes.

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9. Surface of the Earth

Just look at any globe or a world map showing land cover, and you will see another important
factor which has a influence on climate: the surface of the Earth. The amount of sunlight that is
absorbed or reflected by the surface determines how much atmospheric heating occurs. Darker
areas, such as heavily vegetated regions, tend to be good absorbers; lighter areas, such as snow
and ice-covered regions, tend to be good reflectors. The ocean absorbs and loses heat more slowly
than land. Its waters gradually release heat into the atmosphere, which then distributes heat around
the globe

10. El Niño Phenomenon

El Niño, which affects wind and rainfall patterns, has been blamed for droughts and floods in
countries around the Pacific Rim. El Niño refers to the irregular warming of surface water in the
Pacific. El Nino is essentially caused by the interaction between the surface layers of the tropical
Pacific Ocean and the atmosphere over it. The water is warmer due to the trade winds reversing
direction or becoming less intense. In contrast, El Nino can also bring flooding and heavy rainfall
in other areas. The warmer water pumps energy and moisture into the atmosphere, altering global
wind and rainfall patterns. The phenomenon has caused tornadoes in Florida, smog in Indonesia,
and forest fires in Brazil. El Niño is Spanish for 'the Boy Child' because it comes about the time of
the celebration of the birth of the Christ Child. The cold counterpart to El Niño is known as La
Niña, Spanish for 'the girl child', and it also brings with it weather extremes.

El Nino, along with La Nina, are complex weather patterns caused by variations in ocean
temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific. Both El Nino and La Nina are opposites of what is called
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. The term describes the fluctuations in temperature
between the ocean and atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific. El Nino is the warm phase
while La Nina is the cold phase. These variations from normal surface temperatures have huge
impacts on weather and climate around the world. These phases usually can last between nine to
12 months but can last for years. They occur usually every two to seven years.

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Causes and effects of El Nino

El Nino is essentially caused by the interaction between the surface layers of the tropical Pacific
Ocean and the atmosphere over it. The water is warmer due to the trade winds reversing direction
or becoming less intense. These changes impact on aquatic species and sea birds as the changing
temperatures impact on plankton and seaweed and so fish and seabirds migrate to other regions or
die due to not having enough food to live on. It also creates huge changes in weather patterns and
can lead to droughts, often in Indonesia, Philippines and Australia. In contrast, El Nino can also
bring flooding and heavy rainfall in other areas. In extreme conditions it can bring hurricanes,
typhoons and very cold weather. In contrast El Nino can also bring flooding and heavy rainfall in
other areas.

MAN’S INFLUENCE ON CLIMATE

Human activities dealing to changes in land use and land cover such as deforestation, urbanization,
and shifts in vegetation patterns alter the climate of regions, due to changes in the reflectivity of
the Earth surface (albedo), together with the emissions from burning forests, urban heat island
effects and changes in the natural water cycle. There is overwhelming evidence that human
activities, especially burning fossil fuels, are leading to increased levels of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which in turn amplify the natural greenhouse effect,
causing rise in temperatures at the Earth's atmosphere, ocean, and land surface.

The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are:

 Burning fossil fuels leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations.

 Farming and forestry — including land use change via agriculture and livestock.
 Cement manufacture.
 Aerosols - chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Human activities - mostly burning of coal and other fossil fuels, cement production, deforestation
and other landscape changes emitted roughly 40 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere in 2015. Some greenhouse gases, like methane, are produced through agricultural
practices, including livestock manure. Others, like CO2, largely result from natural processes like
respiration and from the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas.

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Human activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in Earth's atmosphere in the
amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known
contribution comes from the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the
atmosphere. Plant growth, forest fires, volcanoes, and other natural processes affect the amounts
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The amounts of greenhouse gases
then affect temperatures on Earth. Human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels,
are altering the climate system.

Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and various synthetic
chemicals. Carbon dioxide is widely reported as the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas
because it currently accounts for the greatest portion of the warming associated with human
activities-water cycle. In terms of overall range and extents of impacts, however, it is the burning
of fossil fuels from locomotives and industries (coal, gasoline, etc.) is the single largest source of
air pollution and global warming. These fuels cause smog, acid rain, soot and particulates
increases, greenhouse gas emissions, and dispersal of some heavy metal contaminants. Carbon
dioxide is responsible for 53% of the level of global warming.

We can outline the various avenues through which man, influences climate as follows:

1. Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and
re-radiated by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process maintains
the Earth’s temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing
life on Earth to exist.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

The problem we now face is that human activities – particularly burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and
natural gas), agriculture and land clearing – are increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere. This is the enhanced greenhouse effect, which is contributing to warming of

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the Earth. Top five negative impact humans have had on the environment: deforestation,
desertification, global warming, invasive species, and overharvesting

Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil
fuels, and deforestation. Changes like these have triggered climate change seen in rise in sea levels,
increase in temperatures and general decline in rainfall and therefore, increasing trends in aridity,
flooding and soil erosion.

2. Technology

Environmental impacts caused by the application of technology are often perceived as unavoidable
for several reasons. First, the purpose of many technologies is to exploit, control, or otherwise
“improve” upon nature for the perceived benefit of humanity. At the same time, the myriad of
processes in nature have been optimized, and are continually adjusted, by evolution: any
disturbance of these natural processes by technology is likely to result in negative environmental
consequences. Second, the conservation of mass principle and the first law of thermodynamics
(i.e., conservation of energy) dictate that whenever material resources or energy are moved around
or manipulated by technology, environmental consequences are inescapable. Third, according to
the second law of thermodynamics, order can be increased within a system (such as the human
economy) only by increasing disorder or entropy outside the system (i.e., the environment). Thus,
technologies can create “order” in the human economy (i.e., order as manifested in buildings,
factories, transportation networks, communication systems, etc.) only at the expense of increasing
“disorder” in the environment. According to a number of studies, increased entropy is likely to be
correlated to negative environmental impacts.

