Exam #3

Lecture 6 Part 2 Outcomes:

1.​ Be familiar with the two processes involved in metacognition and how they interact to produce
behavior – Lecture

What process in metacognition is responsible for assessing one's own cognitive state?

a.​ Metacognitive Monitoring

b.​ Methodology
c.​ Metacognitive Control
d.​ Metamemory
2.​ Know how overconfidence influences metacognitive and meta-comprehension ratings - textbook

How does overconfidence affect metacomprehension ratings?

a.​ It allows one to acknowledge their understanding of material accurately

b.​ It leads individuals to underestimate their knowledge of material causing them to be
overprepared.
c.​ It has no significant impact on metacognition and meta-comprehension
d.​ It causes individuals to overestimate their understanding of material causing them to be
underprepared
3.​ Be familiar with the factors influencing judgments of learning (jols) – Total score vs. individual
items, estimating immediately vs. after a delay (pg. 193)

Which type of Judgment of Learning (JOL) is more accurate in predicting future recall: delayed
or immediate?

a.​ Delayed JOLs are better. They can replicate more closely with actual test performance
because they activate the retrieval process used in test-like environments.
4.​ Be familiar with the procedure and results of Brown & McNeill (1966)

True or False: When in a TOT state, participants reported words that sounded similar to the target
word or that had a similar meaning

a.​ True
b.​ False
5.​ Be familiar with the procedure and results of Knouse, Paradise, & Dunlosky (2006)
 The Knouse, Paradise, & Dunlosky (2006) study investigated differences in memory performance
and metacognitive judgments between which two groups?

a.​ Individuals with anxiety and without anxiety.

b.​ Individuals with ADHD and without ADHD.
c.​ Individuals with dementia and without dementia
d.​ Individuals with dyslexia and without dyslexia.
6.​ Be familiar with the results and implications of Dunning, Johnson, Ehrlinger, & Kruger (2003)

In the study by Dunning, Johnson, Ehrlinger, & Kruger (2003), which of the following was a key
finding regarding participants' self-assessments? Select all that apply.

a.​ Participants with greater ability tended to overestimate their performance.

b.​ Participants with low ability were more accurate in judging their performance.
c.​ Participants with lower ability tended to overestimate their performance.
d.​ Participants with higher abilities underestimated their performance.
7.​ Be familiar with the procedure, results, and implications of Hampton (2001)

​ What did Hampton find in his study?

a.​ He found that people use an exemplar-based approach rather than a simple
prototype-based one when making judgments about these combinations.
8.​ Be familiar with metamemory and regulation of study strategies - textbook

True or False: When you have time to master a relatively easy task, you allocate the most time to
the difficult items. On a more challenging task, you adjust your study strategies so that you focus
on the items they are likely to master in the limited time frame

a.​ True
b.​ False

Lecture 7 Part 1 Outcomes:

1.​ What were the two functions of visual imagery discussed in the lecture? - lecture

What are two functions on why visual imagery is used?

a.​ For memory and to prepare for future actions

2.​ Be familiar with Paivio (1963) and Paivio & Foth (1970) – Lecture
 According to Paivio & Foth (1970), which type of words are remembered more effectively, and
why?

a.​ Concrete words, because they are easier to associate with mental images.
b.​ Abstract words, because they are easier to associate with mental images.
c.​ Concrete words, because they are shorter and easier to pronounce.
d.​ Abstract words, because they are shorter and easier to imagine
3.​ Know the basic properties of an analog versus propositional representation - lecture

What are the 4 basic properties of an analog and the 4 basic properties of propositional and how
do they differ?

a.​ Analog properties include no distinct relation, no syntax, and truth value only when
described, concrete where propositional properties include relation, syntax, truth value,
and abstract. They are opposite of each other.
4.​ Be familiar with the three pieces of evidence for an analog code of visual imagery and why they
are evidence against a propositional account: rotation, scanning, and neural recordings - lecture

True or False: Mental rotation studies show that the longer the angle of rotation, the longer it
takes to rotate an image mentally.

a.​ True
b.​ False

5. Be familiar with the evidence for the propositional account of imagery - textbook

​ How did Reed's (1974) study show evidence for the propositional account of imagery?

a.​ Reed (1974) argued that people could not have stored a visual image for figures like the
Star of David, given the high error rate on items. Instead, Reed proposed that people
sometimes store pictures as descriptions

6. Be familiar with the procedure and results of Atwood (1971) – lecture

In Atwood (1971), which of the following outcomes was observed in the interference tasks?

a.​ The visual interference task had a big effect on low imagery pairs, while the auditory
interference task had a big effect on high imagery pairs.
b.​ The visual interference task had a big effect on high imagery pairs, while the auditory
interference task had a big effect on low imagery pairs.
 c.​ Both interference tasks had equal effects on both high and low imagery pairs
d.​ Neither interference task had any significant effect on the high or low imagery pairs.

