Mechanical Properties

of Materials
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
■ Having discussed the basic concepts of stress and strain, we will in
this chapter show how stress can be related to strain by using
experimental methods to determine the stress–strain diagram for a
specific material. The behavior described by this diagram will then
be discussed for materials that are commonly used in engineering.
Also, mechanical properties and other tests that are related to the
development of mechanics of materials will be discussed.

3.1 The Tension and Compression Test

The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without
undue deformation or failure. This property is inherent in the material
itself and must be determined by experiment. One of the most important
tests to perform in this regard is the tension or compression test. Although
several important mechanical properties of a material can be determined
from this test, it is used primarily to determine the relationship between
the average normal stress and average normal strain in many engineering
materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites.

83
 84 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

To perform a tension or compression test a specimen of the material is

d0 ! 0.5 in. made into a “standard” shape and size. It has a constant circular cross
section with enlarged ends, so that failure will not occur at the grips.
Before testing, two small punch marks are placed along the specimen’s
uniform length. Measurements are taken of both the specimen’s initial
L0 ! 2 in. cross-sectional area, A0, and the gauge-length distance L0 between the
punch marks. For example, when a metal specimen is used in a tension
Fig. 3–1 test it generally has an initial diameter of d0 = 0.5 in. (13 mm) and a
gauge length of L0 = 2 in. (51 mm), Fig. 3–1. In order to apply an axial
3
load with no bending of the specimen, the ends are usually seated into
ball-and-socket joints. A testing machine like the one shown in Fig. 3–2
is then used to stretch the specimen at a very slow, constant rate until it
fails. The machine is designed to read the load required to maintain this
uniform stretching.
At frequent intervals during the test, data is recorded of the applied
load P, as read on the dial of the machine or taken from a digital readout.
Also, the elongation d = L - L0 between the punch marks on the
specimen may be measured using either a caliper or a mechanical or
Typical steel specimen with attached strain gauge. optical device called an extensometer. This value of d (delta) is then used
to calculate the average normal strain in the specimen. Sometimes,
however, this measurement is not taken, since it is also possible to read
the strain directly by using an electrical-resistance strain gauge, which
looks like the one shown in Fig. 3–3. The operation of this gauge is based
on the change in electrical resistance of a very thin wire or piece of metal
foil under strain. Essentially the gauge is cemented to the specimen
along its length. If the cement is very strong in comparison to the gauge,
then the gauge is in effect an integral part of the specimen, so that when
the specimen is strained in the direction of the gauge, the wire and
specimen will experience the same strain. By measuring the electrical
resistance of the wire, the gauge may be calibrated to read values of
normal strain directly.

movable
upper
crosshead
load
dial
tension
specimen
motor
and load
controls

Electrical–resistance
strain gauge

Fig. 3–2 Fig. 3–3

 3.2 THE STRESS–STRAIN DIAGRAM 85

3.2 The Stress–Strain Diagram

It is not feasible to prepare a test specimen to match the size, A0 and L0,
of each structural member. Rather, the test results must be reported so
they apply to a member of any size. To achieve this, the load and
corresponding deformation data are used to calculate various values of
the stress and corresponding strain in the specimen. A plot of the results
produces a curve called the stress–strain diagram. There are two ways in
which it is normally described.
3

Conventional Stress–Strain Diagram. We can determine the

nominal or engineering stress by dividing the applied load P by the
specimen’s original cross-sectional area A0. This calculation assumes that
the stress is constant over the cross section and throughout the gauge
length. We have

P
s = (3–1)
A0

Likewise, the nominal or engineering strain is found directly from

the strain gauge reading, or by dividing the change in the specimen’s gauge
length, d, by the specimen’s original gauge length L0. Here the strain is
assumed to be constant throughout the region between the gauge points.
Thus,

d
P = (3–2)
L0

If the corresponding values of s and P are plotted so that the vertical

axis is the stress and the horizontal axis is the strain, the resulting curve is
called a conventional stress–strain diagram. Realize, however, that two
stress–strain diagrams for a particular material will be quite similar, but
will never be exactly the same. This is because the results actually depend
on variables such as the material’s composition, microscopic imperfections,
the way it is manufactured, the rate of loading, and the temperature
during the time of the test.
We will now discuss the characteristics of the conventional stress–strain
curve as it pertains to steel, a commonly used material for fabricating both
structural members and mechanical elements. Using the method described
above, the characteristic stress–strain diagram for a steel specimen is shown
in Fig. 3–4. From this curve we can identify four different ways in which the
material behaves, depending on the amount of strain induced in the material.
 86 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

s true fracture stress

s¿f

ultimate
su stress fracture
proportional limit stress
sf
elastic limit
sY yield stress
spl

3
P
elastic yielding strain necking
region hardening
elastic plastic behavior
behavior
Conventional and true stress-strain diagrams
for ductile material (steel) (not to scale)

Fig. 3–4

Elastic Behavior. Elastic behavior of the material occurs when the

strains in the specimen are within the light orange region shown in
Fig. 3–4. Here the curve is actually a straight line throughout most of this
region, so that the stress is proportional to the strain. The material in this
region is said to be linear elastic. The upper stress limit to this linear
relationship is called the proportional limit, spl. If the stress slightly
exceeds the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend and flatten out as
shown. This continues until the stress reaches the elastic limit. Upon
reaching this point, if the load is removed the specimen will still return
back to its original shape. Normally for steel, however, the elastic limit is
seldom determined, since it is very close to the proportional limit and
therefore rather difficult to detect.

Yielding. A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result
in a breakdown of the material and cause it to deform permanently.
This behavior is called yielding, and it is indicated by the rectangular
dark orange region of the curve. The stress that causes yielding is
called the yield stress or yield point, sY , and the deformation that
occurs is called plastic deformation. Although not shown in Fig. 3–4,
for low-carbon steels or those that are hot rolled, the yield point is
often distinguished by two values. The upper yield point occurs first,
followed by a sudden decrease in load-carrying capacity to a lower
yield point. Notice that once the yield point is reached, then as shown
in Fig. 3–4, the specimen will continue to elongate (strain) without any
increase in load. When the material is in this state, it is often referred
to as being perfectly plastic.
 3.2 THE STRESS–STRAIN DIAGRAM 87

Strain Hardening. When yielding has ended, an increase in load can

be supported by the specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously
but becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the
ultimate stress, su. The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain
hardening, and it is identified in Fig. 3–4 as the region in light green.
Necking. Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its
cross-sectional area will decrease. This decrease is fairly uniform over
the specimen’s entire gauge length; however, just after, at the ultimate
stress, the cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a localized region
of the specimen. As a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to form in 3
this region as the specimen elongates further, Fig. 3–5a. This region of
the curve due to necking is indicated in dark green in Fig. 3–4. Here the
stress–strain diagram tends to curve downward until the specimen breaks
at the fracture stress, sf , Fig. 3–5b.

True Stress–Strain Diagram. Instead of always using the original Typical necking pattern which has occurred
on this steel specimen just before fracture.
cross-sectional area and specimen length to calculate the (engineering)
stress and strain, we could have used the actual cross-sectional area and
specimen length at the instant the load is measured. The values of stress
and strain found from these measurements are called true stress and true
strain, and a plot of their values is called the true stress–strain diagram.
When this diagram is plotted it has a form shown by the light-blue curve
in Fig. 3–4. Note that the conventional and true s9P diagrams are
practically coincident when the strain is small. The differences between
the diagrams begin to appear in the strain-hardening range, where the
magnitude of strain becomes more significant. In particular, there is
a large divergence within the necking region. Here it can be seen from
the conventional s9P diagram that the specimen actually supports a
decreasing load, since A0 is constant when calculating engineering stress,
s = P>A0. However, from the true s9P diagram, the actual area A within
the necking region is always decreasing until fracture, sf! , and so the
material actually sustains increasing stress, since s = P>A.