3. Agriculture

Agricultural practices to influence climate through release of chemicals used like fertilizers and
other chemicals for controlling insects, pests and weeds. They add to the increase of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere and therefore global warming and changes in climates. The environmental
impact of agriculture can vary widely—ultimately, environmental impact of agriculture depends
on the production practices of the system used by farmers. There are two types of indicators of
environmental impact: means-based, which is based on the farmer’s production methods, and

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effect-based, which is the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions
to the environment. An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater,
which is effected by the amount of nitrogen applied to the soil. An indicator reflecting the loss of
nitrate to groundwater would be effect-based.

The environmental impact of agriculture involves a variety of factors from the soil, to water, the
air, animal and soil diversity, plants, and the food itself. Some of the environmental issues that are
related to agriculture are climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems,
pollutants, soil degradation, and waste.

Irrigation

Irrigation interferes with the groundwater level and amounts and if used irrationally, would leave
the soil dry with hardly no moisture to be released into the atmosphere as water vapour. Even
where surface water is used, irrigation may interfere with the amount of water available for
evaporation and for the various users. The degraded soils and environment plus dry air will all
contribute towards reduced or poor rain formation. Thus the environmental impact of irrigation
includes the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the
ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the tail-end and downstream of the irrigation
scheme. The impacts stem from the changed hydrological conditions whether from dams,
boreholes or rivers based on irrigation scheme undertaken. Abstraction and distribution of water
to the various parts within the basin has the following implications:

 the downstream river discharge is reduced

 the evaporation in the scheme is increased
 the groundwater recharge in the scheme is increased
 the level of the water table rises
 the drainage flow is increased

5. Industrial Production

Industrial production, especially in the first world is a major source of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere and number one contributor to global warming.. Industrial fumes are discharged direct
into the atmosphere adding to the greenhouse gas composition and contents. At the same time
liquid waste find their way into the surface water systems, polluting it with many challenges to

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aquatic life forms. Intensified industrial production by the Asian tigers is leaving the subcontinent
degraded and high increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere with serious implications.
Global Climate Change for a have many a times than not resolved to do carbon trade with a view
to carbon sinking the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere but to little avail. The use of environment
friendly fuels or energy as well as renewable sources has been discussed as the way forward but
still, fossil fuels dominate and therefore continued implications to the climate systems.

In recent years, there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various
renewable energy sources. Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy
generation, water and waste management, and food production towards better environmental and
energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology. Better the devil
you know than an angel you don’t know. The nations with large fossil fuel reservours still have
the appetite to continue with their huge productions despite all the dangers looming from it.

6. Transport

The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy, and burns
most of the world’s petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates,
and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide, for which
transport is the fastest-growing emission sector. By subsector, road transport is the largest
contributor to global warming. Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the
individual vehicles emission; however, this has been offset by an increase in the number of
vehicles, and more use of each vehicle. Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road
vehicles considerably have been studied. Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes,
causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered
transport, and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency. Other environmental
impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl,
which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. By reducing transportation emissions
globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth’s air quality, acid
rain, smog and climate change.

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Human Impacts on the Environment

The ecosystems provide important services which include biogeochemical cycles and food chain.
Human interventions on the environment has had and will continue to have negative implications
on these biogeochemical cycles without which, many life systems would come to a halt. Human
activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in Earth's atmosphere in the amounts of
greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known contribution
comes from the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere. Plant
growth, forest fires, volcanoes, and other natural processes affect the amounts of carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The amounts of greenhouse gases then affect
temperatures on Earth. Human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels, are altering
the climate system. Human-driven changes in land use and land cover such as deforestation,
urbanization, and shifts in vegetation patterns also alter the climate, resulting in changes to the
reflectivity of the Earth surface (albedo), emissions from burning forests, urban heat island effects
and changes in the natural.

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COMPOSITION OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
An atmosphere is a layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other material body
that is held in place by the gravity of that body. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the
gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low or the gaseous envelope
of a celestial body (such as a planet) 1 : the whole mass of air surrounding the earth. 2: the air of
a locality the stuffy atmosphere of the waiting room. 3: a surrounding influence or environment
san atmosphere of hostility. The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers or ‘spheres’. Each
layer is characterized by a different gradient of the temperature as a function of altitude. The
structure of the atmosphere dictates the way the atmosphere behaves and controls how weather
develops near the surface of the earth.

(a)THE ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE

The atmosphere consists of 4 layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and

thermosphere. Figure A shows the placement of the different layers of the atmosphere and how
the temperature changes with height as you go from the ground up to space.

1. Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. This is the layer where we live and where
weather happens. The troposphere (between 0 and about 15 kilometers) is the first layer above
the Earth’s surface and contains approximately 85 to 90 % of the mass of the Earth’s atmosphere.
It is characterized by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude. The troposphere’s thermal
profile is largely the result of the heating of the Earth’s surface by incoming solar radiation. Heat
is then transferred up through the troposphere by a combination of convective and turbulent
transfer. Weather occurs in the Earth’s troposphere. Temperature in this layer generally decreases
with height. The boundary between the stratosphere and the troposphere is called the tropopause.
The jet stream sits at this level and it marks the highest point that weather can occur. The height
of the troposphere varies with location, being higher over warmer areas and lower over colder
areas.

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Figure 3: The Layers of the Atmosphere (Image from the Comet Program)

2. The troposphere

Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. This is the layer where we live and where
weather happens. The troposphere (between 0 and about 15 kilometers) is the first layer above
the Earth’s surface and contains approximately 85 to 90 % of the mass of the Earth’s atmosphere.
It is characterized by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude. The troposphere’s thermal
profile is largely the result of the heating of the Earth’s surface by incoming solar radiation. Heat
is then transferred up through the troposphere by a combination of convective and turbulent
transfer. Weather occurs in the Earth’s troposphere. Temperature in this layer generally decreases
with height. The boundary between the stratosphere and the troposphere is called the tropopause.
The jet stream sits at this level and it marks the highest point that weather can occur. The height
of the troposphere varies with location, being higher over warmer areas and lower over colder
areas.

