Mechanical

Properties of
Materials
I The Tension and Compression Test

• Strength of a material: depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue

deformation or failure.
o This property is inherent in the material and can be determined by
experiment – tension or compression test.
• Tension or Compression test: used primarily to determine the relationship
between the normal stress and normal strain in many engineering materials like
metals, ceramics, polymers and composites.
o Several mechanical properties can also be determined from this test
I The Tension and Compression Test

• A brief overview…
o A specimen of the material to be tested is made into a “standard” size and
shape – a constant circular sections with enlarged ends.
o 2 small punch marks are placed along the specimen’s length
o Measurements are taken of both the initial cross-sectional area A0, and the
gauge-length distance Lo

o Before applying an axial load, the ends are situated into ball-and-socket
joints to prevent bending.
I The Tension and Compression Test

• A brief overview…
o A testing machine is used to stretch the specimen at a very slow, constant
rate until it fails.
§ This machine is designed to read the load needed to maintain uniform
stretching
o Data is recorded at frequent intervals: applied load P and the elongation ∂
between the punch marks
§ The value of ∂ is used to determine the strain in the specimen.
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

• It is not always possible to prepare a test specimen for every structural member
to be used in an engineering design or project. So it is important that test results
from the tension/compression test must be reported such that they apply to a
member of any size.
• A plot of the results of the experiment/test produces a curve called the stress-
strain diagram which is normally described in 2 ways:
1. Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram
2. True Stress-Strain Diagram
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram

• We can determine the engineering stress by dividing the applied load P by the
specimen‘s original cross-sectional area A0
o This value assumes that the stress is constant over the cross section and
throughout the gauge length

• The engineering strain is found directly from the strain gauge reading or…

o Here, the strain is assumed to be constant throughout the region between the
gauge points.
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram

• The corresponding values for σ and ε plotted so that the vertical axis is the
stress and the horizontal axis is the strain – and the resulting curve is called
a conventional stress-strain diagram.
o Keep in mind that the 2 stress-strain diagram for a particular material will be
quite similar but will never be exactly the same.
o This is because the results are depending on several factors like the material’s
composition, microscopic imperfections, the way it is manufactured, the rate
of loading and the temperature during the time of the test.
• Now, let us take a look at the characteristics of the conventional stress-strain
curve of the material steel - this is a commonly used material for fabricating
both structural members and mechanical elements.
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram

• We can identify 4 different ways in which the material behaves – these depend
on the amount of strain induced in the material.

·-
r Eg
=
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram

1. Elastic behavior: occurs when the strains are within the light
orange region
o Curve is a straight line – stress is proportional to the strain
o Material is said to be linear elastic
o proportional limit, σpl is the upper stress limit for this linear
relationship
o If the stress slightly exceeds this limit, the curved tends to bend
and flatten out, this continues until it reaches the elastic limit
o At this point, if the load is removed the specimen will still return
back to its original shape
o For steel, elastic limit is seldom determined because it is very
close to the proportional limit and difficult to detect.
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram

2. Yielding: occurs when there is a slight increase in stress above
the elastic limit. This will result in a breakdown of the material and
cause it to deform permanently.
o Indicated by the rectangular dark orange region of the
curve.
o yield stress or yield point, σY is the stress that causes yielding
o plastic deformation is the deformation that occurs
o The yield stress is often distinguished by 2 values – the upper
yield point which occurs first, followed by a sudden decrease
and load-carrying capacity to a lower yield point. This is
especially prominent for low-carbon steels.
o Once the yield point is reached, the specimen will continue to
elongate without any increase in load – the material in this state
is said to be perfectly plastic.
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram

3. Strain Hardening: an increase in load can be supported by the specimen when yielding
has ended.
o The resulting curve rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum
stress – the ultimate stress, σu
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram

4. Necking
o up until the ultimate stress, the specimen
elongates and its cross-sectional area
continues to decrease. This decrease is fairly
uniform over the entire gauge length.
o Right after the ultimate stress, the cross-
sectional area will begin to decrease in a
localized region as the specimen elongates
further.
o This region, called necking, shows the curve
tends to elongate downward until the
specimen breaks at the fracture stress, σf.
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

True Stress-Strain Diagram

• Using the actual cross-sectional area and
specimen length at the instant the load is
measured will give the true stress and true
strain values
o A plot of these values will give the true stress-
strain diagram
• The conventional and true σ-ε diagrams are
practically coincident when the strain is small.
• The differences begin to appear in the strain-
hardening range - the magnitude of strain
becomes more significant in this region.
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

True Stress-Strain Diagram

• The large divergence from the conventional σ-ε
diagram is seen within the necking region.
o Conventional: specimen supports a
decreasing load, since A0 is constant when
calculating the stress
o True: the material sustains increasing stress
since the actual area A w/in the necking
region is always decreasing until fracture

↓0 B0==

Ao-constant
↓
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

True Stress-Strain Diagram

o Most engineering design is done so that the
material supports a stress within the elastic
range – this is due to the minimal
deformation of the material in this region
and it will restore itself when the load is
removed.
o The conventional σ-ε values will not deviate
much from the true σ-ε values in the elastic
region, hence we can freely use the
conventional σ-ε diagrams.
II The Stress-Strain Diagram