7. Know the procedure and results of Chambers & Reisberg (1985) – Textbook (ambiguous figures)

Fill in the blank: Chambers and Reisberg’s research suggests that a ___ verbal propositional code
can overshadow a relatively weak analog code

a.​ weak
b.​ gradually
c.​ strong
d.​ low

8. Know the conclusions on imagery – lecture

Which one of these statements is false based on the conclusions on imagery?

a.​ Mental imagery can be studied in the lab

b.​ Mental images are a little bit like pictures (analogical)
c.​ Imagery seems to rely on perceptual neural substrates
d.​ All memory for images fits this pattern

Lecture 7 Part 2 Outcomes:

1.​ What is a cognitive map and what are the three conditions that lead to the construction of a
cognitive map?
True or false: A cognitive map is an external representation that maintains the spatial arrangement
between features of the physical environment
a.​ True
b.​ False
2.​ Be familiar with how Tolman (1948) tested place vs. response vs. directional learning and be able
to predict the results of each group – lecture
What were the key findings of Tolman's (1948) study?
a.​ Tolman provided very extensive evidence for place learning, which showed that rats
could form a cognitive map of their environment. He opposed the behaviorist way of
looking at learning solely on stimulus-response associations.
3.​ Be familiar with the role of novel shortcuts in testing for a cognitive map - lecture
What's an example procedure that demonstrates novel shortcuts in testing for cognitive maps?
 a.​ In a cognitive test, a rat is trained to follow a path (A to B) in a maze to get food. After
the rat learns the path, the usual route is blocked, and a new, shorter path (C to B) is
added. If the rat takes a new shortcut to reach the food, it shows that the rat understands
the layout of the maze and has a "map" in its mind. If the rat keeps trying to use the
blocked path, it means it’s just following habits and doesn’t have a mental map.
4.​ Be familiar with the procedure and results of Shelton & McNamara (1997)
In Shelton & McNamara (1997), what did the researchers find about recalling spatial information
from different perspectives?
a.​ Participants were faster and more accurate when recalling from a different viewpoint than
the one they learned from.
b.​ Participants performed the same regardless of whether they recalled from the same or a
different viewpoint
c.​ Participants were faster and more accurate when recalling from the same viewpoint they
learned from.
d.​ Participants were slower and more accurate when recalling from a different viewpoint
than the one they learned from.
5.​ Be familiar with clustering effects, border effects, and landmark effects (e.g., Hirthe & Mascolo,
1986; Mishra & Mishra 2010, McNamara & Diwadkar, 1997)
In the Mishra & Mishra (2010) study, participants were asked to choose a vacation home in either
North Mountain Resort (Washington) or West Mountain Resort (Oregon). What influenced their
decision when provided with information about an earthquake?
a.​ They chose the home closer to the earthquake, believing the risk was lower.
b.​ They chose the home farther from the earthquake, regardless of the map showing an
equal distance
c.​ They chose a home randomly.
d.​ They chose the home located in Oregon.
6.​ Be familiar with the alignment and rotational heuristics
_____ is when we remember a tilted geographic structure as being either more vertical or more
horizontal than it is, whereas as _____we remember geographic structures as being arranged in a
straighter line than they really are
a.​ Rotation heuristic; Alignment heuristic
b.​ Alignment heuristic; Rotation heuristic
c.​ Rotation heuristic; Scanning heuristic
d.​ Alignment heuristic; availability heuristic
 7.​ Be familiar with the spatial framework model - textbook
What is the spatial framework model, and what does it suggest about how we prioritize spatial
dimensions in our thinking?
a.​ The spatial framework model emphasizes that the above- below spatial dimension is
especially important in our thinking, the front-back dimension is moderately important,
and the right-left dimension is least important.
Lecture 8 Part 1 Outcomes:
1.​ Be familiar with the terms category, concept, and exemplar
Which is the definition of a concept
a.​ group of objects that have something in common
b.​ particular instance of a category
c.​ Mental representation to which you compare a novel object, to know it’s properties
2.​ Be familiar with the three levels of categorization, as well as the evidence for the special status of
the basic level
Which of the following correctly matches the levels of categorization with their examples?

