3/23/22, 10:00 AM OCP 100: Lecture 3: Notes

Introduction to Microcomputer Studies and Information Technology

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Lecture 3: Notes

LECTURE THREE
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT AND COMPUTER MEMORY

INTRODUCTION
Computer processor and memory are the main two parts that play a major role in overall system performance. Hence, understanding their
functionalities is vital.

In this lecture, the processor and memory parts are introduced. As part of this lecture, the computer performance based on these two
factors is discussed as well.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES
It is expected that after the completion of this lecture, you should be able to:

(i) Explain the major parts of computer.

(ii) Explain CPU components.

(iii) Describe computer memory.

(iv) Distinguish between RAM and ROM.

(v) Define bit, byte and conversion process.

(vi) Measure CPU speed and RAM storage.

(vii) Discuss various secondary memory devices.

(viii) Explain system bus.

(ix) Describe various aspects of computer performance.

COMPUTER PARTS
Basically, Computer has three (3) main components which are processor, memory and Input/Output. Each part has specific functions to
facilitate functioning of computer, but they depend to each other in providing a reliable information flow throughout the system. Most of
the internal computer parts are housed within the system unit. The system unit (case) contains a computer’s vital parts. There are two basic
types of cases:

Desktop casing is placed on a desk in a horizontal orientation.

Towers come in three sizes (mini-tower, mid-tower and full-tower) and it is vertically orientated.

Motherboard (MBO) is computer's basic circuit, to which all computer components are connected, directly or indirectly. Devices are
connected to the motherboard through a system bus. System bus connects all devices, ensures data flow and communication between
different devices using predefined protocols. Protocol describes a manner in which communication between devices is defined. It enables

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them to address each other and defines how they should look for each other on either system bus or network. Buses can, according to the
purpose, be divided into:

Serial-USB, Firewire, etc.

Parallel-AGP, PCI, etc.
Mixed-Hyper Transport, InfiniBand, PCI, etc.

Other parts include soundcard, graphics card, and modem. A soundcard is a device used for sound creation and production by means of
computer speakers. Graphics card is responsible for image processing and displaying it on a monitor. It has its own graphics processor and
memory. Image quality depends on the strength of these components. Modem enables computers to communicate via telephone lines.
They connect computers to the Internet. Connectors or ports are slots visible in the back and the front side of a computer. Firewire is used
for connecting computers and audio-video devices (digital cameras, etc.).

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The most important part of the computer is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) or central processor. The CPU is referred as a brain of
computer. It is the computer chip that does perform all processing functions of computer. Inside this tiny chip there are millions of
transistors that are connected so they can carry out mathematical calculations. Everything a computer does is essentially a mathematical
calculation.

The CPU (processor) is a central part of a computer which manages all other computer parts, monitors their mutual communication and
performs arithmetic-logical operations. Processor speed is measured in hertz (or megahertz or gigahertz). Most famous manufacturers for
personal computer processors are Intel and AMD.

CPU Speed
A CPU Speed is measured in Megahertz (MHz) or Gigahertz (GHz). The higher the CPU’s MHz rate, the faster it processes information and
instructions. The CPU speed depends on the Word length, Bus Width, Clock Speed, CISC and RISC. Word Length is the number of bits that
can be processed at once while Bus Width is the number of bits that can be moved at once. The CPU is also referred as the microcomputer
chip or the microprocessor. The Central Processing consists of electronic circuits that interpret and execute program instructions as well as
communicate with the input, output and storage devices. The CPU transforms data into information. Data is the raw facts to be processed by
a computer. Basically, CPU consists of three components which are the Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and Registers.

Control Unit
The control unit directs and coordinates all computers’ activities (electronic data processing system operations). It coordinates various parts
of the computer system. It also translates program instructions into machine operations to be executed by ALU. Interprets all stored
information in sequence and issues commands to all elements of the computers. It controls all input and output devices, the transfer of data
between CPU and storage and the routing of control information between the main memory (RAM) and ALU.

Arithmetic / Logic Unit

The arithmetic and logic unit perform arithmetic and logic operations. Arithmetic operations include addition (+), subtraction (-),
multiplication (*), division (/), modulus (%), etc. The logical operations include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR, etc. Processing in
computer begins with data and program. ALU performs the actual arithmetic calculations using the binary system. It also performs logical
operations and comparisons. It contains circuitry which circulates, sets algebra signs and produces results and it also provides comparative
abilities.

Registers
Registers are high speed storage devices within the CPU. They store data and addresses used in fetching instruction in RAM. Some of the
common registers include Program Counter (PC) which stores addresses and Instruction Register (IR) which stores data or instructions
fetched from RAM.

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COMPUTER MEMORY
The main characteristics of memory are location, capacity, unit of transfer, access method, performance, physical type, physical
characteristics and organization. Memory provides temporary and permanent storage for programs and data.

Internal (Primary) Memory

The computer internal memory includes Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM). The internal memory that
stores instructions to make computer operates is referred as constant memory or ROM. Constant memory cannot be changed by user. ROM
is non-volatile; that is its contents do not disappear when the power is turned off. ROM can only be read. ROM contains programs built into
the computer by the manufacturer. ROM stores special purpose programs and data or instructions which the computer needs all the time.
ROM is a type of permanent, internal memory that is used solely for reading. A Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is a program which is
located in a separate ROM on the motherboard, and defines, as the name suggests, basic input/output system, is a good example. Please
note that not all BIOS programs are stored in ROM.

