CPU, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

BY

Mr. Soham Bhattacharya

Content

 Introduction
  History Of CPU
 Structure Of CPU
 Parts Of System Units
 Functions Of The CPU
 Types Of Storage Devices
 Function of Storages

INTRODUCTION:

Full form: Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is the heart and brain of a computer. It receives data as input. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is simply
the central processor or the processor where most calculation takes places.

A storage device is any computing hardware that is used for storing data files and information. It can hold and
store the information both temporarily and permanently, and can external or internal to a computer.

HISTORY OF CPU:

Early Era (1940s-1950s):

Vacuum Tubes: The earliest CPUs, like the one in the UNIVAC I computer (1951), used bulky and power-
hungry vacuum tubes for processing. These machines were large and expensive.

Transistor Revolution (1960s):

The Transistor's Impact: The invention of the transistor in 1947 completely changed the game. Transistors were
smaller, faster, and more efficient than vacuum tubes. This allowed for the development of smaller and more
powerful CPUs in the 1960s, like the IBM System/360.

Birth of the Microprocessor (1970s):

A New Frontier: The 1970s saw a giant leap forward with the invention of the microprocessor. The Intel 4004,
released in 1971, is considered the first commercially available microprocessor. This tiny chip could perform the
functions of an entire CPU, paving the way for smaller and more affordable computers.

The Microprocessor Takes Over (1980s-Present):

Moore's Law: Since the 1970s, CPU development has been largely guided by Moore's Law, which states that
the number of transistors on a microchip double roughly every two years. This has led to a continuous increase
in processing power and a decrease in size.

From Desktops to Smartphones: The microprocessor revolutionized computing. It led to the rise of personal
computers, laptops, and now even smartphones have incredibly powerful CPUs.

In the 1940, mathematicians:

John Von Neumann- John Von Neumann's influence on CPU evaluation isn't as direct as his contribution to the
underlying architecture of most CPUs. However, the Von Neumann architecture he helped define does have a
major impact on how CPUs are evaluated.

The Von Neumann architecture is a fundamental design for computers that separates the processing unit (CPU)
from the memory unit. This creates a bottleneck, known as the Von Neumann bottleneck, which limits CPU
performance. This bottleneck plays a role in CPU evaluation because it pushes us to consider factors beyond just
raw clock speed.

Here's how the Von Neumann architecture and bottleneck influence CPU
evaluation:

 Focus on Memory Access Speed

 Instruction Pipelining
 Parallelization Techniques

John Von Neumann's foundational work on CPU architecture has indirectly

shaped how CPUs are evaluated today. It steers us to look beyond just clock
speed and consider factors related to memory access, instruction processing
techniques, and the ability to handle parallel workloads.

J. Presper Eckert- J. Presper Eckert's contributions to CPU evaluation aren't as well-defined as John von
Neumann's. Eckert's strength lay in building the first functional electronic computers, rather than theoretical
concepts. However, his work with the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) laid the
groundwork for future CPUs and indirectly influenced how we evaluate them today.

Here's how Eckert's pioneering work with ENIAC influenced CPU evaluation:

 Establishing Practical Benchmarks

 Shifting Focus from Theoretical Speed to Practical Performanc
 Importance of Engineering for Performance
While Eckert might not have had a direct role in defining CPU evaluation metrics, his pioneering work with
building functional computers like the ENIAC planted the seeds for the practical approach to CPU evaluation
we use today. It emphasized real-world performance, the need for practical benchmarks, and the role of
engineering in achieving that performance.

John Mauchly- John Mauchly's direct contributions to CPU evaluation metrics are less prominent compared to
figures like Eckert or von Neumann.

However, his work played a significant role in the development of the field in two key ways:

 Emphasis on Applicability and User Needs

 Promoting Collaboration and Sharing of Knowledge

Here's a breakdown of how Mauchly's work influenced CPU evaluation:

 Focus on Benchmarks Beyond Raw Speed

 Importance of User-Centric Evaluation
 Standardization Through Collaboration

John Mauchly's influence on CPU evaluation lies in his push for practical applications and his role in creating a
platform for knowledge sharing within the computing field. These contributions indirectly helped shape how
CPUs are evaluated today, with a focus on user needs, diverse workloads, and the development of standardized
benchmarks.

Structure of CPU:

The central processing unit (CPU), also referred

to as the processor or central processor, is the
brain of the computer. It's responsible for
carrying out instructions from programs and
performing all the calculations needed by the
computer.

Here's a breakdown of the main components of

a CPU:

 Control Unit (CU): The CU acts like

the conductor of an orchestra. It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and directs other parts
of the CPU to carry out those instructions.
  Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU is the engine of the CPU. It performs mathematical operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well as logical operations like comparisons
(greater than, less than, equal to).
 Registers: These are temporary storage locations inside the CPU that hold data and instructions being
actively used. They're much faster to access than main memory (RAM). There are different types of
registers, each with a specific purpose. For example, the program counter (PC) keeps track of the
memory address of the next instruction to be fetched.
 Cache: Cache is a small amount of very fast memory that sits between the CPU and main memory. It
stores frequently accessed data and instructions, so the CPU can access them quickly without having to
wait for data to be retrieved from slower main memory. There are different levels of cache (L1, L2, L3),
with each level having a different size and speed.

