9/8/98 AC 43.

13-1B

SECTION 7. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

5-89. GENERAL. Ultrasonic inspection is an b. Through-Transmission Inspection.

NDI technique that uses sound energy moving This inspection employs two transducers, one to
through the test specimen to detect flaws. The generate and a second to receive the ultrasound.
sound energy passing through the specimen will be A defect in the sound path between the two trans-
displayed on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), a Liq- ducers will interrupt the sound transmission. The
uid Crystal Display (LCD) computer data pro- magnitude (the change in the sound pulse ampli-
gram, or video/camera medium. Indications of the tude) of the interruption is used to evaluate test re-
front and back surface and internal/external condi- sults. Through-transmission inspection is less sen-
tions will appear as vertical signals on the CRT sitive to small defects than is pulse-echo inspec-
screen or nodes of data in the computer test pro- tion.
gram. There are three types of display patterns;
“A” scan, “B” scan, and “C” scan. Each scan 5-92. FLAW DETECTION. Ultrasonic in-
provides a different picture or view of the speci- spection can easily detect flaws that produce re-
men being tested. (See figure 5-15.) flective interfaces. Ultrasonic inspection is used to
detect surface and subsurface discontinuities, such
5-90. SOUND REFLECTION. The amount as: cracks, shrinkage cavities, bursts, flakes,
of reflection that occurs when a sound wave pores, delaminations, and porosity. It is also used
strikes an interface depends largely on the physi- to measure material thickness and to inspect
cal state of the materials forming the interface and bonded structure for bonding voids. Ultrasonic
to a lesser extent on the specific physical proper- inspection can be performed on raw material, bil-
ties of the material. For example: sound waves lets, finished, and semi-finished materials, welds,
are almost completely reflected at metal/gas inter- and in-service assembled or disassembled parts.
faces; and partial reflection occurs at metal/liquid Inclusions and other nonhomogeneous areas can
or metal/solid interfaces. also be detected if they cause partial reflection or
scattering of the ultrasonic sound waves or pro-
5-91. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION duce some other detectable effect on the ultra-
TECHNIQUES. Two basic ultrasonic inspection sonic sound waves. Ultrasonic inspection is one
techniques are employed: pulse-echo and of the more widely-used methods of NDI.
through-transmission. (See figure 5-16.)
5-93. BASIC EQUIPMENT. Most ultrasonic
a. Pulse-Echo Inspection. This process inspection systems include the following basic
uses a transducer to both transmit and receive the equipment; portable instruments (frequency range
ultrasonic pulse. The received ultrasonic pulses 0.5 to 15 MHz), transducers (longitudinal and
are separated by the time it takes the sound to shear wave), positioners, reference standards, and
reach the different surfaces from which it is re- couplant.
flected. The size (amplitude) of a reflection is re-
lated to the size of the reflecting surface. The a. Ultrasonic Instruments. A portable,
pulse-echo ultrasonic response pattern is analyzed battery-powered ultrasonic instrument is used for
on the basis of signal amplitude and separation. field inspection of airplane structure. (See fig-
ure 5-17.) The instrument generates an

Par 5-89 Page 5-41

AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98

FIGURE 5-15. Ultrasound.

FIGURE 5-16. Pulse-echo and through-transmission ultrasonic inspection techniques.

Page 5-42 Par 5-93

9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B

or is a configuration that provides an ultrasonic re-

sponse pattern representative of the test structure.
The reference standard contains a simulated de-
fect (notch) that is positioned to provide a calibra-
tion signal representative of the expected defect.
The notch size is chosen to establish inspection
sensitivity (response to the expected defect size).
The inspection procedure gives a detailed de-
scription of the required reference standard.

