SNBP INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL & KIDZONE

MORWADI, PIMPRI, PUNE

CBSE AFFILIATION No.1130522
ACADEMIC SESSION 2024-2025

CLASS:-XII Chapter: Unit 1 Name:

Solutions. (Notes and
Subject: Chemistry NCERT SOLUTIONS) Roll No:

Prepared by: Mr. Kamlesh Exam: Periodic test 1 Date:

PGT CHEMIST

—SOLUTIONS
Solvent

Solute

SOLUTE + SOLVENT = SOLUTION

 Chapter 2 Solutions

A säution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting substances. Solutions

are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components. A solution havingtwo
components is called a binary solution. It includes solute and solvent.
A solution may be classified as solid, liquid or a gaseous solution.
Types of Solutions:

Type of Solute Solvent Common examples

solution
Solid Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold
solutions

Li uid Solid Amal am of mercu with sodium

Solid Solution of h dro en in adium

Liquid Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water

Solutions

Li uid Li uid Ethanol dissolved in water

Li uid O en dissolved in water

Gaseous solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas

Solution

Li uid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitro en

Mixture of o en and nitro en ases

Concentration: It is the amount of solute in given amount of solution.

Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass of the solute dissolved in 100 mL of solution.

Mass % of component —Mass of the component in the solution x 100

Total mass Of the solution

Molality (m): It is the number of moles of solute present in Ikg of solvent.

Molality (m) = Mass of solute (y) x 1000

Molar mass of solute x Mass of solvent (g)

Molarity (M): It is the number of moles of solute present in IL of solution.

Molarity (M) = Mass of solute (w) x 1000

Molar mass of solute x Volume of solution (ml)

Normality: It is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per litre of solution.

Normality (N) = •o. of gm. equiv. of solute x 1000

Volume of solution (ml)
Saturated solution: It is a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature and
pressure. If dissolution process is an endothermic process, solubility increases with increase in temperature.
If dissolution process is an exothermic process. solubility decreases with increase in temperature.

Solubility is defined as the amount of solute in a saturated solution per 100g of a solvent, The solubility of
a gas in a liquid depends upon:
(a) the nature of the gas and the nature of the liquid,
(b) the temperature of the system, and
(c) the pressure of the gas.

The effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas in a liquid is governed by Henry's Law: It states that the
solubility of a gas in a liquid at a given temperature in directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
p = KHx
Where p is the partial pressure of the gas; and x is the mole fraction of the gas in the solution and KH is
Henry's Law constant.
The vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapour when it is in dynamic equilibrium
with its liquid, in a closed container.
Raoult's Law, the vapour pressure of a solution containing a non-volatile solute is directly proportional to
the mole fraction of the solvent (XA). The proportionality constant being the vapour pressure of the pure
solvent,
 p.

p:

Fracton Xeo
Xe=o xe:l

(I-XB)+ + & = 11

The binary liquid in liquid solutions can be classified into two types; ideal and non-ideal solutions.

Ideal Solution: An ideal solution is a solution where the intermolecular interactions between solute-solute
(A-A) and solvent-solvent (B-B) are similar to the interaction between solute-solvent (A-B). An ideal
solution fulfils the following criteria:
It obeys Raoult's law for all the concentration and temperature ranges. This states that the partial
vapour pressure of each component is proportional to the mole fraction of the component in a
solution at a given temperature.
• The enthalpy of mixing is zero, i.e., Al-ImiX = O. It means that no heat is absorbed or released.
• The volume of mixing is zero, AVitiix= O. It means that the volume of the solution is equal to the
sum of the volume of components.
The ideal solution is possible with components of the same size and polarity. There is no association,
dissociation or reaction taking place between components. A perfect ideal solution is rare but some
solutions are near to the ideal solution. Examples are Benzene and toluene. hexane and heptane.
Bromoethane and Chloroethane, Chlorobenzene and bromobenzene, etc.

Non-ideal Solution:
(i) When a solution does not obey Raoult's law for all the concentration and temperature ranges it is
known as a non-ideal solution. A non-ideal solution may show positive or negative deviation from
Raoult's law.
(ii) O
(iii) O

(a) Non-ideal solution showing positive deviation

Here the total vapour pressure is higher than that calculated from Raoult's equation. The interaction
between solute-solvent (A-B) is weaker than those of pure components (A-A or B-B). The AHrtIixand
AVrmxare positive. E.g., ethanol and acetone, carbon disulphide and acetone, acetone and benzene, etc.
(b) Non-ideal solution showing negative deviation
Herethe totalvapourpressureis lowerthanthatcalculatedfromRaoult'sequation.The interactionbetween
solute-solvent (A-B) is stronger than those of pure components (A-A or B-B). The AHmixand AVmixare
negative. E.g., phenol and aniline, chloroform and acetone, etc.