On the other side, when you enter information into the computer for processing, you are working with a temporary memory called RAM.
RAM requires a constant supply of power to maintain it. If power fails, the contents of RAM will be lost, so RAM is a volatile memory. RAM is
a working memory in which analyzed data and programs are stored, while a computer runs. It allows reading and writing data and is
deleted/cleared when the computer shuts down.

Cache is a small capacity memory which allows quick access to data. By storing data from working memory in cache, the speed of
communication between processor and RAM is increased. Microprocessors use three levels of fast cache, L1, L2 and L3, used to store often
used data.

The smallest piece of data that can be recognized and used by computer is a BIT, a BInary digiT. A bit is a single binary value, either a 1 or 0
(one or zero). A grouping of eight bits is called a byte. A byte is the basic unit for measuring the size of memory. The amount of RAM is
measured by counting the potential bytes of information.

1 KB (kilobyte) - 1024 B (approx. 1000 B)

1 MB (megabyte) - 1024 KB (approx. 1000 KB)

1 GB (gigabyte) - 1024 MB (approx. 1000 MB)

1 TB (terabyte) – 1024 GB (approx. 1000 GB)

Bit: is a smallest amount of information. It is a binary digit which can be 0 or 1. A bit is simply an on or an off signal which passes through
the computers circuitry. Every piece of software can be broken down into a series of on or off signals or its Binary Code.

TAKE NOTE Everything in computers must be divisible by 8 so a kilobyte is 1,024 bytes.

External (Secondary) Memory

One of the reasons for storing information outside of the computer is a data backup in case the system corrupts. We need to store
programs and data on external memory in permanent form, outside the computer for future use. The external memory is sometimes referred
to as secondary storage. Secondary Storage is the long-term storage of programs and data outside of the CPU and RAM. Secondary
memory devices include hard disks, CDs, DVDs, flash disks, magnetic tapes, etc.

The Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a place for permanent data storage i.e. it does not delete/clear when computer shuts down). Its features are:
large capacity, faster performance in comparison to optical devices but slower in comparison to RAM and are used for permanent data
storage. Floppy Disk Drive is used for storing and reading data stored on a floppy disk. The capacity of floppy disk is 1.44MB. CD-ROM drive
is used for reading Compact Disc (CD) media. CD is an optical disc used for data storage. The standard capacity of a CD is 700MB. CD-R is
used for reading and writing data onetime only, while CD-RW for reading and writing data multiple times. DVD drive is used for reading
DVD discs. DVD disc capacity ranges from 4.7 to 18GB. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) is an optical disc which is, due to the larger capacity
(about 4.7GB), mostly used for video storage. A Blu-ray disc (BD)

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- the successor to DVD, is optical disk storage, it comes in different capacities, depending on how many layers it has and the capacity of
each layer. Currently, the capacity of one layer is between 27 GB and 33 GB, while the overall capacity is the product of the number of layers
and capacity of each layer. Memory card is a type of flash memory used to store data in digital cameras, cell phones, MP3 players etc. USB
Stick is a data storage device. It features small dimensions, relatively high capacity, reliability and speed. It belongs to the type of flash
memory that remembers data, even when not under voltage i.e. they do not need electric power to maintain data integrity. There is a
difference between an internal hard disk drive, which is embedded in the computer case, and an external hard disk drive, which is connected
to a computer by using an appropriate cable or USB port, and is usually used to transfer data from one computer to another or for backup.

SYSTEM BUS
A System Bus is an electrical path (wire) which connects different parts of the computer and is responsible for signals transmission. The most
common system buses include address bus, data bus, status bus and control bus. Address bus used for sending the address from where to
fetch data from memory. A data bus is used for exchanging data between the memory, the processor and the peripherals. A status bus is
used for exchanging information about the status of the data and the system. A control bus is used for exchanging control information
between the processor and the peripherals.

COMPUTER PERFORMACE
Several factors influence the performance of computer. For instance, some factors affecting computer performance include processor clock
speed, amount of cache and number of kernels, the amount of installed RAM, graphics card- its memory and processor, clock bus and the
number of running applications.

All computer applications use computing resources. The processor runs applications, so processors get the most workload when it comes to
running the application. Also, in order for processors to execute the application, it is necessary for application code to be loaded into the
system memory. As a result, running applications take up a certain amount of working memory. The more applications are running, the
greater the load on the processor and RAM. That is why the computer's performance depends on both the processor (clock speed,
number of cores, cache memory), and the amount of working memory, as well as the number of applications running. Processor speed is
measured in hertz (Hz). Besides the frequency, the processor performance depends on the number of operations that the arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) performs in one clock cycle. For instance, a global clock signal for synchronizing all activities (eg, 2GHz which means at most 2000
million instructions can be executed per second). The performance mismatch between CPU and RAM can be reduced by widening system
buses, increasing RAM capacity and introducing cache memory.

SUMMARY
This lecture has focused on two major computer parts that influence system performance. These are the CPU
(processor) and RAM (primary memory). The system bus and cache memory were introduced as well as solution
for performance mismatch between CPU and RAM. A good computer should have good specification of CPU and
RAM; otherwise performance might not be satisfactory.

Last modified: Thursday, 18 February 2021, 8:05 PM

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