READING AND WRITING

LESSON 1: Hypertext
Hypertext
- Hypertext is a non-linear way to present information and is usually accomplished using “links”.
- Hypertext is text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references to other text that the
reader can immediately access.
- Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress set
or by touching the screen.

Ted Nelson
- coined and describe hypertext as a series of chunks that links connected by links that lead to different pathways.
Links
- links are group of words that acts as a way to cross-reference other documents or files on the internet or computer.

 World Wide Web (WWW) - a global hypertext system of information residing on servers linked across the internet.
 Uniform Resource Locator (URL) - colloquially termed a web address, is a reference to a web resource that
specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it.
Hypermedia
- are links that not only limited to text but also incorporate other forms of multimedia such as pictures, sounds and
videos.
Why hypertext?
1. In a hypertext system, the reader is free to navigate information by exploring the connections provided.
2. Hypertext is a very different way of presenting information than the usual linear form.
3. Hypertext is used for reference purposes. Text no longer flows in a straight line through a book. Instead, it is broken
down into many smaller units (lexias, to borrow a term from literary criticism), each addressing a few issues.
LESSON 2: Intertext
 INTER- means “between” signifying the relationship or connections between different texts where it is referenced,
alludes or influenced by another text.
 TEXT - the written words in a book or a magazine.
Intertext/Intertextuality
- one method of text development that enables the author to make another text based on another text. It happens
when some properties of an original text are incorporated in the text that is created by another author.
- technically defined as a process of text development that merges two more processes such as imitation and
creation in doing a text. It involves imitation because the author, as highly influenced by another author comes up
with his version of the text consciously or unconsciously incorporating the style and other characteristics of the text
done by that author.
Elaboration on INTERTEXTUALITY
 Roots in the work of a Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913).
 The term itself was first used by Bulgarian-French philosopher and psychoanalyst Julia Kristeva in the 1960s.

FOUR METHODS
 1. ALLUSION - a writer or speaker explicitly or implicitly pertains to an idea or passage found in another text without
the use of quotation.
2. PASTICHE - it is a text developed in a way that it copies the style or other properties of another text without making
fun of it unlike in a parody.
3. RETELLING - it is the restatement of a story or re-expression of a narrative.
4. QUOTATION - it is the method of directly lifting the exact statements or set of words from a text another author has
made.
QUESTIONS USED TO VALIDATE ASSERTION
1. Are there two or more stories involved?
2. Does the text show direct or indirect connection to another piece of work?

Note: If the reader has affirmation towards these questions, the texts he/she is dealing with contains intertext.
LESSON 3: Critical Reading as a form of Reasoning
Critical Reading
- Critical reading is engaging in analytic activity which involves the reader by asking questions about the text and the
author’s claim.
- Critical readers are doing the process of evaluating, analyzing, and interpreting the assertion of the hidden meaning
of the whole text.
- when reading critically, it is necessary to question the different arguments used by the author, as any problem can
weaken the authenticity of the conclusion.
 Remember that Critical reading is not meant to criticize but to assess the validity of textual evidence.
Reasoning - as defined by Merriam Webster dictionary is an act of giving statements for justification and explanation. It is
the ability of someone to defend something by giving out reasons.
Steps Used in Critical Reading As Reasoning
by Maxine Rafaella C. Rodriguez and Marella Therese A. Tiongson
1. Identifying Assertion - Identify by a common type of assertion such as fact, convention, opinion and preference.
2. Formulating counterclaim - Counterclaims are made to rebut a previous claim
3. Determining Evidence - Evidence is the details given by the authors to support his/her claims
Different forms of hedges
 Modals: may, could, would, should, might, certain, must, etc.
 Frequency adverbs: usually, generally, commonly
 Probability adverbs: probably, possibly, presumably
LESSON 4: Assertion
Formulating Evaluative statement
Evaluative Statement
- a statement that states one's sound judgement about something through writing which is supported by reasons and
evidences.
- presents the strengths and weaknesses of something based on a set of criteria which needs to be factual,
substantial, and unbiased.
How to formulate an Evaluative Statement:
- To formulate an evaluative statement, one needs to read the entire text carefully and critically to understand and to
check for possible fallacies in the argument presented by the writer.
 1. Begin with the positives before you point out the negatives. Statement should be factual, substantial and unbiased.
2. Suggest a solution/s or suggestion/s on how to improve the written material being evaluated and provide
justification how these will work.
3. Keep your feedback concise and precise.
4. Be careful in giving your feedback. Since evaluations pass judgment onto works of authors, they must be written
and expressed with care and much diligence.
ASSERTION AND ITS TYPES:
Assertion
- Assertions are declarative sentences that give one’s belief about something else as if it is true though it may not be. It is
expressed as an argument.
- Usually, contains languages that expresses evaluation such as useful, significant, important, insightful, detailed, up-to-date,
comprehensive, practical, impressive, etc.

TYPES of ASSERTION
1. Fact- is a statement that can be proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies of witnesses, verified observations, or the
results of research.
Example:
According to experts, seawater contains high amounts of minerals such as sodium, chloride, sulphate, magnesium and
calcium.
2. Opinion- is a statement based on facts but is difficult to objectively verify because of the uncertainty of producing satisfactory
proofs of soundness.
Example:
I think the government has reacted poorly to the coronavirus pandemic.
3. Convention- is a way in which something is done similar to traditions and norms. Its truthfulness can be verified only by
reference to historical precedents, laws, rules, usage, and customs.
4. PREFERENCE- states a personal choice in which the writer is under no obligation to support or prove the truthfulness of the
statement. They are subjective and cannot be objectively proven or logically attacked.
LESSON 5: Counterclaim
Counterclaims
- are claims made to rebut a previous claim. To rebut means to contradict someone’s statement through a formal argument.
They provide a contrasting perspective to the main argument.
To be able to locate counterclaims to an argument, remember the following:
1. Show competence and familiarity with the writer’s topic.
2. Examine different perspectives and not just passively accepting the writer’s claim.
3. Consider the topic, and make sure you are willing to engage different viewpoints from your own.
4. Clarify your personal position on the topic.
Four Elements of Argument
1. CLAIM- is a statement that asserts facts based on one’s understanding about a particular topic or issue.
2. COUNTERCLAIM- is just the opposite of claim. It is a statement that contradicts one’s claim and is usually proven and
supported by both reasons and evidences.
3. REASON- is the part of an argument where a statement offers an explanation behind a party’s claim.
4. EVIDENCE - is the statement that proves the truth of a claim and generally leads to the conclusion of an argument.
LESSON 6: Textual Evidence
Textual evidence
- defined as the details given by the author in order to support his/her claims. It reveals the position of the writer and makes the
reading more interesting. Evidence are details that strengthen, add variety or weight to any argument.
Types of evidence we could easily identify :
 Facts and statistics
 Opinion from experts
 Personal anecdotes
To express your judgment or opinion about a text you should be familiarized with the following:
1. State your idea about the text.
2. Determine the evidence from the text. Look for clues and keywords that support your idea.
3. Quote or paraphrase the part of the text that helped you come up with your idea.
4. Use quotation marks. If it is a book, indicate the page number.
5. Lastly, express how the quote supports your idea.
Ways on how to present textual evidence:
1. PARAPHRASING - restating an author or someone else’s work using your word without losing the original idea of the text.
Credit phrases:
 The text stated that....
 The author of the ___ stated that....
 According to the text, ...
 A detail from the text that support this is
 An example from the text is..

2. SUMMARIZING - stating the essential ideas of the text in a short way