Necking Failure of a This steel specimen clearly shows the necking

ductile material that occurred just before the specimen failed.
(a) (b) This resulted in the formation of a
“cup-cone” shape at the fracture location,
Fig. 3–5 which is characteristic of ductile materials.
 88 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Although the true and conventional stress–strain diagrams are

different, most engineering design is done so that the material supports a
stress within the elastic range. This is because the deformation of the
material is generally not severe and the material will restore itself when
the load is removed. The true strain up to the elastic limit will remain
small enough so that the error in using the engineering values of s and P
is very small (about 0.1%) compared with their true values. This is one of
the primary reasons for using conventional stress–strain diagrams.
The above concepts can be summarized with reference to Fig. 3–6,
3
which shows an actual conventional stress–strain diagram for a mild steel
specimen. In order to enhance the details, the elastic region of the curve
has been shown in light blue color using an exaggerated strain scale, also
shown in light blue. Tracing the behavior, the proportional limit is
reached at spl = 35 ksi (241 MPa), where Ppl = 0.0012 in.>in. This is
followed by an upper yield point of 1sY 2 u = 38 ksi (262 MPa), then
suddenly a lower yield point of 1sY 2 l = 36 ksi (248 MPa). The end of
yielding occurs at a strain of PY = 0.030 in.>in., which is 25 times greater
than the strain at the proportional limit! Continuing, the specimen
undergoes strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate stress of
su = 63 ksi (434 MPa), then it begins to neck down until a fracture
occurs, sf = 47 ksi (324 MPa). By comparison, the strain at failure,
Pf = 0.380 in.>in., is 317 times greater than Ppl!

s (ksi)
ultimate stress su ! 63
60

50
Fracture stress sf ! 47
yield stress at upper yield point (sY)u ! 38 40
(sY)l ! 36
spl ! 35 30
Stress at proportional limit
20

10
mm=mm
P (in./in.)
0.050 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
PY ! 0.030 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Ppl ! 0.0012 Pf ! 0.380
Stress-strain diagram for mild steel

Fig. 3–6
 3.3 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS 89

3.3 Stress–Strain Behavior of Ductile

and Brittle Materials
Materials can be classified as either being ductile or brittle, depending on
their stress–strain characteristics.

Ductile Materials. Any material that can be subjected to large

strains before it fractures is called a ductile material. Mild steel, as
discussed previously, is a typical example. Engineers often choose ductile 3
materials for design because these materials are capable of absorbing
shock or energy, and if they become overloaded, they will usually exhibit
large deformation before failing.
One way to specify the ductility of a material is to report its percent
elongation or percent reduction in area at the time of fracture. The
percent elongation is the specimen’s fracture strain expressed as a
percent. Thus, if the specimen’s original gauge length is L0 and its length
at fracture is Lf , then

Lf - L0
Percent elongation = (100%) (3–3)
L0
As seen in Fig. 3–6, since Pf = 0.380, this value would be 38% for a mild
steel specimen.
The percent reduction in area is another way to specify ductility. It is
defined within the region of necking as follows:

A0 - Af
Percent reduction of area = (100%) (3–4)
A0
Here A0 is the specimen’s original cross-sectional area and Af is the area
of the neck at fracture. Mild steel has a typical value of 60%.
Besides steel, other metals such as brass, molybdenum, and zinc may
s (ksi)
also exhibit ductile stress–strain characteristics similar to steel, whereby
60
they undergo elastic stress–strain behavior, yielding at constant stress, sYS ! 51
strain hardening, and finally necking until fracture. In most metals, 50
however, constant yielding will not occur beyond the elastic range. One
40
metal for which this is the case is aluminum. Actually, this metal often
does not have a well-defined yield point, and consequently it is standard 30
practice to define a yield strength using a graphical procedure called the
20
offset method. Normally for structural design a 0.2% strain (0.002 in.>in.)
is chosen, and from this point on the P axis, a line parallel to the initial 10
straight-line portion of the stress–strain diagram is drawn. The point where
P (in./in.)
this line intersects the curve defines the yield strength. An example of the 0.005 0.010
0.002
construction for determining the yield strength for an aluminum alloy is (0.2% offset)
shown in Fig. 3–7. From the graph, the yield strength is sYS = 51 ksi Yield strength for an aluminum alloy
(352 MPa). Apart from metals, 0.2% strain is used as the offset to determine
the yield strength of many plastics. Fig. 3–7
 90 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

s (ksi)
2.0

1.5

1.0 s (ksi)
sf " 22 B
20
3 0.5 !0.06 !0.05 !0.04 !0.03 !0.02 !0.01 A
P (in./in.)
0.01

P (in./in.) !20
2 4 6 8 10
s–P diagram for natural rubber !40

Fig. 3–8 !60

!80

!100

C !120

s–P diagram for gray cast iron

Fig. 3–9

Realize that the yield strength is not a physical property of the material,
since it is a stress that causes a specified permanent strain in the material.
In this text, however, we will assume that the yield strength, yield point,
elastic limit, and proportional limit all coincide unless otherwise stated.
An exception would be natural rubber, which in fact does not even have
a proportional limit, since stress and strain are not linearly related.
Instead, as shown in Fig. 3–8, this material, which is known as a polymer,
exhibits nonlinear elastic behavior.
Wood is a material that is often moderately ductile, and as a result it
is usually designed to respond only to elastic loadings. The strength
characteristics of wood vary greatly from one species to another, and for
each species they depend on the moisture content, age, and the size and
arrangement of knots in the wood. Since wood is a fibrous material, its
tensile or compressive characteristics will differ greatly when it is loaded
Concrete used for structural
either parallel or perpendicular to its grain. Specifically, wood splits easily
purposes must be tested in
compression to be sure it when it is loaded in tension perpendicular to its grain, and consequently
reaches its ultimate design tensile loads are almost always intended to be applied parallel to the
stress after curing for 30 days. grain of wood members.
 3.3 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS 91

s (ksi)

2
(st)max " 0.4
!0.0030 !0.0025!0.0020!0.0015!0.0010!0.0005
P (in./in.)
0 0.0005

!2

!4
(sc)max " 5
3
!6
Tension failure of
T Compression causes
a brittle material material to bulge out
(a) (b) s!P diagram for typical concrete mix

Fig. 3–10 Fig. 3–11

Brittle Materials. Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before

failure are referred to as brittle materials. Gray cast iron is an example,
having a stress–strain diagram in tension as shown by portion AB of the
curve in Fig. 3–9. Here fracture at sf = 22 ksi (152 MPa) took place
initially at an imperfection or microscopic crack and then spread rapidly
across the specimen, causing complete fracture. Since the appearance of
initial cracks in a specimen is quite random, brittle materials do not have a
well-defined tensile fracture stress. Instead the average fracture stress from
a set of observed tests is generally reported. A typical failed specimen is
shown in Fig. 3–10a.
Compared with their behavior in tension, brittle materials, such as Steel rapidly loses its strength when heated.
For this reason engineers often require
gray cast iron, exhibit a much higher resistance to axial compression, as main structural members to be insulated in
evidenced by portion AC of the curve in Fig. 3–9. For this case any cracks case of fire.
or imperfections in the specimen tend to close up, and as the load
increases the material will generally bulge or become barrel shaped as s (ksi)
the strains become larger, Fig. 3–10b. 40# F
Like gray cast iron, concrete is classified as a brittle material, and it 9
also has a low strength capacity in tension. The characteristics of its 8
stress–strain diagram depend primarily on the mix of concrete (water, 7
sand, gravel, and cement) and the time and temperature of curing. A typical
6 110# F
example of a “complete” stress–strain diagram for concrete is given in
Fig. 3–11. By inspection, its maximum compressive strength is about 5
12.5 times greater than its tensile strength, 1sc 2 max = 5 ksi (34.5 MPa) 4
versus 1st 2 max = 0.40 ksi (2.76 MPa). For this reason, concrete is almost 160# F
always reinforced with steel bars or rods whenever it is designed to support 3
tensile loads. 2
It can generally be stated that most materials exhibit both ductile and 1
brittle behavior. For example, steel has brittle behavior when it contains
P (in./in.)
a high carbon content, and it is ductile when the carbon content is 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
reduced. Also, at low temperatures materials become harder and more
s!P diagrams for a methacrylate plastic
brittle, whereas when the temperature rises they become softer and
more ductile. This effect is shown in Fig. 3–12 for a methacrylate plastic. Fig. 3–12
 92 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

3.4 Hooke’s Law

As noted in the previous section, the stress–strain diagrams for most
engineering materials exhibit a linear relationship between stress and
strain within the elastic region. Consequently, an increase in stress causes
a proportionate increase in strain. This fact was discovered by Robert
Hooke in 1676 using springs and is known as Hooke’s law. It may be
expressed mathematically as
3 s = EP (3–5)