a.​ Superordinate Level: Dog; Basic Level: Golden Retriever; Subordinate Level: Animal
b.​ Superordinate Level: Animal; Basic Level: Dog; Subordinate Level: Golden Retriever
c.​ Superordinate Level: Furniture; Basic Level: Rocking Chair; Subordinate Level: Chair
d.​ Superordinate Level: Dog; Basic Level: Animal; Subordinate Level: Chair
3.​ Be familiar with the method and results of Bhatt and Wasserman’s (1988) pigeon with four
category concept learning, and Wasserman and Bhatt’s (1992) experiment with different numbers
of training exemplars in each group of pigeons - lecture
True or False: Bhatt and Wasserman (1988) demonstrated that pigeons could categorize novel
images into groups they had not been exposed to during training.
a.​ True
b.​ False
4.​ Be able to identify from examples how typicality influences category judgments (typicality effect
and semantic priming) and reasoning.
What study helped prove the typicality effect?
a.​ Herrnstein, Loveland & Cable(1976)
b.​ Murphy (2002)
c.​ Rosch (1973)
d.​ Heit and Barsalou (1996)
 5.​ Be familiar with the characteristics of the three views/theories of categorization (classical,
prototype, exemplar), and be familiar with the three pieces of evidence for prototype - lecture and
textbook
True or false: People do not have to store an immense amount of information about specific
exemplars
a.​ True
b.​ False
6.​ Know the significance of Rosch and Mervis (1975)​
What did Rosch and Mervis (1975) find about categorization?
a.​ Categorization relies on superordinate levels.
b.​ Objects resemble prototypes with shared features.
c.​ Categorization depends on exemplar frequency.
d.​ Subordinate categories are easiest to process.
7.​ Be familiar with the results and implications of Heit and Barsalou (1996)
How did Heit and Barsalou (1996) use exemplar frequency and exemplar typicality to predict
category typicality for the superordinate category "animal"?

a.​ Heit and Barsalou (1996) showed that exemplar frequency and typicality predicted which
categories were seen as most typical for the superordinate category "animal," highlighting
the role of specific examples in categorization.
8.​ Know the conditions that support the use of the classical, exemplar, and prototype model of
concept learning and be able to identify each model from an example - lecture

How do people typically form categories in everyday life?

a.​ People only use one way, focusing on specific features.

b.​ People always use the prototype approach.
c.​ Categories with fewer items are formed only using one method.
d.​ People use a mix of different strategies, with the exemplar approach being best for
categories with fewer items.

Lecture 8 Part 2 Outcomes:

1.​ Know the relationship between hierarchical models of semantic memory and concept formation
in dementia and during human development - lecture
What is the Hierarchical Propositional Network and what purpose does it serve?
 a.​ The Hierarchical propositional network is a model of semantic memory that suggests
information is organized in a hierarchy, with general concepts at the top and more
specific details beneath
2.​ Know the five characteristics of PDP/neural network/connectionist models (parallel, distributed,
spreading activation, inhibition, and graceful degradation)

Which of the following is true about Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) or connectionist
models?

a.​ The network processes information one step at a time.

b.​ Information is processed at the same time across many parts
c.​ The network has no overlap between concepts
d.​ Information flows in one direction with no interaction
3.​ Be able to identify the three layers of neural network models from examples discussed in class
(Menace, AlphaGo, Watson) - lecture
What are the three layers of neural network models?
a.​ Input layer, hidden layer, and output layer
4.​ Know the significance and basic properties of experiments/equipment involved in sensory
substitution - lecture
From the lecture which of these is not an example of sensory substitution?
a.​ Bach y Rita (1972; 1984)
b.​ AlphaGo
c.​ Lee et al. (2014) BrainPort
d.​ P. Meijer’s The vOICe”
5.​ Know the results and significance of Sharma, Angelucci, Sur (2000) - lecture
What were the key findings of the Sharma, Angelucci, and Sur's (2000)
a.​ Sharma, Angelucci, and Sur's (2000) work highlighted the importance of feedback loops
in visual processing and showed that our perception of the world is influenced not just by
the raw sensory information coming in, but also by higher-level cognitive factors that
help us interpret that information.
6.​ Be familiar with the four general conclusions about schemas and memory selection – textbook
Which of the following is a general conclusion about schemas and memory selection?
a.​ People tend to remember inconsistent information when time is limited and the event is
minor
b.​ People are more likely to remember major events that are inconsistent with the schema.
 c.​ People create false memories for lengthy events that never occurred.
d.​ Information consistent with a schema is often forgotten when time is limited.

7.​ Know the two implicit memory tasks for showing how gender stereotypes can influence people’s
implicit memory, and be able to apply the Implicit Association Test to examples - textbook
Which one of these is not an example of an IAT?
a.​ Race test
b.​ Religion test
c.​ Age test
d.​ Questionnaire test
Lecture 9 Outcomes:

1.​ Be familiar with behaviorism and gestalt approaches to problem solving - lecture

What is an example of a well defined problem?

a.​ solving an anagram

2.​ Know why and for whom competing thoughts reduce problem solving (e.g., Watkins & Baracaia,
2002)

The Watkinds and Baracaia (2002) study proved what about ruminating?

a.​ prolongs negative emotional states and contributes to the persistence of depressive
symptoms.
3.​ Be familiar with Kohler and Epstein’s respective studies with Chimps and Pigeons