Modern CPUs also have additional components like:

 Bus: A bus is a communication pathway that allows data to flow between different parts of the CPU and
other components in the computer system.
 Memory Management Unit (MMU): The MMU manages how programs access memory. It translates
virtual memory addresses used by programs into physical memory addresses used by RAM.
PARTS OF SYSTEM UNITS

MOTHERBOARD- The motherboard is the main circuit board of a microcomputer. It is also known as the
main board or system board.

MEMORY- Memory is the part of the computer that temporarily stores applications, documents, and stem
operating information.

BUS- A bus is an electronic line that allows is and os to move from one place to another.

EXPANSION SLOTS- Expansions slots appear on the motherboard. They are sockets into which adapters
are connected.

PORTS AND CONNNECTERS

A port is a connector located on the
motherboard or on a separate adapter.
BAYS
A bay is a space inside the computer case
where a hard drive, floppy drive or CD-ROM
drive sits
POWER SUPPLY
A power supply changes normal household
electricity into electricity that a computer can
use
SOUND COMPONENTS
A sound card lets a computer play and record high quality sound
A power supply changes normal
household electricity into electricity
that a computer can use
A sound card lets a computer play
and record high quality sound
FUNCTIONS OF THE CPU:

 Coordinating with Other System Components: Through interfaces and buses, the CPU communicates
with various system parts, including memory, input/output devices, and peripheral devices. It manages
the transmission of information and commands between various parts, guaranteeing proper
synchronisation and communication.
 Arithmetic and Logic Operations: The CPU performs basic arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. It also handles logical operations such as comparisons, bitwise
operations, and boolean operations.
 Control Unit: The CPU includes a control unit that coordinates and manages the execution of
instructions. It controls the flow of data between the CPU, memory, and other peripherals.
 Virtual Memory Management: The CPU works in conjunction with the operating system to manage
virtual memory, which allows processes to use more memory than physically available. It handles
memory addressing, page table lookups, and swapping data between RAM and disk storage.
 Interrupt Handling: The CPU handles interrupts, which are signals from hardware devices or software
that require immediate attention. It suspends the current execution, saves the state, and transfers control
to the appropriate interrupt handler.
 I/O Operations: The CPU communicates with input and output devices, such as keyboards, mice,
displays, and storage devices. It coordinates data transfers between these devices and the computer’s
memory.
 Overall, the CPU performs a wide range of functions to ensure the smooth execution of instructions,
manipulation of data, and coordination of various components in a computer system.
TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES

PRIMARY

Primary Storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the area in a computer in which data is stored for
quick access by the computer’s processor.

There are two main types of primary storage devices.

RAM (Random access memory)

 Computers store data temporary in the RAM. It is also known as Main memory.
 These could be operating instructions, loose data or content from programs that are running. When the
computer is switched off , all the data is cleared from the RAM. So, it is known as Volatile memory.
ROM (Read Only memory)

 When a computer is first switched on, it needs to load up the BIOS (Basic Input/output System) and
basic instructions for the hardware. These instructions are stored in ROM (Read Only Memory).
 ROM contains the programming that allows your computer to be "Booted Up".
 This type of memory is called Non-Volatile because it retains the data.

SECONDARY

Secondary Storage, is a Non- Volatile Memory (does not lose stored data when the device is powered down) that
is not directly accessible by the CPU, because it is not accessed via the input/output channels.

It is used to store Permanent Data.

They are following types:

 Solid-state drives (SSDs).

 Hard disk drives (HDDs).
 Cloud storage.
 CD-ROM drives.
 DVD drives.
 Floppy disk.
 USB flash drives.
 SD cards.

Function

Primary

 Direct Accessibility: Primary storage is directly accessible by the CPU. It provides the actual working
space for the processor.
  Temporary Storage: It holds the data and instructions that the processor is currently working on. This
includes the operating system, application programs, and data being processed.
 Volatile Nature: Primary storage is volatile, meaning it gets wiped out when the computer is turned off.
This is why it’s also referred to as temporary storage.
 Faster Access: Since it is directly accessible by the CPU, primary storage is faster than secondary
storage. This speed is crucial for the efficient operation of the computer.

Secondary

 Long-Term Storage: Secondary memory is used for the long-term storage of data that doesn’t need to be
accessed as frequently as primary storage.
 Non-Volatile: It retains data even when the power is off. Secondary memory is non-volatile.
 Indirect Interaction: The processor does not directly interact with secondary memory.
 Examples: Hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), magnetic tapes, etc.
 Storage Capacity: Secondary memory devices can store a considerable amount of data and information.
 Cost: Secondary memory devices are generally less expensive compared to primary memory devices.

Reference

 Introduction to CPU
 CPU Components
 Components and their functions
 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-primary-and-secondary-memory/
 https://www.purestorage.com/knowledge/primary-vs-secondary-storage.html
 Primary and Secondary Storages