Here E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the

modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after Thomas Young,
who published an account of it in 1807.
Equation 3–5 actually represents the equation of the initial straight-lined
portion of the stress–strain diagram up to the proportional limit.
Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity represents the slope of this line.
Since strain is dimensionless, from Eq. 3–5, E will have the same units as
stress, such as psi, ksi, or pascals. As an example of its calculation, consider
the stress–strain diagram for steel shown in Fig. 3–6. Here spl = 35 ksi
and Ppl = 0.0012 in.>in., so that
spl 35 ksi
E = = = 291103 2 ksi
Ppl 0.0012 in.>in.
As shown in Fig. 3–13, the proportional limit for a particular type of steel
alloy depends on its carbon content; however, most grades of steel, from the
softest rolled steel to the hardest tool steel, have about the same modulus of

s (ksi)

180 spring steel

(1% carbon)
160

140

120 hard steel

(0.6% carbon)
100 heat treated

80 machine steel
(0.6% carbon)
60 structural steel
(0.2% carbon)
40 soft steel
(0.1% carbon)
20

P (in./in.)
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Fig. 3–13
 3.4 HOOKE’S LAW 93

elasticity, generally accepted to be Est = 291103 2 ksi or 200 GPa. Values of

E for other commonly used engineering materials are often tabulated in
engineering codes and reference books. Representative values are also
listed on the inside back cover of this book. It should be noted that the
modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that indicates the stiffness
of a material. Materials that are very stiff, such as steel, have large values
of E [Est = 291103 2 ksi or 200 GPa], whereas spongy materials such as
vulcanized rubber may have low values [Er = 0.10 ksi or 0.69 MPa].
The modulus of elasticity is one of the most important mechanical
properties used in the development of equations presented in this text. It 3
must always be remembered, though, that E can be used only if a
material has linear elastic behavior. Also, if the stress in the material is
greater than the proportional limit, the stress–strain diagram ceases to be
a straight line and so Eq. 3–5 is no longer valid. s

Strain Hardening. If a specimen of ductile material, such as steel,

is loaded into the plastic region and then unloaded, elastic strain is elastic plastic
region region
recovered as the material returns to its equilibrium state. The plastic
strain remains, however, and as a result the material is subjected to a B
permanent set. For example, a wire when bent (plastically) will spring A¿
back a little (elastically) when the load is removed; however, it will not
fully return to its original position. This behavior can be illustrated on
the stress–strain diagram shown in Fig. 3–14a. Here the specimen is first A
load
loaded beyond its yield point A to point A!. Since interatomic forces E
have to be overcome to elongate the specimen elastically, then these E unload
same forces pull the atoms back together when the load is removed,
Fig. 3–14a. Consequently, the modulus of elasticity, E, is the same, and P
therefore the slope of line O!A! is the same as line OA. O O¿
permanent elastic
If the load is reapplied, the atoms in the material will again be displaced set recovery
until yielding occurs at or near the stress A!, and the stress–strain diagram (a)
continues along the same path as before, Fig. 3–14b. It should be noted,
however, that this new stress–strain diagram, defined by O!A!B, now has
a higher yield point 1A!2, a consequence of strain-hardening. In other s
words, the material now has a greater elastic region; however, it has less
ductility, a smaller plastic region, than when it was in its original state. elastic plastic
region region

B
A¿

P
O O¿
This pin was made from a hardened steel (b)
alloy, that is, one having a high carbon
content. It failed due to brittle fracture. Fig. 3–14
 94 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

3.5 Strain Energy

As a material is deformed by an external load, the load will do external
work, which in turn will be stored in the material as internal energy. This
s energy is related to the strains in the material, and so it is referred to as
strain energy. To obtain this strain energy let us consider a volume element
of material from a tension test specimen Fig. 3–15. It is subjected to the
uniaxial stress s. This stress develops a force !F = s !A = s 1!x !y2
on the top and bottom faces of the element after the element of length !z
3 !z
undergoes a vertical displacement P !z. By definition, work of ! F is
determined by the product of a force and the displacement in the direction
!x of the force. Since the force is increased uniformly from zero to its final
!y
magnitude !F when the displacement P !z occurs, the work done on the
s element by the force is then equal to the average force magnitude 1 !F>22
times the displacement P !z. The conservation of energy requires this
Fig. 3–15 “external work” on the element to be equivalent to the “internal work”
or strain energy stored in the element—assuming that no energy is
lost in the form of heat. Consequently, the strain energy !U is
!U = 1 12 !F2 P !z = 1 12 s !x !y2 P !z. Since the volume of the element
is !V = !x !y !z, then !U = 21 sP !V .
For applications, it is often convenient to specify the strain energy per
unit volume of material. This is called the strain-energy density, and it
can be expressed as

!U 1
u = = sP (3–6)
!V 2
Finally, if the material behavior is linear elastic, then Hooke’s law
applies, s = EP, and therefore we can express the elastic strain-energy
density in terms of the uniaxial stress s as

1 s2
u = (3–7)
2 E
s
Modulus of Resilience. In particular, when the stress s reaches
the proportional limit, the strain-energy density, as calculated by Eq. 3–6
spl
or 3–7, is referred to as the modulus of resilience, i.e.,

2
ur 1 1 spl
Modulus of resilience (ur) ur = spl Ppl = (3–8)
2 2 E

From the elastic region of the stress–strain diagram, Fig. 3–16a, notice that
Ppl P ur is equivalent to the shaded triangular area under the diagram. Physically
Modulus of resilience ur the modulus of resilience represents the largest amount of internal strain
energy per unit volume the material can absorb without causing any
(a)
permanent damage to the material. Certainly this becomes important
Fig. 3–16 when designing bumpers or shock absorbers.
 3.5 STRAIN ENERGY 95

Modulus of Toughness. Another important property of a s

material is the modulus of toughness, ut. This quantity represents the
entire area under the stress–strain diagram, Fig. 3–16b, and therefore it
indicates the maximum amount of strain-energy the material can absorb
just before it fractures. This property becomes important when designing
members that may be accidentally overloaded. Note that alloying metals ut
can also change their resilience and toughness. For example, by changing
the percentage of carbon in steel, the resulting stress–strain diagrams in
Fig. 3–17 show how the degrees of resilience (Fig. 3–16a) and toughness
(Fig. 3–16b) can be changed. P 3
Modulus of toughness ut

Important Points (b)

Fig. 3–16 (cont.)

• A conventional stress–strain diagram is important in engineering s
since it provides a means for obtaining data about a material’s hard steel
(0.6% carbon)
tensile or compressive strength without regard for the material’s highest strength
physical size or shape. structural steel
(0.2% carbon)
• Engineering stress and strain are calculated using the original toughest
cross-sectional area and gauge length of the specimen.
soft steel
• A ductile material, such as mild steel, has four distinct behaviors (0.1% carbon)
as it is loaded. They are elastic behavior, yielding, strain hardening, most ductile
and necking.
• A material is linear elastic if the stress is proportional to the strain P
within the elastic region. This behavior is described by Hooke’s law,
Fig. 3–17
s = EP, where the modulus of elasticity E is the slope of the line.
• Important points on the stress–strain diagram are the proportional
limit, elastic limit, yield stress, ultimate stress, and fracture stress.
• The ductility of a material can be specified by the specimen’s
percent elongation or the percent reduction in area.
• If a material does not have a distinct yield point, a yield strength can
be specified using a graphical procedure such as the offset method.
• Brittle materials, such as gray cast iron, have very little or no
yielding and so they can fracture suddenly.
• Strain hardening is used to establish a higher yield point for a
material. This is done by straining the material beyond the elastic
limit, then releasing the load. The modulus of elasticity remains the
same; however, the material’s ductility decreases.
• Strain energy is energy stored in a material due to its deformation.
This energy per unit volume is called strain-energy density. If it is
measured up to the proportional limit, it is referred to as the
modulus of resilience, and if it is measured up to the point of
This nylon specimen exhibits a high degree
fracture, it is called the modulus of toughness. It can be determined of toughness as noted by the large amount of
from the area under the s -P diagram. necking that has occurred just before
fracture.
 96 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 3.1
A tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress–strain diagram
shown in Fig. 3–18. Calculate the modulus of elasticity and the yield
strength based on a 0.2% offset. Identify on the graph the ultimate
stress and the fracture stress.
s (ksi)
120
B
110
3 su ! 108
100
sf ! 90 C
80
70 A¿ A¿
sYS ! 68
60
50 A
50
40
30 E E
20
0:0016
10 Pf ! 0.23
P (in./in.)
O 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
0.0008 0.0016 0.0024
0.0004 0.0012 0.0020
0.2%