What did Kohler’s study with chimpanzees and Epstein’s study with pigeons show?

a.​ Chimpanzees use trial and error, and pigeons can't learn complex tasks
b.​ Chimpanzees solve problems using insight, and pigeons can learn abstract concepts.
c.​ Chimpanzees can't solve problems, and pigeons only use simple behaviors.
d.​ Both studies showed animals can't think abstractly.
4.​ Be familiar with the four forms of representing a problem (symbols, matrices, diagrams, visual
imagery) - textbook

True or false: A matrix isa grid consisting of rows and col- umns

a.​ True
b.​ False
5.​ Know the procedure and results of Novick and Morse (2000) – textbook (diagrams)

True or false:Novick and Morse (2000) asked students to construct origami objects—such as a
miniature piano—using folded paper. People who received both a verbal description and a
step-by-step diagram were much more accurate than people who received only a verbal
description

a.​ True
b.​ False
6.​ Be familiar with the hill climbing and means end heuristics - textbook

What is the hill-climbing heuristic?

a.​ Choosing the path with the steepest incline at each fork to reach the goal.
b.​ Analyzing all alternatives before making a choice.
c.​ Always avoiding the steepest path to prevent getting lost.
d.​ Choosing the path that seems to lead most directly away from the goal.
7.​ Be familiar with the characteristics of experts: Knowledge base, Strategies and Metacognitive
skills

True or false: Specifically, experts overestimate the amount of time that novices will require to
solve a problem in the experts’ area of specialization (Hinds, 1999

a.​ True
b.​ False
8.​ Be familiar with mental set and functional fixedness – textbook

What happens when you have a mental set?

a.​ You try the same solution from previous problems, even when a different method could
work
b.​ You stop trying any solutions and give up on the problem.
c.​ You always use the easiest method to solve the problem.
d.​ You think about how to solve the problem in new ways every time.
9.​ Be familiar with the evidence for gender stereotypes and stereotype threat - textbook

What is stereotype threat?

a.​ A belief that women are naturally better at math than men.
 b.​ The idea that math tests are always harder for females.
c.​ A belief that gender differences do not affect math performance.
d.​ A situation where anxiety caused by a negative stereotype can hurt performance.

Lecture 10 Outcomes:

1.​ Know the four kinds of reasoning tasks, which of the four are valid, and which occurs most
frequently

Which of the following is true about deductive reasoning?

a.​ The antecedent is the "then" part of a statement.

b.​ Deductive reasoning draws conclusions from uncertain premises.
c.​ A proposition is a statement that can be true or false.
d.​ The conclusion comes before the premises in deductive reasoning.
2.​ Be able to calculate expected value

You’re playing a game where you have the following options:What is the expected value of
playing this game?

●​ There is a 40% chance of winning $50.

●​ There is a 30% chance of winning $80.
●​ There is a 30% chance of winning $20.
a.​ $50
3.​ Know the relationship between the confirmation bias and Google - lecture

Which of these is not true about confirmation bias?

a.​ People tend to try to confirm or support a hypothesis rather than try to disprove it.
b.​ The Confirmation Bias has a direct impact on our Long Term Memory as well as our
Semantic Memory
c.​ Eager to affirm the antecedent, but reluctant to deny the consequent.
d.​ The Confirmation Bias has a direct impact on our Long Term Memory as well as our
Semantic Memory.
4.​ What are sunk costs and why are they relevant to decision making?

Fill in the blank: A sunk cost is time, money, or other investment that is irretrievably spent, and
therefore ____affect current decision making, and yet does

a.​ should not to

5.​ Be familiar with examples in which the availability heuristic influences our frequency judgments
(country population, disease vs. accidents, apple vs. mac, stereotypes)

Which of these are not true about the availability heuristic?

a.​ The availability heuristic helps to explain the phenomenon of illusory correlation, which
is related to stereotypes.
b.​ The availability heuristic produces errors when availability is influenced by biasing
factors such as recency and familiarity.
c.​ According to the availability heuristic, we estimate frequency or probability in terms of
how easily we think of relevant examples of something.
d.​ According to the availability heuristic, we judge that a sample is likely if it resembles the
population from which it was drawn.
6.​ Be familiar with the general studies on overconfidence, as well as confidence in completing
projects and political decision making – textbook

Which of the following is an example of overconfidence?

a.​ Political decision-makers risking lives

b.​ College students accurately estimating the time needed to complete their projects.
c.​ People relying solely on facts and evidence to make decisions.
d.​ People taking extra precautions because they are unsure about their decisions.
7.​ Know the decision-making styles and their relationship to regret, depression, and choice overload
– textbook

True or False: Satisficers make decisions quickly; in contrast, maximizers agonize over their
decisions, which may lead to regret and depressive symptoms.

a.​ True
b.​ False

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