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3. Above the tropopause lies the stratosphere. In the (between approximately 15 and 50 km) the
temperature rises as a function of increasing height. This warming is the result of the direct
absorption of solar radiation by the ozone layer, thereby preventing a large part of harmful
ultraviolet radiation from the sun to reach the Earth’s surface. The ozone layer is warm because
it absorbs ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun In this layer the temperature increases with height.
This is because the stratosphere houses the ozone layer..

4. The mesosphere is the layer above the stratosphere. T The mesosphere is the next layer of the
atmosphere (from 50 to 90 km), characterized by temperatures that decrease the further up one
goes to an average of -90°C. A lot of meteors burn up in this layer while entering the Earth’s
atmosphere. The temperature decreases with height here just like it does in the troposphere. This
layer also contains ratios of nitrogen and oxygen similar to the troposphere, except the
concentrations are 1000 times less and there is little water vapor there, so the air is too thin for
weather to occur.

5. The thermosphere: is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. In this layer the temperature
increases with height because it is being directly heated by the sun. Thereafter the thermosphere
takes over where temperatures increases steadily with altitude. It is the layer of the atmosphere
which is first exposed to the Sun’s radiation. The thermosphere also includes the ionosphere, a
region of the atmosphere that is filled with charged particles, where especially the auroras occur.

6. Exosphere: There eleven most abundant gases found in the Earth's lower atmosphere by
volume. Of the gases listed, nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, and ozone are extremely important to the health of the Earth's biosphere. There eleven
most abundant gases found in the Earth's lower atmosphere by volume. Of the gases listed,
nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are extremely
important to the health of the Earth's biosphere. The upper limit of Earth’s atmosphere is where
the atmosphere merges into space.

(b)ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
Nitrogen and oxygen are the main components of the atmosphere by volume. Together these two
gases make up approximately 99% of the dry atmosphere. Both of these gases have very important

17
associations with life. Nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere and deposited at the Earth's
surface mainly by specialized nitrogen fixing bacteria, and by way of lightning through
precipitation. The addition of this nitrogen to the Earth's surface soils and various water bodies
supplies much needed nutrition for plant growth. Nitrogen returns to the atmosphere primarily
through biomass combustion and denitrification.

Oxygen is exchanged between the atmosphere and life through the processes of photosynthesis
and respiration. Photosynthesis produces oxygen when carbon dioxide and water are chemically
converted into glucose with the help of sunlight. Respiration is the opposite process of
photosynthesis. In respiration, oxygen is combined with glucose to chemically release energy for
metabolism. The products of this reaction are water and carbon dioxide.

The next most abundant gas is water vapor. Water vapor varies in concentration in the atmosphere
both spatially and temporally. The highest concentrations of water vapor are found near the
equator over the oceans and tropical rain forests. Cold polar areas and subtropical continental
deserts are locations where the volume of water vapor can approach zero percent.

Water vapor has several very important functional roles on our planet:

 It redistributes heat energy on the Earth through latent heat energy exchange.
 The condensation of water vapor creates precipitation that falls to the Earth's surface
providing needed fresh water for plants and animals.
 It helps warm the Earth's atmosphere through the greenhouse effect involving gases like
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Carbon Dioxide, Methane and rare or inert gases.

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PROCESSES THAT INFLUENCE GLOBAL CLIMATE

FACTORS INFLUENCING GLOBAL CLIMATE

A few fundamental processes determine what happens in the global climate including incoming
solar radiation, characteristics of the earth's surface, the atmosphere's ability to retain heat, and the
reflectivity of the atmosphere and the earth's surface. Human changes in land use and land cover
have changed Earth's reflectivity. Processes such as deforestation, reforestation, desertification,
and urbanization often contribute to changes in climate in the places they occur. These effects may
be significant regionally, but are smaller when averaged over the entire globe. Does climate
change have natural causes? The Earth's climate can be affected by natural factors that are external
to the climate system, such as changes in volcanic activity, solar output, and the Earth's orbit
around the Sun. These include latitude, elevation, nearby water, ocean currents, topography,
vegetation, and prevailing winds. The global climate system and any changes that occur within it
also influence local climate. These processes are discussed below:

1. Incoming solar radiation

Earth's climate depends on the delicate balance between incoming solar radiation, outgoing
thermal radiation and the composition of Earth's atmosphere. Even small changes in these
parameters can affect climate. Around 30 percent of the solar energy that strikes Earth is reflected
back into space. Incoming solar radiation relates to climate because, the more solar radiation, the
hotter it will get. When energy trapped in the atmosphere warms the land, ocean and air. ... Land
and water absorb most of the energy and Earth's surface warms up the warm surface transfer heat
to the air. As Wein's law explains, the sun's high temperature emits solar radiation of mostly shorter
wavelengths. This incoming solar radiation may be scattered, reflected, or absorbed. Reflection of
solar radiation occurs when the radiation is sent directly backward from a surface.

Once energy from the Sun gets to Earth, several things can happen to it:

 Energy can be scattered or absorbed by aerosols in the atmosphere.

 Short wavelengths are absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere.

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  Clouds may act to either reflect energy out to space or absorb energy, trapping it in the
atmosphere.

The atmosphere and the surface of the Earth together absorb 71 percent of incoming solar radiation,
so together; they must radiate that much energy back to space for the planet's average temperature
to remain stable. The incoming solar radiation is known as insolation. The amount of solar energy
reaching the Earth is 70 percent. Ice and water on the ground affect incoming solar radiation by
reflecting 4 percent of solar radiation that reaches the surface. As solar radiation passes through
the atmosphere to the surface and back, it is reflected in varying degrees by the earth’s surface and
the atmospheric substances, which include the Greenhouse Gases. These gases are transparent to
incoming solar radiation. They are also transparent to outgoing infrared radiation, which means
that they do not absorb or emit solar or infrared radiation. However, other gases in Earth’s
atmosphere do absorb infrared radiation. When the sun is directly overhead, the liquid water will
absorb just about all the solar radiation striking it. This adds an enormous amount of heat energy
to the tropical oceans since the sun is high in the sky. Less solar radiation is absorbed by ice than
into water given the same sun angle. This is because, for all of the sunlight that the Earth absorbs,
an equal amount of IR radiation must travel from the Earth back to outer space. ... Greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, especially water vapor, "trap" (absorb and emit) some of this infrared
radiation, and keep the earth habitably warm. The atmosphere directly absorbs about 23% of
incoming sunlight, and the remaining energy is transferred from the Earth's surface by evaporation
(25%), convection (5%), and thermal infrared radiation (a net of 5-6%).