Fig. 3–18
SOLUTION
Modulus of Elasticity. We must calculate the slope of the initial
straight-line portion of the graph. Using the magnified curve and scale
shown in blue, this line extends from point O to an estimated point A,
which has coordinates of approximately (0.0016 in.>in., 50 ksi).
Therefore,
50 ksi
E = = 31.21103 2 ksi Ans.
0.0016 in.>in.
Note that the equation of line OA is thus s = 31.21103 2P.
Yield Strength. For a 0.2% offset, we begin at a strain of 0.2% or
0.0020 in.>in. and graphically extend a (dashed) line parallel to OA until
it intersects the s9P curve at A!. The yield strength is approximately
sYS = 68 ksi Ans.
Ultimate Stress. This is defined by the peak of the s9P graph,
point B in Fig. 3–18.
su = 108 ksi Ans.
Fracture Stress. When the specimen is strained to its maximum of
Pf = 0.23 in.>in., it fractures at point C. Thus,
sf = 90 ksi Ans.
 3.5 STRAIN ENERGY 97

EXAMPLE 3.2
The stress–strain diagram for an aluminum alloy that is used for
making aircraft parts is shown in Fig. 3–19. If a specimen of this s (MPa)
material is stressed to 600 MPa, determine the permanent strain that
remains in the specimen when the load is released. Also, find the 750
modulus of resilience both before and after the load application. B F
600

SOLUTION sY ! 450 A
parallel
Permanent Strain. When the specimen is subjected to the load, it 3
300
strain-hardens until point B is reached on the s9P diagram. The strain
at this point is approximately 0.023 mm>mm. When the load is released, 150
the material behaves by following the straight line BC, which is parallel C D P (mm/mm)
to line OA. Since both lines have the same slope, the strain at point C O 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
can be determined analytically. The slope of line OA is the modulus of PY ! 0.006
POC
0.023

elasticity, i.e., ¾y
Fig. 3–19
450 MPa
E = = 75.0 GPa P a = N =m2
0.006 mm>mm
²y
From triangle CBD, we require M P a = 106 N =m2 = N =mm2
BD 6001106 2 Pa
E = ; 75.0 1109 2 Pa =
CD CD
elastic strain CD = 0.008 mm>mm
This strain represents the amount of recovered elastic strain. The
permanent strain, POC, is thus
²
T otal strain OD = 0:023
POC = 0.023 mm>mm - 0.008 mm>mm elastic strain (CD) = 0:008
= 0.0150 mm>mm Ans.
plastic strain = 0:015
Note: If gauge marks on the specimen were originally 50 mm apart,
then after the load is released these marks will be 50 mm +
10.01502 150 mm2 = 50.75 mm apart. elastic strain is recoverable
Plastic strain is permanent
Modulus of Resilience. Applying Eq. 3–8, we have*
1 1 ²y = ²proportional = 0:006
L 1ur 2 initial = spl Ppl = 1450 MPa2 10.006 mm>mm2
2 2
3
= 1.35 MJ>m Ans.
1 1
elastic strain
1ur2 final = s P = 1600 MPa2 10.008 mm>mm2
2 pl pl 2
= 2.40 MJ>m3 Ans.
NOTE: By comparison, the effect of strain-hardening the material has
caused an increase in the modulus of resilience; however, note that the
modulus of toughness for the material has decreased since the area under
the original curve, OABF, is larger than the area under curve CBF.
*Work in the SI system of units is measured in joules, where 1 J = 1 N # m.
 98 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 3.3
An aluminum rod, shown in Fig. 3–20a, has a circular cross section and
s (MPa) is subjected to an axial load of 10 kN. If a portion of the stress–strain
diagram is shown in Fig. 3–20b, determine the approximate elongation
of the rod when the load is applied. Take E al = 70 GPa.
56.6 60
F
50
sY ! 40 20 mm 15 mm
3
30 A B C
20 10 kN 10 kN
PBC ! 0.0450
10 600 mm 400 mm
P (a)
O 0.02 0.04 0.06

(b) Fig. 3–20

SOLUTION
For the analysis we will neglect the localized deformations at the point
of load application and where the rod’s cross-sectional area suddenly
changes. (These effects will be discussed in Sections 4.1 and 4.7.)
Throughout the midsection of each segment the normal stress and
deformation are uniform.
In order to find the elongation of the rod, we must first obtain the
strain. This is done by calculating the stress, then using the stress–strain
diagram. The normal stress within each segment is

P 101103 2 N
sA B = = = 31.83 MPa < 40 M P a
A p10.01 m2 2

P 101103 2 N
sBC = = = 56.59 MPa > 40 M P a
A p10.0075 m2 2

From the stress–strain diagram, the material in segment AB is

strained elastically since sA B 6 sY = 40 MPa. Using Hooke’s law,

sA B 31.83 1106 2 Pa
PA B = = = 0.0004547 mm>mm
E al 701109 2 Pa

The material within segment BC is strained plastically, since

sBC 7 sY = 40 MPa. From the graph, for sBC = 56.59 MPa, PBC !
0.045 mm>mm. The approximate elongation of the rod is therefore
AB BC
d = !PL = 0.00045471600 mm2 + 0.04501400 mm2
= 18.3 mm Ans.
homogeneous material

Isotropic orthotropic anisotropic properties

3.5 STRAIN ENERGY 99

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS
F3–1. Define a homogeneous material. F3–10. The material for the 50-mm-long specimen has the
an Isotropic member stress–strain diagram shown. If P = 100 kN, determine the
F3–2. Indicate the points on the stress–strain diagram which elongation of the specimen.
represent the proportional limit and the ultimate stress.
F3–11. The material for the 50-mm-long specimen has
the stress–strain diagram shown. If P = 150 kN is applied
and then released, determine the permanent elongation of
s the specimen. 3
D
A

B C E P
s (MPa) 20 mm

P 500 P
450
F3–2

F3–3. Define the modulus of elasticity E.

F3–4. At room temperature, mild steel is a ductile P (mm/mm)

material. True or false? 0.00225 0.03

F3–10/11
F3–5. Engineering stress and strain are calculated using
the actual cross-sectional area and length of the specimen.
True or false?

F3–6. As the temperature increases the modulus of F3–12. If the elongation of wire BC is 0.2 mm after the
elasticity will increase. True or false? force P is applied, determine the magnitude of P. The wire
is A-36 steel and has a diameter of 3 mm.
F3–7. A 100-mm long rod has a diameter of 15 mm. If an
axial tensile load of 100 kN is applied, determine its change
in length. Assume linear-elastic behavior with E = 200 GPa.

F3–8. A bar has a length of 8 in. and cross-sectional area

C
of 12 in2. Determine the modulus of elasticity of the material P
if it is subjected to an axial tensile load of 10 kip and 300 mm
200 mm
stretches 0.003 in. The material has linear-elastic behavior.
A
F3–9. A 10-mm-diameter rod has a modulus of elasticity B
of E = 100 GPa. If it is 4 m long and subjected to an axial 400 mm
tensile load of 6 kN, determine its elongation. Assume
linear-elastic behavior. F3–12
 1 00 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