True Stress-Strain Diagram

o Let’s take a look at an actual
conventional stress-strain diagram
for a mild steel specimen.
o The elastic region has been
exaggerated.
o σpl = 35 ksi, εpl=0.0012in/in
o (σY)u=38 ksi, (σY )l = 36 ksi, εY = 0.030
in/in which is 25 times greater that the
strain at the proportional limit
o σu = 63 ksi, σf = 47 ksi, εY = 0.38 in/in
#
which is 317 time greater than εpl
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Ductile Materials
• Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it fractures is a ductile
material.
o Capable of absorbing shock or energy, and if they become overloaded they
will usually exhibit large deformation before failing.
• Percent elongation: is one way to specify the ductility of a material.
o This is the specimen’s fracture strain expressed as percent.

• Percent reduction in area: another way to specify ductility and it is defined

within the necking region.
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Ductile Materials
• Other metals like brass, molybdenum and zinc may exhibit ductile stress-strain
characteristics similar to steel:
o Undergo elastic stress-strain behavior
o Yielding at constant stress
o Strain hardening
o Necking until fracture
• In most metals, constant yielding will not occur beyond the elastic range - like
aluminum.
o Does not have a well-define yield point
o A standard practice to define a yield strength using a graphical procedure:
offset method. A 0.2% strain is chosen and from this point on the ε axis , a line
parallel to the initial straight line portion is drawn. The point where the line
intersects the curve defines the yield strength.
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials
o
Ductile Materials
• offset method:
o A 0.2% strain is chosen 8
0.02
o from this point on the ε axis , a line parallel to the initial straight line portion is
drawn.
o The point where the line intersects the curve defines the yield strength.
o Yield strength is not a physical property of the material. It is a stress that
causes a specified permanent strain in the material.

• We will assume that yield strength, yield point, elastic limit and proportional limit
o Except: natural rubber – does not have a proportional limit since stress and
strain are not linearly related. A polymer exhibits nonlinear elastic behavior.
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Ductile Materials
• We will assume that yield strength, yield point, elastic limit and proportional limit
all coincide, unless otherwise stated
o Except: natural rubber – does not have a proportional limit since stress and
strain are not linearly related. A polymer exhibits nonlinear elastic behavior.
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Ductile Materials
• Another example is wood, which is a moderately ductile material.
o Because of this, it is usually designed to respond only to elastic loadings.
o Its strength characteristics vary greatly from one species to another –for each
species these characteristics depend on moisture content, age, size, and
arrangement of knots.
o Since wood is a fibrous material, the tensile and compressive characteristics
differ greatly when loaded either parallel or perpendicular. Wood splits easily
when loaded in tension perpendicular to its grain, so tensile load are intended
to be applied parallel to the grain.
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Brittle Materials
• These are materials that exhibit little or
no yielding before failure.
• Example: Gray cast iron
o Here the fracture stress σf = 22ksi took
place at an imperfection/microscopic
crack
o This spread rapidly across the
specimen causing complete fracture.
• Brittle materials do not have a well-
defined tensile fracture stress because
the appearance of initial cracks is quite
random.
• So the average fracture stress from a set
of observed tests is generally reported
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Brittle Materials
• A typical failed specimen is shown in the
figure on the right.
• Brittle materials show a much higher
resistance to axial compression as
⑧
opposed to their behavior in tension.
o This can be seen on the portion AC of
the curve for gray cast iron
o Any cracks or imperfections tend to
close up
o And as the load increases, the
material will generally bulge.
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Brittle Materials
• Another example of a brittle material is
concrete. It also has a low strength
capacity in tension.
o The characteristics of its σ-ε diagram
depend on the mix of concrete, and
the time & temperature of curing.
o Looking at the diagram, its maximum
compressive strength is 12.5 times
greater than its tensile strength.
o Because of this, concrete is almost
always reinforced with steel bars or
rod whenever it is designed to support
tensile loads.
III Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Brittle Materials
• In general, most materials exhibit both
ductile and brittle behavior.
o For example, steel has brittle behavior
when it contains a high carbon
content and it is ductile when the
carbon content is reduced.
o Also, at low temperature materials
become harder and more brittle.
When the temperature rises, materials
become softer and more ductile.
IV Hooke’s Law

• The stress-strain diagram for most engineering materials shows a linear

relationship between stress and strain within the elastic region.
o An increase in stress causes a proportional increase in strain.
o This was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 and is known as Hooke’s law.