Solar radiation includes visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma
rays. The equator receives the most solar radiation in a year. The difference in the amount of solar
energy the land receives causes the atmosphere to move the way it does as gamma rays. Solar
Screens are one option to significantly reduce or prevent solar heat gain and transference of solar
radiation, depending on the screen thickness chosen. Solar screens filter and block the damaging
UV Rays that cause color fading on floors, walls, artwork, and furniture.

Most of the electromagnetic radiation that comes to the earth from the sun is invisible. Only a
small portion comes as visible light. The atmosphere absorbs most of the solar radiation and much
of what reaches the earth's surface is radiated back into the atmosphere to become heat energy.

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Solar radiation (energy) is transformed to heat energy only after it is absorbed and re-emitted by
matter. Thus, terrestrial radiation (heat energy) is the result of the earth absorbing solar radiation
and then re-emitting it into the atmosphere. It is also true that solar energy causes plants to grow.
Albedo is a measure of how much light energy is reflected off an object and how much is absorbed
and turned into heat energy. The Polar Regions count on a high albedo to keep their region cold.
As more of the ice melts in global warming, more heat is absorbed by the ocean and the land mass
of Greenland and Antarctica.

2. Characteristics or nature of the Earth Surface

Warm air rising from Earth's surface pushes the air mass away from the equator, and releases its
moisture as precipitation as it travels pole-ward. Areas in the tropics receive greater incident
sunlight throughout the year, which causes water to evaporate. Explanation: These effects can
cause huge changes in the temperature, precipitation, and humidity of a region. An example is
when a storm encounters a mountain range. The clouds cannot go over the mountains, so the
upwind side receives plentiful rainfall while the downwind side gets little to no rain.

3. Atmosphere’s ability to Retain Heat

: The greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to retain heat: When sunlight reaches Earth's
surface, it can either be reflected back into space or absorbed by the Earth. Once absorbed, the
planet releases some of the energy back into the atmosphere as heat (also called infrared radiation).
Air in the atmosphere acts as a fluid. The sun's radiation strikes the ground, thus warming the
rocks. As the rock's temperature rises due to conduction, heat energy is released into the
atmosphere, forming a bubble of air, which is warmer than the surrounding air. This bubble of air
rises into the atmosphere.
Solar energy absorbed at Earth's surface is radiated back into the atmosphere as heat. Greenhouse
gases are more complex than other gas molecules in the atmosphere, with a structure that can
absorb heat. They radiate the heat back to the Earth's surface, to another greenhouse gas molecule,
or out to space.

Water vapor is the most common greenhouse gas, and the one with the greatest overall effect on
atmospheric heat retention. Take a break and ask, ‘How is Earth's atmosphere heated?’ Name the
two primary sources of heat in the atmosphere. Okay, the two primary sources of heat into the

21
atmosphere are the Oceans and seas and, land surfaces, which absorb solar energy in large amounts
and release the same as heat energy into the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere is a gaseous
medium, convection is the most significant mechanism of heat transfer. Heat gained by the layers
of air at or near the earth's surface from radiation or conduction is usually transferred to the upper
atmospheric layers by the process of convection.

There are some gases in the atmosphere, which trap the heat escaping from the Earth and stop it
from travelling back into space. These gases are called greenhouse gases. The glass in a greenhouse
has a similar effect on the Sun's rays and so it is called the Greenhouse Effect. Conduction,
radiation and convection all play a role in moving heat between Earth's surface and the atmosphere.
Since air is a poor conductor, most energy transfer by conduction occurs right near Earth's surface.
During the day, sunlight heats the ground, which in turn heats the air directly above it via
conduction.

Greenhouse gases do not let “heat” in or out. They absorb certain frequencies of infrared radiation
coming in as well as going out. Greenhouse gases then absorb much of the infrared radiation that
the Earth's surface radiates back to space. Carbon Dioxide: By far the predominant gas is carbon
dioxide, making up 95.9 percent of the atmosphere's volume. The next four most abundant gases
are Argon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Carbon Monoxide.

Human activities—mostly burning of coal and other fossil fuels together with cement production,
deforestation and other landscape changes—emitted roughly 40 billion metric tons of carbon
dioxide in 2015. Gases in Earth's atmosphere include:

 Nitrogen — 78 percent.
 Oxygen — 21 percent.
 Argon — 0.93 percent.
 Carbon dioxide — 0.04 percent.
 Trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen, as well as water vapor.

The Sun and the weather. The energy that the Earth receives from the Sun is the basic cause of
our changing weather. Solar heat warms the huge air masses that comprise large and small weather

22
systems. However, at higher altitudes, the atmosphere reacts strongly to changes in solar activity.
Global warming is an aspect of climate change, referring to the long-term rise of the planet's
temperatures. It is caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
mainly from human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation and farming. Radiation
from the warmed upper atmosphere, along with a small amount from the Earth's surface, radiates
out to space. Most of the emitted longwave radiation warms the lower atmosphere, which in turn
warms our planet's surface.