PROBLEMS
3–1. A tension test was performed on a steel specimen *3–4. A tension test was performed on a steel specimen
having an original diameter of 0.503 in. and gauge length of having an original diameter of 0.503 in. and a gauge length
2.00 in. The data is listed in the table. Plot the stress–strain of 2.00 in. The data is listed in the table. Plot the stress–
diagram and determine approximately the modulus of strain diagram and determine approximately the modulus
elasticity, the yield stress, the ultimate stress, and the rupture of elasticity, the ultimate stress, and the rupture stress. Use a
stress. Use a scale of 1 in. = 20 ksi and 1 in. = 0.05 in.>in. scale of 1 in. = 15 ksi and 1 in. = 0.05 in.>in. Redraw the
Redraw the elastic region, using the same stress scale but a linear-elastic region, using the same stress scale but a strain
strain scale of 1 in. = 0.001 in.>in. scale of 1 in. = 0.001 in.
3
3–5. A tension test was performed on a steel specimen
having an original diameter of 0.503 in. and gauge length
Load (kip) Elongation (in.) of 2.00 in. Using the data listed in the table, plot the
stress–strain diagram and determine approximately the
0 0 modulus of toughness.
1.50 0.0005
4.60 0.0015
8.00 0.0025
11.00 0.0035
11.80 0.0050
11.80 0.0080
12.00 0.0200
16.60 0.0400 Load (kip) Elongation (in.)
20.00 0.1000
21.50 0.2800 0 0
19.50 0.4000 2.50 0.0009
18.50 0.4600 6.50 0.0025
8.50 0.0040
9.20 0.0065
Prob. 3–1 9.80 0.0098
12.0 0.0400
14.0 0.1200
14.5 0.2500
14.0 0.3500
3–2. Data taken from a stress–strain test for a ceramic are 13.2 0.4700
given in the table. The curve is linear between the origin and
the first point. Plot the diagram, and determine the modulus
Probs. 3–4/5
of elasticity and the modulus of resilience.
3–3. Data taken from a stress–strain test for a ceramic are
given in the table. The curve is linear between the origin and
the first point. Plot the diagram, and determine approximately
the modulus of toughness. The rupture stress is sr = 53.4 ksi.
3–6. A specimen is originally 1 ft long, has a diameter of
0.5 in., and is subjected to a force of 500 lb. When the force
is increased from 500 lb to 1800 lb, the specimen elongates
0.009 in. Determine the modulus of elasticity for the
S (ksi) P (in./in.)
material if it remains linear elastic.
0 0
3–7. A structural member in a nuclear reactor is made of
33.2 0.0006
45.5 0.0010 a zirconium alloy. If an axial load of 4 kip is to be supported
49.4 0.0014 by the member, determine its required cross-sectional area.
51.5 0.0018 Use a factor of safety of 3 relative to yielding. What is the
53.4 0.0022 load on the member if it is 3 ft long and its elongation is
0.02 in.? E zr = 14(103) ksi, sY = 57.5 ksi. The material has
Probs. 3–2/3 elastic behavior.
 3.5 STRAIN ENERGY 101

*3–8. The strut is supported by a pin at C and an A-36 3–10. The stress–strain diagram for a metal alloy having
steel guy wire AB. If the wire has a diameter of 0.2 in., an original diameter of 0.5 in. and a gauge length of 2 in. is
determine how much it stretches when the distributed load given in the figure. Determine approximately the modulus
acts on the strut. of elasticity for the material, the load on the specimen that
causes yielding, and the ultimate load the specimen will
support.

3–11. The stress–strain diagram for a steel alloy having an

original diameter of 0.5 in. and a gauge length of 2 in. is
given in the figure. If the specimen is loaded until it is
stressed to 90 ksi, determine the approximate amount of
elastic recovery and the increase in the gauge length after it 3
is unloaded.
A
*3–12. The stress–strain diagram for a steel alloy having
an original diameter of 0.5 in. and a gauge length of 2 in. is
60! given in the figure. Determine approximately the modulus
200 lb/ft of resilience and the modulus of toughness for the material.

B s (ksi)
C
9 ft 105
90
Prob. 3–8
75
60
45
30
15
3–9. The s9P diagram for elastic fibers that make up 0 P (in./in.)
human skin and muscle is shown. Determine the modulus 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007
of elasticity of the fibers and estimate their modulus of
toughness and modulus of resilience. Probs. 3–10/11/12

3–13. A bar having a length of 5 in. and cross-sectional

area of 0.7 in.2 is subjected to an axial force of 8000 lb. If the
s (psi) bar stretches 0.002 in., determine the modulus of elasticity
of the material. The material has linear-elastic behavior.
55

11
P (in./in.) 8000 lb 8000 lb
1 2 2.25 5 in.

Prob. 3–9 Prob. 3–13

 1 02 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

3–14. The rigid pipe is supported by a pin at A and an A-36 3–17. A tension test was performed on a magnesium
steel guy wire BD. If the wire has a diameter of 0.25 in., alloy specimen having a diameter 0.5 in. and gauge length
determine how much it stretches when a load of P = 600 lb 2 in. The resulting stress–strain diagram is shown in the
acts on the pipe. figure. Determine the approximate modulus of elasticity
and the yield strength of the alloy using the 0.2% strain
3–15. The rigid pipe is supported by a pin at A and an offset method.
A-36 guy wire BD. If the wire has a diameter of 0.25 in.,
determine the load P if the end C is displaced 0.15 in. 3–18. A tension test was performed on a magnesium
downward. alloy specimen having a diameter 0.5 in. and gauge length of
2 in. The resulting stress–strain diagram is shown in the
figure. If the specimen is stressed to 30 ksi and unloaded,
3 determine the permanent elongation of the specimen.
s (ksi)

40
B
35
30
25
4 ft P
20
15
A D
C 10

3 ft 3 ft 5

0 P (in./in.)
Probs. 3–14/15 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010

Probs. 3–17/18
3–19. The stress–strain diagram for a bone is shown, and
can be described by the equation P = 0.45110-6 2 s +
0.36 110-12 2 s3, where s is in kPa. Determine the yield
*3–16. The wire has a diameter of 5 mm and is made from strength assuming a 0.3% offset.
A-36 steel. If a 80-kg man is sitting on seat C, determine the
elongation of wire DE. *3–20. The stress–strain diagram for a bone is shown and
can be described by the equation P = 0.45110-6 2 s +
0.36 110-12 2 s3, where s is in kPa. Determine the modulus
of toughness and the amount of elongation of a 200-mm-long
region just before it fractures if failure occurs at
P = 0.12 mm>mm.
P
E
W
s
600 mm

D
A B C
P ! 0.45(10"6)s + 0.36(10"12)s3

800 mm 600 mm P P

Prob. 3–16 Probs. 3–19/20

 3.5 STRAIN ENERGY 103

3–21. The two bars are made of polystyrene, which has the *3–24. The wires AB and BC have original lengths of 2 ft
stress–strain diagram shown. If the cross-sectional area of and 3 ft, and diameters of 81 in. and 16 3
in., respectively. If
bar AB is 1.5 in2 and BC is 4 in2, determine the largest force these wires are made of a material that has the approximate
P that can be supported before any member ruptures. stress–strain diagram shown, determine the elongations of
Assume that buckling does not occur. the wires after the 1500-lb load is placed on the platform.
3–22. The two bars are made of polystyrene, which has the
stress–strain diagram shown. Determine the cross-sectional
area of each bar so that the bars rupture simultaneously when
the load P = 3 kip. Assume that buckling does not occur.
P
3
4 ft
C
B

3 ft C

s (ksi) A
3 ft
25
45! 30!
20 2 ft
15 B
compression
10
5 tension

0 P (in./in.)
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

Probs. 3–21/22
3–23. The stress–strain diagram for many metal alloys can
be described analytically using the Ramberg-Osgood three
parameter equation P = s>E + ksn, where E, k, and n are
determined from measurements taken from the diagram,
Using the stress–strain diagram shown in the figure, take
E = 30(103) ksi and determine the other two parameters k and
n and thereby obtain an analytical expression for the curve.
s (ksi)
s (ksi)

80 80

60 58

40

20

P (10 – 6 ) P (in./in.)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.002 0.01

Prob. 3–23 Prob. 3–24

 1 04 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

3.6 Poisson’s Ratio

When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not only
does it elongate but it also contracts laterally. For example, if a rubber
band is stretched, it can be noted that both the thickness and width of the
band are decreased. Likewise, a compressive force acting on a body causes
it to contract in the direction of the force and yet its sides expand laterally.
Consider a bar having an original radius r and length L and subjected to
the tensile force P in Fig. 3–21. This force elongates the bar by an amount
3 d, and its radius contracts by an amount d!. Strains in the longitudinal or
axial direction and in the lateral or radial direction are, respectively,
d d!
Plong = and Plat =
L r
In the early 1800s, the French scientist S. D. Poisson realized that within the
elastic range the ratio of these strains is a constant, since the deformations
d and d! are proportional. This constant is referred to as Poisson’s ratio,
n (nu), and it has a numerical value that is unique for a particular material
that is both homogeneous and isotropic. Stated mathematically it is

Plat
n = - (3–9)
Plong

The negative sign is included here since longitudinal elongation (positive

strain) causes lateral contraction (negative strain), and vice versa. Notice
that these strains are caused only by the axial or longitudinal force P;
i.e., no force or stress acts in a lateral direction in order to strain the
material in this direction.
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity, and for most nonporous
solids it has a value that is generally between 14 and 13. Typical values of n
for common engineering materials are listed on the inside back cover.
When the rubber block is compressed
For an “ideal material” having no lateral deformation when it is stretched
(negative strain) its sides will expand or compressed, Poisson’s ratio will be 0. Furthermore, it will be shown in
(positive strain). The ratio of these Sec. 10.6 that the maximum possible value for Poisson’s ratio is 0.5.
strains remains constant. Therefore 0 … n … 0.5.

d/2

P
L d/2

Original Shape Final Shape

r
P
Tension d¿

Fig. 3–21
 3.6 POISSON’S RATIO 105

EXAMPLE 3.4
A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions shown in Fig. 3–22. If an
axial force of P = 80 kN is applied to the bar, determine the change in
its length and the change in the dimensions of its cross section after
applying the load. The material behaves elastically.