d. Couplants. Inspection with ultrasonics is

FIGURE 5-17. Typical portable ultrasonic inspection in- limited to the part in contact with the transducer.
strument. A layer of couplant is required to couple the
transducer to the test piece because ultrasonic en-
ultrasonic pulse, detects and amplifies the return- ergy will not travel through air. Some typical
ing echo, and displays the detected signal on a couplants used are: water, glycerin, motor oils,
cathode ray tube or similar display. Piezoelectric and grease.
transducers produce longitudinal or shear waves,
which are the most commonly used wave forms 5-94. INSPECTION OF BONDED
for aircraft structural inspection. STRUCTURES. Ultrasonic inspection is finding
increasing application in aircraft bonded construc-
b. Positioning Fixtures. To direct ultra- tion and repair. Detailed techniques for specific
sound at a particular angle, or to couple it into an bonded structures should be obtained from the
irregular surface, transducer positioning fixtures OEM’s manuals, or FAA requirements. In addi-
and sound-coupling shoes are employed. (See tion, further information on the operation of spe-
figure 5-18.) Shoes are made of a plastic material cific instruments should be obtained from the ap-
that has the necessary sound- transmitting charac- plicable equipment manufacturer manuals.
teristics. Positioning fixtures are used to locate the
transducer at a prescribed point and can increase a. Types of Bonded Structures. Many
the sensitivity of the inspection. (See figure 5-19.) configurations and types of bonded structures are
If a transducer shoe or positioning fixture is re- in use in aircraft. All of these variations compli-
quired, the inspection procedure will give a de- cate the application of ultrasonic inspections. An
tailed description of the shoe or fixture. inspection method that works well on one part or
one area of the part may not be applicable for dif-
c. Reference Standards. Reference stan- ferent parts or areas of the same part. Some of
dards are used to calibrate the ultrasonic instru- the variables in the types of bonded structures are
ment (see figure 5-20), reference standards serve as follows.
two purposes to provide an ultrasonic response
pattern that is related to the part being inspected, (1) Top skin material is made from differ-
and to establish the required inspection sensitivity. ent materials and thickness.
To obtain a representative response pattern, the
reference standard configuration is the same as (2) Different types and thickness of adhe-
that of the test structure, sives are used in bonded structures.

Par 5-93 Page 5-43

AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98

Note:
All dimensions in inches followed by centimeters in parentheses.
FIGURE 5-18. Example of position fixture and shoe.

FIGURE 5-19. Example of the use if a transducer positioning fixture.

FIGURE 5-20. Example of a typical reference standard.

Page 5-44 Par 5-94

9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B

(3) Underlying structures contain differ- containing: closure members, core splices,
ences in; core material, cell size, thickness, and stepped skins, and internal ribs similar to the test
height, back skin material and thickness, doublers part if bonded areas over or surrounding these
(material and thickness), closure member attach- details are to be inspected.
ments, foam adhesive, steps in skins, internal ribs,
and laminates (number of layers, layer thickness, (2) The reference standard must contain
and layer material). bonds of good quality except for controlled areas
of unbond fabricated as explained below.
(4) The top only or top and bottom skin of
a bonded structure may be accessible. (3) The reference standard must be
bonded using the adhesive and cure cycle pre-
b. Application of Ultrasonic Inspection. scribed for the test part.
Application to bonded structures must be exam-
ined in detail because of the many inspection e. Types of Defects. Defects can be sepa-
methods and structural configurations. The rated into five general types to represent the vari-
advantages and limitations of each inspection ous areas of bonded sandwich and laminate struc-
method should be considered, and reference tures as follows:
standards (representative of the structure to be
inspected) should be ultrasonically inspected to (1) Type I. Unbonds or voids in an outer
verify proposed techniques. skin-to-adhesive interface.

c. Internal Configuration. Complete in- (2) Type II. Unbonds or voids at the ad-
formation on the internal configuration of the hesive-to-core interface.
bonded test part must be obtained by the inspec-
tor. Drawings should be reviewed, and when (3) Type III. Voids between layers of a
necessary, radiographs of the test part should be laminate.
taken. Knowledge of details such as the location
and boundaries of doublers, ribs, etc., is required (4) Type IV. Voids in foam adhesive or
for valid interpretation of ultrasonic inspection re- unbonds between the adhesive and a closure
sults. The boundaries of internal details should be member at core-to-closure member joints.
marked on the test part using a grease pen or
other easily removable marking. (5) Type V. Water in the core.

d. Reference Standards . Standards can be f. Fabrication of NDI Reference Stan-

a duplicate of the test part except for the con- dards. Every ultrasonic test unit should have
trolled areas of unbond. As an option, simple test sample materials that contain unbonds equal to the
specimens, which represent the varied areas of the sizes of the minimum rejectable unbonds for the
test part and contain controlled areas of unbond, test parts. Information on minimum rejectable un-
can be used. Reference standards must meet the bond sizes for test parts should be obtained from
following requirements. the OEM’s manuals, FAA requirements, or the
cognizant FAA Aircraft Certification Office
(1) The reference standard must be similar (ACO) engineer. One or more of the following
to the test part regarding material, geometry, and techniques can be used in fabricating reference
thickness. This includes defects; however, since bonding materials vary,

Par 5-94 Page 5-45

AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98

some of the methods may not work with certain

materials.

Page 5-46 Par 5-94

9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B

(1) Standards for Types I, II, III, and IV ages and

unbonds can be prepared by placing discs
of 0.006 inch thick (maximum) Teflon sheets over
the adhesive in the areas selected for unbonds.
For Type II unbonds, the Teflon is placed be-
tween the core and adhesive. The components of
the standard are assembled and the assembly is
then cured.

(2) Types I, II, and III standards can also

be produced by cutting flat-bottomed holes of a
diameter equal to the diameter of the unbonds to
be produced. The holes are cut from the back
sides of bonded specimens, and the depths are
controlled to produce air gaps at the applicable
interfaces. When using this method, patch plates
can be bonded to the rear of the reference stan-
dard to cover and seal each hole.