4. Reflectivity of the Atmosphere

Variations in the sun's energy reaching Earth. Changes in the reflectivity of Earth's atmosphere
and surface. Changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount of heat retained by Earth's
atmosphere. The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds Earth above the air layer. Its
condition affects our climate, which is the pattern of variation in temperature, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, ultraviolet light, and other climate variables that occur
over long periods. These varying rates of absorption and reflection can affect temperature. ... This
means that as the ice expands, more solar radiation is reflected to space and less is absorbed by the
surface causing temperatures to decrease. When it reaches the Earth, some are reflected back to
space by clouds, some are absorbed by the atmosphere, and some are absorbed at the Earth's
surface. However, since the Earth is much cooler than the Sun, its radiating energy is much weaker
(long wavelength) infrared energy. The atmosphere is important for many reasons! One reason is
that the earth's atmosphere acts as an insulating layer that protects the earth's surface from the
intense light and heat of the sun. ... The atmosphere is also important because it contains oxygen,
which we and other living organisms breathe.

5. The Earth- Solar System Nexus

On the surface, the greatest factor affecting Earth is sunlight. Sun provides energy for living
organisms, and it drives our planet's weather and climate by creating temperature gradients in the
atmosphere and oceans. The Earth's climate is influenced by many factors, including solar
radiation, wind, and ocean currents. Researchers try to integrate all of these influencing variables
into their models. Many of the processes involved are now well understood. When the global

23
temperature changes, the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth. In
particular, land areas change more quickly than oceans, and northern high latitudes change more
quickly than the tropics, and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores. The
interaction between the Earth’s climate and its surface is a two-way process that can be addressed
by looking at how changes in the Earth surface conditions impact the atmospheric conditions and
how changes in regional climate impact the Earth surface.

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MEASUREMENT OF CLIMATE AND WEATHER ELEMENTS

This article throws light upon the eight elements of climate whose measurements are important for
Geographers, namely: 1. Rainfall 2. Pressure 3. Temperature 4. Humidity 5. Winds 6. Sunshine 7.
Clouds 8. Other Elements Pertaining to Visibility.

1. Precipitation: This is any type of water that forms in the Earth's atmosphere and then drops
onto the surface of the Earth. Water vapor, droplets of water suspended in the air, builds up in the
Earth's atmosphere. Water vapor in the atmosphere is visible as clouds and fog. Water vapor
collects with other materials, such as dust, in clouds. Precipitation condenses, or forms, around
these tiny pieces of material, called cloud condensation nuclei. Clouds eventually get too full of
water vapor, and the precipitation turns into a liquid (rain) or a solid (snow). Precipitation is part
of the water cycle. Precipitation falls to the ground as snow and rain. It eventually evaporates and
rises back into the atmosphere as a gas. In clouds, it turns back into liquid or solid water, and it
falls to Earth again. People rely on precipitation for fresh water to drink, bathe, and irrigate crops
for food. The most common types of precipitation are rain, hail, and snow.

2. Rain: Rain is precipitation that falls to the surface of the Earth as water droplets. Raindrops
form around microscopic cloud condensation nuclei, such as a particle of dust or a molecule of
pollution. Rain that falls from clouds but freezes before it reaches the ground is called sleet or ice
pellets. Even though cartoon pictures of raindrops look like tears, real raindrops are actually
spherical.

3. Hail: Forms in cold storm clouds. It forms when very cold-water droplets freeze, or turn solid,
as soon as they touch things like dust or dirt. The storm blows the hailstones into the upper part of
the cloud. More frozen water droplets are added to the hailstone before it falls. Unlike sleet, which
is liquid when it forms and freezes as it falls to Earth, hail falls as a stone of solid ice. Hailstones
are usually the size of small rocks, but they can get as large as 15 centimeters (6 inches) across
and weigh more than a pound.

4. Snow: Snow is precipitation that falls in the form of ice crystals. Hail is also ice, but hailstones
are just collections of frozen water droplets. Snow has a complex structure. The ice crystals are

25
formed individually in clouds, but when they fall, they stick together in clusters of snowflakes.
Snowfall happens when many individual snowflakes fall from the clouds. Unlike a hail storm,
snowfall is usually calm. Hailstones are hard, while snowflakes are soft. Snowflakes develop
different patterns, depending on the temperature and humidity of the air.

TYPES OF RAINFALL

There are three main types of rainfall commonly experienced locally:

1. Relief Rainfall

This type of rainfall is common in places with mountains and sea. Relief rainfall frequently occurs
near mountains beside the sea. The moisture-laden wind blows in from the sea because the wind
meets a high mountain and hence it is forced to rise upwards. At the height, it is cooled and then
the cloud is formed.

This saturated cloud with water vapor begins to precipitate on the side of the mountain facing the
sea. This front side of the mountain is called the windward side. The cloud mostly precipitates on
the windward side of the mountain. Meanwhile, the cloud meets the other side, which is called the
leeward side. Since the cloud has already lost most of its moisture so it rains very little there.

This makes leeward sides of a mountain very little rains. There is a much more moist climate on
the windward sides of slopes. On the other hand, there is a drier, sheltered climate on the leeward
side. This rainfall is common in Hawaii, Sierra Nevada, and the Andes.

2. Convectional Rainfall

It occurs frequently on hot days usually giving cumulus cloud and thundery showers. The sun heats
the ground which causes the air to warm and become very hot. Then the air rises upwards and
becomes cool. Then it condenses to form cumulus cloud. When this cloud is saturated, it begins to
precipitate giving heavy and thundery showers. Due to this, we get thundershowers on a hot day,
as the Sun warms the air and it rises, cools and begins to rain.

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3. Frontal Rainfall

This rainfall occurs when a warm, tropical air mass comes in contact with a cold, polar air mass.
It is very common in Britain and Ireland. Because the air is in the warm front, then it rises over the
cold front. The air is cooled and so condenses to form a stratus cloud. Thus, when the stratus cloud
becomes saturated, it begins to precipitate. Other forms precipitation (snow, sleet and hail) are
always measured by a metal instrument called a rain gauge. It consists of a copper cylinder with a
metal funnel either 5 inches or 8 inches in diameter, which leads into a smaller copper container
or a glass bottle.