P ! 80 kN

y
50 mm
x
1.5 m

P ! 80 kN

100 mm z

Fig. 3–22

SOLUTION
The normal stress in the bar is
P 801103 2 N
sz = = = 16.01106 2 Pa
A 10.1 m2 10.05 m2
From the table on the inside back cover for A-36 steel E st = 200 GPa,
and so the strain in the z direction is
sz 16.01106 2 Pa
Pz = = = 80110-6 2 mm>mm
E st 2001109 2 Pa
The axial elongation of the bar is therefore
dz = Pz L z = [80110-6 2] 11.5 m2 = 120 mm Ans.
Using Eq. 3–9, where nst = 0.32 as found from the inside back cover,
the lateral contraction strains in both the x and y directions are
Px = Py = -nst Pz = -0.32[80 110-6 2] = -25.6 mm>m
Thus the changes in the dimensions of the cross section are
dx = Px L x = -[25.6110-6 2] 10.1 m2 = -2.56 mm Ans.

dy = Py L y = -[25.6110-6 2] 10.05 m2 = -1.28 mm Ans.

 1 06 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

y
3.7 The Shear Stress–Strain Diagram
txy
In Sec. 1.5 it was shown that when a small element of material is subjected
to pure shear, equilibrium requires that equal shear stresses must be
developed on four faces of the element. These stresses txy must be directed
x
toward or away from diagonally opposite corners of the element, as shown
(a) in Fig. 3–23a. Furthermore, if the material is homogeneous and isotropic,
then this shear stress will distort the element uniformly, Fig. 3–23b. As
y
mentioned in Sec. 2.2, the shear strain gxy measures the angular distortion
3 gxy
of the element relative to the sides originally along the x and y axes.
2
The behavior of a material subjected to pure shear can be studied in a
laboratory using specimens in the shape of thin tubes and subjecting
gxy them to a torsional loading. If measurements are made of the applied
2 torque and the resulting angle of twist, then by the methods to be
x
p g explained in Chapter 5, the data can be used to determine the shear
! xy
2 stress and shear strain, and a shear stress–strain diagram plotted. An
(b) example of such a diagram for a ductile material is shown in Fig. 3–24.
Like the tension test, this material when subjected to shear will exhibit
Fig. 3–23
linear-elastic behavior and it will have a defined proportional limit tpl.
Also, strain hardening will occur until an ultimate shear stress tu is reached.
And finally, the material will begin to lose its shear strength until it reaches
a point where it fractures, tf .
t For most engineering materials, like the one just described, the elastic
behavior is linear, and so Hooke’s law for shear can be written as
tu
tf
t = Gg (3–10)
tpl

Here G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or the modulus of rigidity.

G
Its value represents the slope of the line on the t9g diagram, that is,
gpl gu gr
g G = tpl >gpl. Typical values for common engineering materials are listed
on the inside back cover. Notice that the units of measurement for G will
Fig. 3–24 be the same as those for t (Pa or psi), since g is measured in radians, a
dimensionless quantity.
It will be shown in Sec. 10.6 that the three material constants, E, n,
and G are actually related by the equation

¿pl or ¿proporional limit is the upper limit of linear stage

E
G = (3–11)
2 11 + n2

Provided E and G are known, the value of n can then be determined from
this equation rather than through experimental measurement. For example,
in the case of A-36 steel, E st = 291103 2 ksi and Gst = 111103 2 ksi, so that,
from Eq. 3–11, nst = 0.32.
 3.7 THE SHEAR STRESS–STRAIN DIAGRAM 107

EXAMPLE 3.5
A specimen of titanium alloy is tested in torsion and the shear stress– t (ksi)
strain diagram is shown in Fig. 3–25a. Determine the shear modulus G, 90
the proportional limit, and the ultimate shear stress. Also, determine tu ! 73
80 B
the maximum distance d that the top of a block of this material, shown 70 tpl ! 52
60
in Fig. 3–25b, could be displaced horizontally if the material behaves 50 A
elastically when acted upon by a shear force V. What is the magnitude 40
of V necessary to cause this displacement? 30
20 3
10
SOLUTION g (rad)
O gpl ! 0.008 gu ! 0.54 0.73
Shear Modulus. This value represents the slope of the straight-line
portion OA of the t9g diagram. The coordinates of point A are (a)
(0.008 rad, 52 ksi). Thus,
3 in.
52 ksi 4 in.
G = = 6500 ksi Ans. d
0.008 rad
V
2 in. g
The equation of line OA is therefore t = Gg = 6500g, which is
Hooke’s law for shear.

Proportional Limit. By inspection, the graph ceases to be linear at

point A. Thus,
(b)
tpl = 52 ksi Ans.
Fig. 3–25

Ultimate Stress. This value represents the maximum shear stress,

point B. From the graph,
tu = 73 ksi Ans.

Maximum Elastic Displacement and Shear Force. Since the

maximum elastic shear strain is 0.008 rad, a very small angle, the top
of the block in Fig. 3–25b will be displaced horizontally:

d
tan 10.008 rad2 ! 0.008 rad =
2 in.

d = 0.016 in. Ans.

The corresponding average shear stress in the block is tpl = 52 ksi.
Thus, the shear force V needed to cause the displacement is
V V
tavg = ; 52 ksi =
A 13 in.2 14 in.2
V = 624 kip Ans.
 1 08 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

EXAMPLE 3.6
165 kN An aluminum specimen shown in Fig. 3–26 has a diameter of
d 0 = 25 mm and a gauge length of L 0 = 250 mm. If a force of 165 kN
elongates the gauge length 1.20 mm, determine the modulus of
elasticity. Also, determine by how much the force causes the diameter
of the specimen to contract. Take G al = 26 GPa and sY = 440 MPa.

3 SOLUTION
Modulus of Elasticity. The average normal stress in the specimen is

P 1651103 2 N
d0
L0 s = = = 336.1 MPa
A 1p>42 10.025 m2 2

and the average normal strain is

d 1.20 mm
P = = = 0.00480 mm>mm
L 250 mm

Since s 6 sY = 440 MPa, the material behaves elastically. The

modulus of elasticity is therefore

165 kN s 336.11106 2 Pa
Eal = = = 70.0 GPa Ans.
Fig. 3–26
P 0.00480

Contraction of Diameter. First we will determine Poisson’s ratio

for the material using Eq. 3–11.
E
G =
2 11 + n2
70.0 GPa
26 GPa =
2 11 + n2
n = 0.347
Since Plong = 0.00480 mm>mm, then by Eq. 3–9,
Plat
n = - P
long

Plat
0.347 = -
0.00480 mm>mm
Plat = -0.00166 mm>mm
The contraction of the diameter is therefore
d0
d! = 10.001662 125 mm2
= 0.0416 mm Ans.
 3.8 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP AND FATIGUE 109

*3.8 Failure of Materials Due to Creep

and Fatigue
The mechanical properties of a material have up to this point been
discussed only for a static or slowly applied load at constant temperature.
In some cases, however, a member may have to be used in an environment
for which loadings must be sustained over long periods of time at elevated
temperatures, or in other cases, the loading may be repeated or cycled. We
will not consider these effects in this book, although we will briefly 3
mention how one determines a material’s strength for these conditions,
since they are given special treatment in design.