(3) Type II standards can be produced by

locally undercutting (before assembly) the surface
of the core to the desired size unbond. The depth
of the undercut should be sufficient to prevent ad-
hesive flow causing bonds between the undercut
core and the skin.

(4) Type IV standards can be produced

by removing the adhesive in selected areas prior
to assembly.

(5) Type V standards can be produced by

drilling small holes in the back of the standard and
injecting varying amounts of water into the cells
with a hypodermic needle. The small holes can
then be sealed with a small amount of water-
resistant adhesive.

g. Inspection Coverage. Examples of sev-

eral different configurations of bonded structure
along with suggested inspection coverages with
standard ultrasonic test instruments are shown in
figure 5-21. In many cases, access limitations will
not permit application of the suggested inspections
in all of the areas shown. The inspection cover-

Par 5-94 Page 5-47

AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98

suggested methods contained in figure 5-21 and (1) Ultrasonic resonance. Sound waves
table 5-7 are for reference only. Details of the in- from a resonant transducer are transmitted into
spection coverage and inspections for a particular and received from a structure. A disbond in the
assembly should be obtained from the OEM’s structure will alter the sound wave characteristics,
manuals, or other FAA-approved requirements. which in turn affect the transducer impedance.

h. Inspection Methods. Table 5-8 lists the (2) Mechanical impedance. Low-
various inspection methods for bonded structures frequency, pulsed ultrasonic energy is generated
along with advantages and disadvantages of each into a structure. Through ultrasonic mechanical
inspection method. vibration of the structure, the impedance or stiff-
ness of the structure is measured, analyzed, and
5-95. BOND TESTING INSTRUMENTS. displayed by the instrumentation.
Standard ultrasonic inspection instruments can be
used for bond testing as previously noted; how- b. Operation. In general, operation of the
ever, a wide variety of bond testing instruments adhesive bond test instruments noted is similar.
are available for adaptation to specific bonded The test probe is moved over the surface in
structure inspection problems. smooth overlapping strokes. The direction of the
stroke with regard to the surface is generally im-
a. General Principle. Two basic operating material; however, when using the Sondicator
principles are used by a variety of bond testers for models, the direction of the stroke becomes criti-
single-sided bond inspection. cal when the test probe is

Page 5-48 Par 5-94

9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B

FIGURE 5-21. Examples of bonded structure configurations and suggested inspection coverage.

Par 5-95 Page 5-49

AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98

TABLE 5-7. Acceptable ultrasonic inspection methods associated with the example bonded structure configurations
shown in figure 5-21.

NUMBER ACCEPTABLE METHODS

1 Either
(a) Pulse-echo straight or angle beam, on each side
or
(b) Through-transmission.

2 Pulse-echo, straight beam, on each skin.

3 Refer to 1 for methods. If all these methods fail to have sufficient penetration
power to detect reference defects in the reference standard, then the ringing
method, applied from both sides, should be used. Otherwise, the ringing method
is unacceptable.
4 Either
(a) Ringing, on each skin of the doubler.
or
(b) Through-transmission
or
(c) Damping.

5 Ringing.

6 Through-transmission. Dotted Line represents beam direction.

7 Either
(a) Through-transmission
or
(b) Damping.

NOTE

A variety of ultrasonic testing methods and instruments are available for adaptation to specific inspection
problems. Other bond inspection instruments can be used if detailed procedures are developed and
proven on the applicable reference standards for each configuration of interest. Some representative in-
struments, which can be used for the inspection of bonded structures are; the Sondicator, Harmonic Bond
Tester, Acoustic Flaw Detector, Audible Bond Tester, Fokker Bond Tester, 210 Bond Tester, and Bon-
dascope 2100.

Page 5-50 Par 5-95

9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B

TABLE 5-8. Ultrasonic inspection methods for bonded structures.

INSPECTION METHOD

THROUGH- PULSE-ECHO RINGING DAMPING

TRANSMISSION
Advantages Applicable to Applicable to struc- Applicable to com- Applicable to
structures with ei- tures with either thick plex shapes. structures with ei-
ther thick or thin or thin facing sheets. ther thick or thin
facing sheets. Detects small near facing sheets.
Determines which surface unbonds
Applicable to side is unbonded. (larger than diame- Applicable to mul-
structures with ter of search unit). tiple-layered (more
multiple layers Detects small un- than two layers)
bonded over hon- bonds. structures.
eycomb core.
Detects broken, Detects unbonds
Detects unbonds crushed, and cor- on either side.
on either side roded core.
Detects small un-
Detects broken, In some cases water bonds (larger than
crushed, and cor- in core can be de- diameter of receiv-
roded core. tected. ing search unit).

In some cases
water in core can
be detected.