The hole in the funnel that leads down to the container is very small so that evaporation of the
collected rain is minimized. The gauge should be at least one foot above the ground and firmly
fastened, to avoid splashing. The instrument should be sited well away from tall buildings, high
trees and other objects which would shelter it.

Measurement of Rainfall

The measurement of the rainfall is done by removing the funnel, emptying the rain in the container
into a graduated cylinder with a 1½-inch diameter. The reading should be done at eye-level and to
an accuracy of 0-01 inch. For greater accuracy, a special kind of taper measure as shown in Fig.
96 (b) which tapers at the bottom may be used.

It gives an accuracy up to 0 005 inch. An inch of rainfall means the amount of water that would
cover the ground to a depth of 1 inch, provided none evaporated, drained off or percolated away.
For meteorological recordings, a rain-day is reckoned as a period of 24 hours with at least 0 01
inch or more rain being recorded.

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If the amount exceeds 0 04 inch, it is considered a wet day. For general reckoning, the average
rainfall for Malaysia is less than 0-3 inch a day. Only a torrential downpour can account for more
than an inch of rainfall in a day. The rain gauge must be examined every day.

In temperate regions, snowfall is carefully melted by warming the funnel and then measured. For
all practical purposes 10 to 12 inches of snow may be considered as equivalent to 1 inch of rain.
The daily records of rainfall will be added at the end of the month to find the total rainfall for that
month. The total for each month is again added at the end of the year to find the annual rainfall.

The mean annual rainfall is obtained from the averages of annual rainfall taken over a long period
of say 35 years. For plotting in rainfall maps, places having the same mean annual rainfall are
joined by a line called an isohyet, as shown in many atlases.

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Rainfall can also be graphically depicted as shaded rainfall columns, one for each month of the
year or in dispersal diagrams, one dot for each year for as many years as possible as in Fig. 98.
The former illustrates the monthly rainfall regime over a year and the latter shows at a glance the
range of dry and wet years for 35 years.

Based on Hydrological Cycle:

Water moves from the rivers, streams all the way up to the sky (through evaporation), and there
forming clouds. Also, water moves from sea to sky. All these are the part of the water cycle or
hydrological cycle. This cycle makes water move from sea to sky and sky to river. Without it, we
cannot have streams, lakes not even sea. Therefore, without this cycle, it will not be possible for
humans or animals to survive at all. Here are some stages of this cycle:

 The cycle begins at sea, where water is warmed by the sun. This causes the evaporation of
seawater. Thus, seawater turns to water vapor and then steam. This vapor rises as hot air
tend to be light.
 With the height, water vapor becomes cooler. This cooling causes the water vapor to
condense as it cannot store water droplets.
 When the vapor condenses, clouds are formed. This cloud receives more and more vapor
until it cannot store any more. After saturation of the cloud precipitation starts.
 Based on the temperature, precipitation has many forms. Thus it can include rain,
hailstones, sleet or snow.
 This rain flows into rivers and streams and these rivers and streams bring the water back
to the sea where the cycle begins again.

2. Measurement of Pressure

Air is made up of a number of mixed gases and has weight. It therefore exerts a pressure on the
earth’s surface which varies from place to place and from time to time. This force that presses on
the surface of any object can be fairly accurately measured. The instrument for measuring pressure
is a barometer, invented by the scientist Galileo and his assistant Torricelli in 1643.

29
The ordinary mercury barometer consists of a long glass tube, sealed at the upper and open at the
lower end. The lower end is inverted in a bowl of mercury, whose surface is exposed to the air.
Variations in the atmospheric pressure on the mercury surface are balanced by the column of
mercury in the glass tube.

This gives the pressure of the air and can be read off quickly from the scale on the glass tube. Any
liquid could be used for this purpose, but mercury has been chosen because it is the heaviest liquid
known. If ordinary water were used, the corresponding column for normal atmospheric pressure
would be 34 feet!

At sea level, the mercury column is 29.9 inches, or 760mm. If the pressure increases, the air
pressing on the surface will force up the mercury column to about 31 inches (high pressure). When
the pressure decreases, as less air presses on the surface, the mercury column will drop about 28
inches (low pressure). As pressure is a force, it is more appropriate to measure it in terms of a unit
of force.

A new unit known as the millibar (mb) was adopted by meteorological stations in 1914. A normal
atmospheric pressure equivalent to 14-7 lb. per square inch in weight or a reading of 29-9 inches
of mercury in the column is 1013 millibar. On maps, lines called isobars join places of equal
pressure.

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In temperate latitudes, pressure changes are very rapid in the formation of cyclones and
anticyclones. In normal circumstances, they vary from 960 mb. to 1,040 mb. Pressure readings
vary with a number of factors. A sea-level reading of 30 inches will be halved on mountainous
regions of 3-5 miles above sea level. This is because as one ascends there is less air above and so
the weight or pressure is less.

The barometer is also sensitive to gravitational forces at different latitudes. The mercury itself also
expands with an increase in temperature. Therefore, for professional meteorological work, which
requires very accurate readings, corrections have to be made in respect of altitude, latitude and
temperature. Since a mercury barometer that dips in liquid mercury is inconvenient for outdoor
measurement, a more portable but less accurate type known as the aneroid barometer is used. This
comprises a small metal container, with most of the air driven out to form almost a vacuum.

As there is practically no pressure at all inside the box, any increase in pressure on the outside of
the box will cause the lid to move inwards thus registering high pressure by an indicator on the
revolving dial. When there is a decrease in pressure, the lid springs outwards, registering low
pressure by the indicator. In aeroplanes, a modified type of aneroid barometer called an altimeter
is used. As pressure decreases with altitude at an approximate rate of 1 inch drop in the mercury
reading for every 900 feet ascent, the altimeter gives the reading in feet for height attained instead

31
of millibar or inches. With this, the pilot will be able to tell the altitude of the plane above sea
level. For a continues record of pressure changes, as is sometimes required, the self-recording
barogram is used.