DifferencebetweenIdeal and Non-idealSolution

S.N0. Ideal Solution Non-ideal Solution
The obe Raoult'slaw Th do not obe Raoult's law
2 Intermolecularinteractionbetweensolute Intermolecularinteractionbetweensolute
and solventis the sameas thatof pure and solventis weakeror strongerthan that
com nents of between ure com onents
3 The total vapour pressure is the same as The total vapourpressureincreasesor
predictedfromRaoult's law decreasesfrom the predictedvalue
accordin to Raoult's law
4 No heat is releasedor absorbedso the Heat is either absorbedor releasedso the
enthalpy of mixing is zero, AH111ix
=0 enthalpy of mixing is either positive or
ne ative AHmixO
5 The total volume is equal to the sum of The volume of mixing is not zero, AVrnix
the volumeof components(soluteand O.There is either expansion or contraction.
solvent)so the volumeof mixing is zero,

6 Components can be separated by Components can't be separated in the pure

fractionaldistillation formb fractionaldistillation
7 Does not forman azeotro Formsazeotro mixture
8 Examples:Benzeneand toluene,hexane Examples:Ethanoland acetone,carbon
and heptane,etc.All the dilutesolutions disulphideand acetone,phenoland aniline,
nearlybehaveas an idealsolution chloroformand acetone,etc.

Colligative properties of solutions are those propertieswhichdependonlyupon the numberof solute

particlesin the solutionandnot on their nature.
Such propertiesare:
(a) Relative lowering in vapour pressure,
(b) Elevationof boilingpoint,
(c) Depression of freezing point and
(d) Osmoticpressure.
(a)Relative lowering in vapour pressure: According to Raoult's Law, the relative lowering of vapour
pressureof a solutionis equal to the mole fractionof the solute.

- PA)/PAO= (wB/MB)/VVA/M

MB =
WA (PAO- PA)/PA O)

(b) Elevation of boiling point: Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. The boing point of the pure solvent is Tb0while that of the
solution is Tb. Since, Tb is greater than Tb0, there is an elevation or increase in boiling temperature of the
solution as compared to that of solvent. The elevation in boiling point, ATb may be expressed as:

B E
Atmospheric c
pressure

Boling Point
ATE

Temperature (K)

The elevation in boiling point is found to be proportional to the molaliCYof the solution.
ATI)am
ATI)= Kb m, where ATI)is the elevation in boiling point, 'm' is the molality and Kb is the Molal elevation
constant
ATI)= = (KbX x IOOO)/MB x
MB = WBX 1000)

(c) Depression of freezing point: Freezing point is the temperature at which the solid and the liquid states
of the substance have the same vapour pressure. Freezing point temperature of puree solvent is TIOand
freezing point temperature of the solution is Tf. The Tr is less than TTO. This shows that the freezing
temperature of the solution is less than that of pure solvent and the depression in freezing temperature
(ATf) is given as: ATf = TfO—Tf

soo
Atmospheric
Tessure

Freezing point
depression

Temperature(K)
The depression in freezing point (ATf) is proportional to the molality of the solution.
ATfum
ATf = Kf m Where Kf is molal depression constant (freezing point depression constant).

ATf = (KfXWBX 1000)/MBx WA

 MB = (KfX X 1000)
ATfX WA

Osmosis: The spontaneous flow of solvent molecules from a dilute solution into a concentrated solution
when the two are separated by a perfect semipermeable membrane.
(d) Osmotic pressure (r) is the pressure which must be applied to the solution side (more concentrated
solution) to just prevent the passage of pure solvent into it through a semipermeable membrane. According
to Van't Hoff equation,

= cRT= (11B/'V)
RT = (wB/MBV)RT
MB RT

where n is the osmotic pressure of the solution,

C is the concentration of solution, ng is the number of moles of solute, MB is the molar mass of the solute, V
is the volume of the solution in liters,
R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature on the Kelvin scale.

Reverse Osmosis:
The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution side. That is, now the pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi permeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis

Applied pressure Pure water

Fresh
Salt water
water
Semi-permeable
0000 membrane
0% 0000 000 o
0 00 000 o

Waterflow
Isotonic solutions are those solutions which have the same osmotic pressure. Also, they have same molar
concentration.
For isotonic solutions, = Also, Cl = C2
Hypertonic solutions if a solution has more osmotic pressure than some other solutions.
Hypotonic solutions if a solution has less osmotic pressure than some other solutions.
Abnormal molecular mass: A molar mass that is either lower or higher than the expected or normal value
is called as abnormal molar mass.

Van 't Hoff factor: In 1880 Van 't Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the Van't Hoff factor, to account for
the extent of dissociation or association. This factor i is defined as:

i = Normal molar mass / Abnormal molar mass

= Observed colligative property / Calculated colligative property

i = Total number of moles of particles after association/dissociation
Number of moles of particles before association/dissociation
Here abnormal molar mass is the experimentally determined molar mass and calculated colligative
properties are obtained by assuming that the non-volatile solute is neither associated nor dissociated.
In case of association, value of i is less than unity while for dissociation it is greater than unity.
For example, the value of i for aqueous KCI solution is close to 2, while the value for ethanoic acid in
benzene is nearly 0.5.
Inclusion of Van't Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as follows:
Relative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent,
(PAD
Elevation of Boiling point. ATE,= i Kbm
Depression of Freezing point, A i K/ m
Osmotic pressure of solution, n = i m R T/ V

Values of i for KCI, NaC1, MgS04 and K2S04

Salt Van 't Hoff Factor i for complete

dissociation of solute
KCI 2
NaCl 2
M soa 2
K2S04 3