Creep. When a material has to support a load for a very long period
of time, it may continue to deform until a sudden fracture occurs or its
usefulness is impaired. This time-dependent permanent deformation is
known as creep. Normally creep is considered when metals and ceramics
are used for structural members or mechanical parts that are subjected
to high temperatures. For some materials, however, such as polymers and
composite materials—including wood or concrete—temperature is not
an important factor, and yet creep can occur strictly from long-term load
application. As a typical example, consider the fact that a rubber band
will not return to its original shape after being released from a stretched
position in which it was held for a very long period of time. In the general
sense, therefore, both stress and/or temperature play a significant role in
the rate of creep.
For practical purposes, when creep becomes important, a member is
usually designed to resist a specified creep strain for a given period of The long-tem application of the cable loading
on this pole has caused the pole to deform
time. An important mechanical property that is used in this regard is due to creep.
called the creep strength. This value represents the highest stress the
material can withstand during a specified time without exceeding an
allowable creep strain. The creep strength will vary with temperature,
and for design, a given temperature, duration of loading, and allowable
creep strain must all be specified. For example, a creep strain of 0.1% per
year has been suggested for steel in bolts and piping. s (ksi)
Several methods exist for determining an allowable creep strength for
a particular material. One of the simplest involves testing several 40
specimens simultaneously at a constant temperature, but with each
subjected to a different axial stress. By measuring the length of time 30
needed to produce either an allowable strain or the fracture strain for 20
each specimen, a curve of stress versus time can be established. Normally
these tests are run to a maximum of 1000 hours. An example of the 10
results for stainless steel at a temperature of 1200°F and prescribed t (h)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
creep strain of 1% is shown in Fig. 3–27. As noted, this material has a
s–t diagram for stainless steel
yield strength of 40 ksi (276 MPa) at room temperature (0.2% offset) at 1200!F and creep strain at 1%
and the creep strength at 1000 h is found to be approximately sc = 20 ksi
(138 MPa). Fig. 3–27
 1 10 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

For longer periods of time, extrapolations from the curves must be

made. To do this usually requires a certain amount of experience with
creep behavior, and some supplementary knowledge about the creep
properties of the material. Once the material’s creep strength has been
determined, however, a factor of safety is applied to obtain an appropriate
allowable stress for design.

Fatigue. When a metal is subjected to repeated cycles of stress or

strain, it causes its structure to break down, ultimately leading to
fracture. This behavior is called fatigue, and it is usually responsible for
3 a large percentage of failures in connecting rods and crankshafts of
engines; steam or gas turbine blades; connections or supports for
bridges, railroad wheels, and axles; and other parts subjected to cyclic
loading. In all these cases, fracture will occur at a stress that is less than
the material’s yield stress.
The nature of this failure apparently results from the fact that there
are microscopic imperfections, usually on the surface of the member,
where the localized stress becomes much greater than the average stress
acting over the cross section. As this higher stress is cycled, it leads to the
formation of minute cracks. Occurrence of these cracks causes a further
The design of members used for amusement increase of stress at their tips or boundaries, which in turn causes a
park rides requires careful consideration of further extension of the cracks into the material as the stress continues
cyclic loadings that can cause fatigue. to be cycled. Eventually the cross-sectional area of the member is
reduced to the point where the load can no longer be sustained, and as a
result sudden fracture occurs. The material, even though known to be
ductile, behaves as if it were brittle.
In order to specify a safe strength for a metallic material under
repeated loading, it is necessary to determine a limit below which no
evidence of failure can be detected after applying a load for a specified
number of cycles. This limiting stress is called the endurance or fatigue
limit. Using a testing machine for this purpose, a series of specimens are
each subjected to a specified stress and cycled to failure. The results are
plotted as a graph representing the stress S (or s) on the vertical axis
and the number of cycles-to-failure N on the horizontal axis. This graph
is called an S–N diagram or stress–cycle diagram, and most often the
values of N are plotted on a logarithmic scale since they are generally
quite large.
Examples of S–N diagrams for two common engineering metals are
shown in Fig. 3–28. The endurance limit is usually identified as the stress
for which the S–N graph becomes horizontal or asymptotic. As noted, it
has a well-defined value of 1S el 2 st = 27 ksi (186 MPa) for steel. For
aluminum, however, the endurance limit is not well defined, and so it is
normally specified as the stress having a limit of 500 million cycles,
1S el 2 al = 19 ksi (131 MPa). Once a particular value is obtained, it is often
Engineers must account for possible assumed that for any stress below this value the fatigue life is infinite,
fatigue failure of the moving parts of this and therefore the number of cycles to failure is no longer given
oil-pumping rig. consideration.
 3.8 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP AND FATIGUE 111

S (ksi)

50

aluminum
40
steel
30
(Sel)st ! 27
20
(Sel)al ! 19
10
3
0 N (106)
0.1 1 10 100 500 1000
S–N diagram for steel and aluminum alloys
(N axis has a logarithmic scale)

Fig. 3–28

Important Points

• Poisson’s ratio, n, is a ratio of the lateral strain of a homogeneous

and isotropic material to its longitudinal strain. Generally these
strains are of opposite signs, that is, if one is an elongation, the
other will be a contraction.

• The shear stress–strain diagram is a plot of the shear stress versus

the shear strain. If the material is homogeneous and isotropic, and
is also linear elastic, the slope of the straight line within the elastic
region is called the modulus of rigidity or the shear modulus, G.

• There is a mathematical relationship between G, E, and n.

• Creep is the time-dependent deformation of a material for which
stress and/or temperature play an important role. Members are
designed to resist the effects of creep based on their material
creep strength, which is the largest initial stress a material can
withstand during a specified time without exceeding a specified
creep strain.

• Fatigue occurs in metals when the stress or strain is cycled. This

phenomenon causes brittle fracture of the material. Members
are designed to resist fatigue by ensuring that the stress in the
member does not exceed its endurance or fatigue limit. This value
is determined from an S–N diagram as the maximum stress
the material can resist when subjected to a specified number of
cycles of loading.
 1 12 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS

F3–13. A 100-mm long rod has a diameter of 15 mm. If an F3–16. A 20-mm-wide block is bonded to rigid plates at its
axial tensile load of 10 kN is applied to it, determine the top and bottom. When the force P is applied the block
change in its diameter. E = 70 GPa, n = 0.35. deforms into the shape shown by the dashed line. If
a = 3 mm and P is released, determine the permanent shear
F3–14. A solid circular rod that is 600 mm long and 20 mm strain in the block.
in diameter is subjected to an axial force of P = 50 kN . The
elongation of the rod is d = 1.40 mm, and its diameter
3 becomes d! = 19.9837 mm. Determine the modulus of
elasticity and the modulus of rigidity of the material. t (MPa)
Assume that the material does not yield.

130

P ! 50 kN 600 mm g (rad)
0.005

150 mm
a ! 3 mm

20 mm P

150 mm
P ! 50 kN

F3–14 A

F3–16
F3–15. A 20-mm-wide block is firmly bonded to rigid
plates at its top and bottom. When the force P is applied the
block deforms into the shape shown by the dashed line.
Determine the magnitude of P. The block’s material has a
modulus of rigidity of G = 26 GPa. Assume that the
material does not yield and use small angle analysis.

150 mm
0.5 mm P

150 mm

F3–15
 3.8 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP AND FATIGUE 113

PROBLEMS

3–25. The acrylic plastic rod is 200 mm long and 15 mm in 3–27. When the two forces are placed on the beam, the
diameter. If an axial load of 300 N is applied to it, determine diameter of the A-36 steel rod BC decreases from 40 mm to
the change in its length and the change in its diameter. 39.99 mm. Determine the magnitude of each force P.
E p = 2.70 GPa, np = 0.4.
*3–28. If P = 150 kN, determine the elastic elongation of
rod BC and the decrease in its diameter. Rod BC is made
of A-36 streel and has a diameter of 40 mm.
3

C
P P

300 N 300 N
1m 1m 1m 1m
200 mm

Prob. 3–25 A B

0.75 m

Probs. 3–27/28

3–26. The thin-walled tube is subjected to an axial force 3–29. The friction pad A is used to support the member,
of 40 kN. If the tube elongates 3 mm and its circumference which is subjected to an axial force of P = 2 kN. The pad
decreases 0.09 mm, determine the modulus of elasticity, is made from a material having a modulus of elasticity of
Poisson’s ratio, and the shear modulus of the tube’s E = 4 MPa and Poisson’s ratio n = 0.4. If slipping does not
material. The material behaves elastically. occur, determine the normal and shear strains in the pad.
The width is 50 mm. Assume that the material is linearly
elastic. Also, neglect the effect of the moment acting on
the pad.

P
40 kN
900 mm
60!

10 mm

A 25 mm

40 kN
12.5 mm 100 mm

Prob. 3–26 Prob. 3–29

 1 14 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

3–30. The lap joint is connected together using a 1.25 in. 3–33. The aluminum block has a rectangular cross section
diameter bolt. If the bolt is made from a material having a and is subjected to an axial compressive force of 8 kip.
shear stress–strain diagram that is approximated as shown, If the 1.5-in. side changed its length to 1.500132 in.,
determine the shear strain developed in the shear plane of determine Poisson’s ratio and the new length of the 2-in.
the bolt when P = 75 kip. side. Eal = 10(103) ksi.