E
=ee
=

§ E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the modulus of

elasticity or Young’s modulus.
§ This equation represents the equation of the initial straight-lined portion of
the stress-strain diagram up to the proportional limit.
§ Modulus of elasticity represents the slope of this line.
§ Since ε is dimensionless, E will have the same units as stress – psi, ksi, or
pascals.
IV Hooke’s Law

• As an example, let’s consider the σ-ε strain diagram for steel.

o σpl = 35 ksi and εpl = 0.0012 in/in

=
i
E =
e =29 x103 ksi
0.0012 in/in -
-

• Looking at the figure below, the proportional limit depends on the

carbon content of steel. However, most grades of steel have about
the same modulus of elasticity. ⑧

0
o It is generally accepted to be Est = 29(103) ksi or 200 GPA
-

• Values of E for other commonly used engineering materials are often

tabulated in reference books.
• Take note that the modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that
indicates the stiffness of a material
o Materials that are very stiff have large values of E, whereas spongy ->

materials may have low values.

V Strain Hardening

• If a specimen from a ductile material is loaded into the plastic

region and then unloaded, elastic strain is recovered – the
material returns to its equilibrium state.
• However, the plastic strain remains and as a result it is subjected
-
py

I
-
to a permanent set.
>
o

o For example, a wire when bent (plastically) will spring back a -

OpI
little (elastically) when the load is removed.
IV
But it will not
IV
return to its original position/form
o Let’s look at the figure, the specimen is loaded beyond its yield 18

point A to A’.
o E is the same so the slope of O’A is the same as line OA. The material now has a
greater elastic region, but
o If the load is reapplied, the atoms will be displaced until
it has less ductility, a
yielding occurs at the stress A‘. The new σ-ε defined by O’A’B smaller plastic region, than
when it was in its original
has a higher yield point at A’, this is a consequence of strain state.
hardening.
VI Strain Energy

• As a material is deformed by an external load, it tends to store energy internally

throughout its volume.
o Since this energy is related to strain, it is called strain energy,
• To obtain the strain energy, let us consider a volume element of a material from a
specimen. It is subjected to a uniaxial stress as shown.

F
=

Ma

, IVIV
F PA=

Ispascal

• After the element of length Δz undergoes a displacement εΔz, the stress develops a
force ΔF = σ ΔA = σ (Δx Δy) on the top and bottom faces.
VI Strain Energy

• Work is determined by the product of force and displacement (in the direction of the
force) s
-2-8 lelongation)
↑
o Since force is increased uniformly from 0 to ΔF when the displacement εΔz is
attained, the work done on the element is the average force magnitude times the
displacement. W =

8Az
o This “external work” is equivalent to the “internal work” or strain energy stored in
the element – with the assumption that no energy is lost in the form of heat.
o So the strain energy is,

o It is also convenient for applications to specify the strain energy per unit volume of
material, the strain-energy density. 8
Eqg E
=

Io():
=
VI Strain Energy

o If the material is inelastic, then Hooke’s law is applicable.

• Modulus of Resilience: When stress reaches the proportional

limit, the strain energy density is referred to as the modulus of
resilience.

⑧
↓ lapel
-
o From the σ-ε , ur is equivalent to the shaded rectangular area.
o We can define a material’s resilience as its ability to absorb
energy without any permanent damage to the material,
VI Strain Energy

• Modulus of Toughness: This quantity represents the entire area under the σ-ε diagram. It
indicates the strain-energy density of the material before it fractures.
o This property becomes important when designing members that may be accidentally
overloaded.

M
VII EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
A tension test for a steel alloy results in the σ-ε strain diagram shown in the figure.
Calculate the modulus of elasticity and the yield strength based on a 0.2% offset.
Identify the ultimate stress and the fracture stress.
① E=?
21(104isin
E
Ete-hs= handering
Fu=108 ksi
=

⑧
necking
sit
② By=68 si
st if 90ksi
=

1084s: ·
jy G8ksi &

& (n yield point

=
- =

Ope -ulding
④ If 90ksi to 0A
paralle
Epe 0.0016
= -
=

eastie
f A

-
VII EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 2
The σ-ε diagram for an aluminum alloy that is used for making aircraft parts is shown in
the figure below. If a specimen of this material is stressed to 600MPa, determine the
permanent strain that remains in the specimen when the load is released. Also, find the
module of resilience both before and after the load application.
E1 =

-
45x13 MPG M56P
=
=

q
&after load
application
-D 0.024
= (608) (0,00 4.4m//m
=

ur
mm/mm
=

0.823 -0.008 0.815

=

·44
ep
=

j
5 ob
=

-
=

75x108
=
Et 0.008 =

strain

immanent
=>
Ur =
=

TpEpr
a
before application load
of

ur f(450)
=
(0.006) 1.35
=

m1/m3
VII EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 3
An aluminum alloy rod shown in the figure has a circular cross section and is subjected
to an axial load of 10kN. If a portion of the σ-ε diagram is shown, determine the
approximate elongation of the rod when the load is applied. Take Eal = 70GPa.
P
8
=

STAL= 18mm +0.2428mm

E
Nd A STOTAL 18.2728mm
=

Tip: A = 31.83 MPA

A(0.0D2
8 EpuL=
=

Nod BL
=(0.0450) 1400m m)

ege= 56.59MPA Epc= 0.0450

I
ric=
⑧

8 18mm
-
=

r EE
=

8 E1, (0.0004547)
=
=

MPa
E3 = 0.0004E (6007
=

2 =

Imm
=0.2728mm