Disadvantages Access to both Inspection from both Applicable only to Applicable only to
sides of part is re- sides required, does near surface un- doublers and lami-
quired. not detect far side bonds, works best nate-type struc-
unbonds. on unbonds be- tures.
Does not deter- tween top sheet
mine layer posi- Applicable only to and adhesive, may Access to both
tion of unbonds. skin-to-honeycomb miss other un- sides required.
core structures. bonds.
Alignment of Does not deter-
search units is Reduced effective- Reduced effective- mine layer posi-
critical. ness on structures ness on thick tions of unbonds.
with multiple skins skins.
Couplant is re- over honeycomb Couplant required.
quired. core. Couplant required.

Inspection rate is Couplant required.

slow.

Par 5-95 Page 5-51

AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98

operated near a surface edge. Edge effects on vi- Since the velocity for a given material
bration paths give a test reading that may be
misinterpreted. To avoid edge effects, the test
probe should be moved so that the inspection
path follows the surface edge, giving a constant
edge for the test probe to inspect. Edge effects
are more pronounced in thicker material. To
interpret meter readings correctly, the operator
should determine whether there are variations in
the thickness of the material.

c. Probe Sending Signal. With the excep-

tion of the Sondicator models, the test probes of
the testers emit a sending signal that radiates in a
full circle. The sending signal of the Sondicator
probe travels from one transducer tip to the other.
For this reason, the test probe should be held so
that the transducer tips are at right angles to the
inspection path. When inspecting honeycomb
panels with a Sondicator model, the transducer
tips should be moved consistently in the direction
of the ribbon of the honeycomb or at right angles
to the ribbon so that a constant subsurface is pre-
sented.

5-96. THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS.

Ultrasonic inspection methods can be used for
measurement of material thickness in aircraft parts
and structures.

a. Applications. Ultrasonic thickness meas-

urements are used for many applications, such as:
checking part thickness when access to the back
side is not available; checking large panels in inte-
rior areas where a conventional micrometer can-
not reach; and in maintenance inspections for
checking thickness loss due to wear and/or corro-
sion.

b. Pulse-Echo Method. The most com-

monly used ultrasonic thickness measurement
method. The ultrasonic instrument measures time
between the initial front and back surface signals
or subsequent multiple back reflection signals.

Page 5-52 Par 5-95

9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B

is a constant, the time between these signals is di-

rectly proportional to the thickness. Calibration
procedures are used to obtain direct readout of
test part thickness.

c. Thickness Measurement Instrument

Types. Pulse-echo instruments designed exclu-
sively for thickness measurements are generally
used in lieu of conventional pulse-echo instru-
ments; however, some conventional pulse-echo
instruments also have direct thickness measure-
ment capabilities. Conventional pulse-echo in-
struments without direct thickness measuring ca-
pabilities can also be used for measuring thickness
by using special procedures.

d. Thickness Measurement Ranges.

Dependent upon the instrument used and the ma-
terial under test, material thickness
from 0.005 inches to 20 inches (or more) can be
measured with pulse-echo instruments designed
specifically for thickness measuring.

5-97. LEAK TESTING. The flow of a pres-

surized gas through a leak produces sound of both
sonic and ultrasonic frequencies. If the gas leak is
large, the sonic frequency sound it produces can
probably be detected with the ear or with such in-
struments as stethoscopes or microphones; how-
ever, the ear and these instruments have limited
ability to detect and locate small leaks. Ultrasonic
leak detectors are frequently used to detect leaks
that cannot be detected by the above methods,
because they are very sensitive to ultrasonic en-
ergy and, under most conditions, background
noise at other frequencies does not affect them.

a. Standard Method. A standard method

of testing for leaks using ultrasonics is provided in
ASTM E 1002. The method covers procedures
for calibration, location, and estimated measure-
ments of leakage by the ultrasonic technique
(sometimes called ultrasonic translation).

Par 5-9 Page 5-53 (and 5-52)

AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98

b. Detection Distance. Ultrasonic energy

in the relatively low-frequency range of
30-50 KHz travels easily through air; therefore,
an ultrasonic leak detector can detect leakage
with the probe located away from the leak. The
maximum detection distance depends on the leak-
age rate.

c. Typical Applications. Some typical ap-

plications for the ultrasonic leak detector on air-
craft are: fuel system pressurization tests, air ducts
and air conditioning systems, emergency evacua-
tion slides, tire pressure retention, electrical dis-
charge, oxygen lines and valves, internal leaks in
hydraulic valves and actuators, fuel cell testing,
identifying cavitation in hydraulic pumps, arcing in
wave guides, cabin and cockpit window and door
seals, and cabin pressurization testing.

5-98.5-104. [RESERVED.]

Page 5-54 Par 5-95

9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B

Par 5-97 Page 5-55 (and 5-52)