3–31. The lap joint is connected together using a 1.25 in.

diameter bolt. If the bolt is made from a material having a
shear stress-strain diagram that is approximated as shown,
determine the permanent shear strain in the shear plane
of the bolt when the applied force P = 150 kip is removed.
3
1.5 in.
P
2 2 in.
P 8 kip
8 kip
P
2 3 in.
t (ksi)
Prob. 3–33
75

50

3–34. A shear spring is made from two blocks of rubber,

g (rad) each having a height h, width b, and thickness a. The blocks
0.005 0.05
are bonded to three plates as shown. If the plates are rigid
Probs. 3–30/31 and the shear modulus of the rubber is G, determine
the displacement of plate A if a vertical load P is applied to
*3–32. A shear spring is made by bonding the rubber this plate. Assume that the displacement is small so that
annulus to a rigid fixed ring and a plug. When an axial load d = a tan g ! ag.
P is placed on the plug, show that the slope at point y in the
rubber is dy>dr = -tan g = -tan1P> 12phGr22. For small
angles we can write dy >dr = -P> 12phGr2. Integrate this
expression and evaluate the constant of integration using
the condition that y = 0 at r = ro. From the result compute
the deflection y = d of the plug.
P
P d
A

h
h

y
d ri
ro
r
y a a

Prob. 3–32 Prob. 3–34

 CHAPTER REVIEW 115

CHAPTER REVIEW

One of the most important tests for material strength is the tension test. The results, found
from stretching a specimen of known size, are plotted as normal stress on the vertical axis and
normal strain on the horizontal axis.

Many engineering materials exhibit s

initial linear elastic behavior, whereby 3
stress is proportional to strain, defined by s = EP
Hooke’s law, s = EP. Here E, called the
modulus of elasticity, is the slope of this E s
P
straight line on the stress–strain diagram.
P
ductile material

When the material is stressed beyond s

the yield point, permanent deformation
will occur. In particular, steel has a
region of yielding, whereby the material
will exhibit an increase in strain with no ultimate
su stress
increase in stress. The region of strain fracture
proportional limit stress
hardening causes further yielding of the sf
elastic limit
material with a corresponding increase sY yield stress
in stress. Finally, at the ultimate stress, a spl
localized region on the specimen will
begin to constrict, forming a neck. It is
after this that the fracture occurs.
P
elastic yielding strain necking
region hardening
elastic plastic behavior
behavior

Ductile materials, such as most metals,

exhibit both elastic and plastic behavior. Lf - L0
Percent elongation = 1100%2
Wood is moderately ductile. Ductility L0
is usually specified by the percent
elongation to failure or by the percent A0 - Af
Percent reduction of area = 1100%2
reduction in the cross-sectional area. A0
 1 16 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Brittle materials exhibit little or no s

yielding before failure. Cast iron,
concrete, and glass are typical examples.

P
brittle material

3
The yield point of a material at A can be
increased by strain hardening. This is s
accomplished by applying a load that
causes the stress to be greater than the elastic plastic
yield stress, then releasing the load. The region region
larger stress A! becomes the new yield
point for the material.
A¿

A
load
E
E
unload

P
permanent elastic
set recovery

When a load is applied to a member,

the deformations cause strain energy to
be stored in the material. The strain
energy per unit volume or strain energy s s
density is equivalent to the area under
the stress–strain curve. This area up to
the yield point is called the modulus spl
of resilience. The entire area under the
stress–strain diagram is called the
modulus of toughness. ut
ur

P P
Ppl
Modulus of toughness
Modulus of resilience
 CHAPTER REVIEW 117

Poisson’s ratio n is a dimensionless

material property that relates the lateral Plat
n = - d/2
strain to the longitudinal strain. Its Plong
range of values is 0 … n … 0.5. P
L d/2

Original Shape Final Shape

r
P 3
Tension d¿

Shear stress versus shear strain diagrams

can also be established for a material.
Within the elastic region, t = Gg, where t
E
G is the shear modulus, found from the G =
slope of the line. The value of n can be 2 11 + n2
obtained from the relationship that
exists between G, E and n. G t
g

When materials are in service for long

periods of time, considerations of creep
become important. Creep is the time
rate of deformation, which occurs at
high stress and/or high temperature.
Design requires that the stress in the
material not exceed an allowable stress
which is based on the material’s creep
strength.
Fatigue can occur when the material
undergoes a large number of cycles
of loading. This effect will cause
microscopic cracks to form, leading to a
brittle failure. To prevent fatigue, the
stress in the material must not exceed a
specified endurance or fatigue limit.
 1 18 CHAPTER 3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

REVIEW PROBLEMS

3–35. The elastic portion of the tension stress–strain 3–38. The wires each have a diameter of 12 in., length of
diagram for an aluminum alloy is shown in the figure. The 2 ft, and are made from 304 stainless steel. If P = 6 kip,
specimen used for the test has a gauge length of 2 in. and a determine the angle of tilt of the rigid beam AB.
diameter of 0.5 in. When the applied load is 9 kip, the new
diameter of the specimen is 0.49935 in. Compute the shear 3–39. The wires each have a diameter of 12 in., length of
modulus G al for the aluminum. 2 ft, and are made from 304 stainless steel. Determine the
magnitude of force P so that the rigid beam tilts 0.015°.
3 *3–36. The elastic portion of the tension stress–strain
diagram for an aluminum alloy is shown in the figure. The
specimen used for the test has a gauge length of 2 in. and a
diameter of 0.5 in. If the applied load is 10 kip, determine
the new diameter of the specimen. The shear modulus is D
G al = 3.81103 2 ksi. C

2 ft
P
s (ksi)
2 ft 1 ft
70 B
A

Probs. 3–38/39
P (in./in.)
0.00614

Probs. 3–35/36
*3–40. The head H is connected to the cylinder of a
compressor using six steel bolts. If the clamping force in
each bolt is 800 lb, determine the normal strain in the bolts.
3
3–37. The rigid beam rests in the horizontal position on Each bolt has a diameter of 16 in. If sY = 40 ksi and
3
two 2014-T6 aluminum cylinders having the unloaded E st = 29 110 2 ksi, what is the strain in each bolt when the
lengths shown. If each cylinder has a diameter of 30 mm. nut is unscrewed so that the clamping force is released?
determine the placement x of the applied 80-kN load so
that the beam remains horizontal. What is the new diameter
of cylinder A after the load is applied? nal = 0.35.
L
C

H
80 kN
x

A B
220 mm 210 mm

3m

Prob. 3–37 Prob. 3–40

 REVIEW PROBLEMS 119

3–41. The stress–strain diagram for polyethylene, which is 3–43. The 8-mm-diameter bolt is made of an aluminum
used to sheath coaxial cables, is determined from testing a alloy. It fits through a magnesium sleeve that has an inner
specimen that has a gauge length of 10 in. If a load P on the diameter of 12 mm and an outer diameter of 20 mm. If the
specimen develops a strain of P = 0.024 in.>in., determine original lengths of the bolt and sleeve are 80 mm and
the approximate length of the specimen, measured between 50 mm, respectively, determine the strains in the sleeve and
the gauge points, when the load is removed. Assume the the bolt if the nut on the bolt is tightened so that the tension
specimen recovers elastically. in the bolt is 8 kN. Assume the material at A is rigid.
E al = 70 GPa, E mg = 45 GPa.

3
s (ksi)
P
5

4
50 mm
3 A

1 30 mm
P
0 P (in./in.)
0 0.008 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.040 0.048

Prob. 3–41
Prob. 3–43

3–42. The pipe with two rigid caps attached to its ends is
subjected to an axial force P. If the pipe is made from a
material having a modulus of elasticity E and Poisson’s *3–44. An acetal polymer block is fixed to the rigid plates
ratio n, determine the change in volume of the material. at its top and bottom surfaces. If the top plate displaces
2 mm horizontally when it is subjected to a horizontal force
P = 2 kN, determine the shear modulus of the polymer. The
width of the block is 100 mm. Assume that the polymer is
linearly elastic and use small angle analysis.
ri
ro

L
P Section a – a
a 400 mm
P ! 2 kN

200 mm
a

Prob. 3–42 Prob. 3–44