Temperature is a very important element of climate and weather. The instrument for measuring
temperature is the thermometer which is a narrow glass tube filled with mercury or alcohol. It
works on the principle that mercury expands when heated and contracts when cooled. On thermo-
meters, temperatures are marked in one of two ways. In °F. (Fahrenheit) the freezing-point is 32°F.
and the boiling-point is 212°F. For most scientific purposes the °C. Scale is preferred. Its freezing-
point is 0°C., with a boiling-point of 100°C.

As the degree of ‘hotness’ varies tremendously from one place to another, the sitting of the
instrument is very important. A temperature taken in open daylight is very high, because it
measures the direct insulation of the sun. It is better described as ‘temperature in the sun. For
agricultural purposes, earth temperatures are taken at various depths in the ground. The
thermometer is enclosed in a special glass tube and the bulb is embedded in paraffin wax, so that
they are less sensitive to abrupt temperature changes. To assess the possible damages done by
ground frosts to crops in temperate latitudes, grass temperatures are also taken. Precautions
therefore must be taken to exclude the intensity of the sun’s radiant heat.

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PROCESSES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

If there is temperature difference between two systems, heat will always find a way to transfer
itself from the higher to lower system or levels. The following are the ways by which heat transfer
takes place in the atmosphere:

1. CONDUCTION

Conduction is the transfer of heat between substances that are in direct contact with each other.
The better the conductor, the more rapidly heat will be transferred. Metal is a good conduction of
heat. Conduction occurs when a substance is heated, particles will gain more energy, and vibrate
more. These molecules then bump into nearby particles and transfer some of their energy to them.
This then continues and passes the energy from the hot end down to the colder end of the substance.
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through direct contact.

2. CONVECTION

Convection is the movement of heat by actual motion of matter. Thermal energy is transferred
from hot places to cold places by convection. Convection occurs when warmer areas of a liquid or
gas rise to cooler areas in the liquid or gas. Cooler liquid or gas then takes the place of the warmer
areas which have risen higher. This results in a continuous circulation pattern. Boiling water - The
heat passes from the burner into the pot, heating the water at the bottom. Then, this hot water rises
and cooler water moves down to replace it, causing a circular motion. Radiator - Puts warm air out
at the top and draws in cooler air at the bottom. Another good example of convection is in the
atmosphere. The earth's surface is warmed by the sun, the warm air rises and cool air moves in.

3. RADIATION

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Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does not rely upon any contact between the heat source
and the heated object as is the case with conduction and convection. Heat can be transmitted
through empty space by thermal radiation often called infrared radiation. This is a
type electromagnetic radiation that’s radiation is the transfer of energy with the help of
electromagnetic waves. No mass is exchanged and no medium is required in the process of
radiation. Examples of radiation is the heat from the sun, or heat released from the filament of a
light bulb.

FACTORS INFLUENCING VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE

The factors privy to temperature variability include latitude, altitude, landmass, ocean currents and
winds, slope, shelter and aspect, natural vegetation and soil.

1. Latitude:

Due to the earth’s inclination, the mid-day sun is almost overhead within the tropics but the sun’s
rays reach the earth at an angle outside the tropics. Temperature thus diminishes from equatorial
regions to the poles. Sun rays falls obliquely over the temperate latitudes on surface. At equatorial
region heat travels through a shorter distance and its concentrated solar insolation heats up a
smaller surface area; temperature is thus high.

The sun rays travel in temperate region travel through a longer distance and much of its heat is
absorbed by clouds, water vapor and dust particles. Its oblique ray has to heat up a large area;
temperature is therefore low.

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2. Altitude:

Since the atmosphere is mainly heated by conduction from the earth, it can be expected that places
nearer to the earth’s surface are warmer than those higher up. Thus temperature decreases with
increasing height above sea level.

This rate of decrease with altitude (lapse rate) is never constant, varying from place to place and
from season to season. But for all practical purposes, it may be reckoned that a fall of 1°F occurs
with an ascent of 0.6°C. per 100 meters. It is usually more in summer than in winter. The lapse
rate is greater by day than at night, greater on elevated highlands than on level plain

3. Landmass or Continental Orientation

Land surfaces are heated more quickly than water surfaces, because of the higher specific heat of
water. In other words, it requires only one-third as much energy to raise the temperature of a given
volume of land by 1°F. as it does for an equal volume of water. This accounts for the warmer
summers, colder winters and greater range of temperature of continental interiors as compared
with maritime districts.

35
4. Ocean Currents and Winds:

Both ocean currents and winds affect temperature by transporting their heat or coldness into
adjacent regions. Ocean currents like the Gulf Stream or the North Atlantic Drift warm the coastal
districts of Western Europe keeping their ports ice-free. Ports located in the same latitude but
washed by cold currents, such as the cold Labrador Current off northeast Canada, are frozen for
several months.

Cold currents also lower the summer temperature, particularly when they are carried landwards by
on-shore winds. On the other hand, on-shore Westerlies convey the tropical warm air conditions
to the temperate coasts, especially in winter.

The Westerlies that come to Britain and Norway tend to be cool winds in summer and warm winds
in winter and are most valuable in moderating the climatic conditions in those regions. Local
winds, e.g. Fohn, Chinook, Sirocco, Mistral, also produce marked changes in temperature.

5. Slope, Shelter and Aspect:

A steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle one. Mountain ranges
that have an east- west alignment like the Alps show a higher temperature on the south-facing
‘sunny slope’ than the north- facing ‘sheltered slope’.

36
The greater insolation of the southern slope is better suited for vine cultivation and has a more
flourishing vegetative cover. Consequently, there are more settlements and therefore, better
utilized than the ‘shady slope’.

In hilly areas a hot day followed by a calm, cloudless night during which the air cools more rapidly
over the higher ground may induce cold, heavy air to flow down the slope and accumulate at the
valley bottom pushing the warmer air upwards. The temperature may then be lower in the valley
than higher up as the slopes. A reversal of the lapse rate has taken place. This is called temperature
inversion.

6. Natural Vegetation and Soil:

There is a definite difference in temperature between forested regions and open ground. The thick
foliage of the West Africa jungle cuts off much of the in-coming insolation and in many places
sunlight never reaches the ground.

It is, in fact, cool in the jungle and its shade temperature is a few degrees lower than that of open
spaces in corresponding latitudes. During the day trees lose water by evapotranspiration so that
the air above is cooled. Relative humidity increases and mist and fog may form.

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Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils which are better absorbers. Such soil differences
may give rise to slight variations in the temperature of the region. As a whole, dry soils like sands
are very sensitive to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay, retain much moisture and
warm up or cool down more slowly

Impact of rising Temperatures on Human Activities

The rising temperatures and the resulting aridity will affect key areas of human activity such as:
food security, economy, health and water

1. Food Security: Major crops - wheat, rice and maize will likely see production hit by temperature
increases of 20C or more in tropical and temperate regions, although some areas may see an
increase in yields. Wheat and maize have already seen reduced yields in many regions and overall
across the world. Food security could also be affected by changes to fisheries.

2. Economy and livelihoods: Annual global economic losses are difficult to estimate, but the
impacts associated with a 2oC temperature rise could be between 0.2-2 percent of income, and are
more likely to be higher rather than lower. Economic growth is expected to slow as a result of high
temperatures, making it harder to tackle poverty, particularly in developing countries. Food prices
are expected to increase.

3. Human Health: Up to 2050, climate change will mostly exacerbate existing health problems,
and across the 21st century will lead to increases in ill health, particularly in poorer countries.
Health impacts include more heat wave-related deaths, increased likelihood of under-nutrition due
to reduced food production and increased risk of water, food and insect borne diseases. There could
be positive impacts including fewer cold-related deaths, but overall the negative impacts are likely
to outweigh the positives.

4. Security: More people are expected to be displaced over the 21st century, for example by
extreme weather events. Climate change could lead to a greater risk of violent conflicts, including
civil war, by worsening causes such as poverty. Impacts such as rising sea levels could also have
an effect on the territory of nation states and their critical infrastructure, while changes to sea ice,
shared water resources and fish stocks could worsen rivalries between countries.

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5. Water: Dry areas of the world will see a reduction in water resources, with droughts likely to
become more frequent. The percentage of the world’s population affected by water scarcity will
increase, but so too will numbers affected by major river flooding. Water quality will be affected,
with risks to drinking water quality. Water resources are already being affected by extreme rainfall
and melting snow and ice.

6. Coasts: Sea level rises due to melting of ice will increase the risk of submergence, flooding and
erosion in coastal and low-lying areas.

7. Oceans: Fisheries could be hit by shifts in the range and abundance of marine species. Increased
acidity in the oceans, as a result of more carbon dioxide emissions, is a serious risk to coral reefs
and Polar Regions.

8. Wildlife: A large proportion of species will be at an increased risk of extinction, especially as

they face a host of threats including climate change, habitat loss, pollution and invasive species.

9. Habitats loss accompanied by increases in tree deaths and forest cover reduction are predicted
in many regions globally throughout the entire 21st century as droughts escalate with continued
rise in temperatures.

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CLIMATIC REGIONS OF KENYA

The Climate regions in Kenya are divided into:

 Modified equatorial climate of the coast. They are

 Modified tropical climate of the highlands.
 Modified equatorial climate of the lake basin.
 Modified equatorial climate of the North western margin.
 Tropical climate of Narok and Southern coastal Kwale areas

They are outlined with their main characteristics and distribution as follows:

1. The Modified Equatorial Climatic Region

It is found in the coastal and Lake Victoria regions of Kenya. Examples of these areas are:
Mombasa, Malindi and Kisumu.

The main include characteristics are:

a) The daily range of temperature is low.

b) In this region, temperatures are normally high, over 250C most of the year.
c) The region is hot and wet throughout the year.
d) The region receives convectional rainfall.
e) Rainfall is high between 1000 mm to 1500 mm per year.
f) The area experience long rainy season between March and June and a short rainy season
between October and December.
g) The climate is affected by the winds blowing from the Ocean at the coast.
h) Rainfall is well distributed throughout the year.

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2. The Modified Tropical Climate Region

It is found in the Kenyan highlands e.g. Areas such as Kisii, Kitale, Kericho and Nairobi.

Its main characteristics are:

a) The region is generally cool and wet throughout the year.

b) The region receives relief rainfall because of the high altitude.
c) The high altitude causes the temperatures to be lower.
d) The temperature in this region ranges between 180C and 250C.
e) The region receives a lot of rainfall.

3. The tropical climatic region

It covers the coastal Counties of Kwale and Taita, and parts of Narok County.

Main Characteristics:

a) High temperatures.
b) One rainy season.
c) Rainfall does not normally exceed 1000mm per year.
d) In some parts, the dry season continues for over five months.

4. The semi-desert and desert climatic region

This climatic region is found in Northern, North-Eastern and some parts of Eastern Kenya.

Main features include:

a) Most of the months are dry causing drought.

b) The dry season is very long especially in the desert region.
c) The region is hot and dry throughout the year.

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 d) Temperatures are usually high during the day and low during the night.
e) Temperatures are high throughout the year ranging between 250C and 300C.
f) Rainy seasons are very low in that region.

5. The Mountain Climatic Region

They have special climates because of very high altitude e.g. Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon
climate are special.

It is characterized by:

a) Rainfall is high.
b) The temperatures are low ranging from 00C to about 150C.
c) The region is generally cold and wet throughout the year.
d) The region is characterized by two sides, the leeward side and the windward side.
e) The leeward side is also known as the rain shadow.
f) The windward side receives relief rainfall while the leeward side is drier.

Note the following with respect the human activities:

i) The hot and wet climate is good for farming.

ii) The cool and wet climate is good in cultivation of crops, growing of forest and dairy
farming.
iii) The dry and hot climate discourages farming.
iv) The hot and dry climate of Magadi in Kajiado County has helped in developing the soda
ash industry.

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