Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data

•Data that are not easily reduced to numbers

 Data that are related to concepts, opinions, values and behaviours of people in social
context
 Transcripts of individual interviews and focus groups, field notes from observation of
certain activities, copies of documents, audio/video recordings...

Types of Qualitative Data

 Structured text, (writings, stories, survey comments, news articles, books etc)
 Unstructured text (transcription, interviews, focus groups, conversation)
 Audio recordings, music
 Video recordings (graphics, art, pictures, visuals)

Qualitative data collection methods

 Observation
 Interview
 Focus groups
 Case studies

What is Qualitative Data Analysis?

 Qualitative Data Analysis(QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we

move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of explanation,
understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating.
 QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy. The idea is to examine the
meaningful and symbolic content of qualitative data.
  Qualitative Data Analysis is the method of consistently looking and composing the
interview records, observation notes, or completely different non-textual materials that
the investigator accumulates to increase the understanding of an event.
 The process of analysing qualitative data preponderantly involves writing or categorising
the information. Primarily it involves making sense of massive amounts of data by
reducing the amount of raw information, followed by distinctive important patterns, and
eventually drawing meaningful knowledge and later building a logical pattern.

Approaches in analysis

Deductive approach

–Using your research questions to group the data and then look for similarities and differences

–Used when time and resources are limited

–Used when qualitative research is a smaller component of a larger quantitative study

Inductive approach

–Used when qualitative research is a major design of the inquiry

–Using emergent framework to group the data and then look for relationships

Principles of Qualitative data analysis

1.People differ in their experience and understanding of reality (constructivist-many meanings)

2.A social phenomenon can’t be understood outside its own context (Context-bound i.e. book is
in the pen)

3.Qualitative research can be used to describe phenomenon or generate theory grounded on

data

4.Understanding human behaviour emerges slowly and non-linearly

5.Exceptional cases may yield insights in to a problem or new idea for further inquiry

The Process of Qualitative data analysis

5 Steps to Qualitative Data Analysis

Step 1: Arrange the Data

Once you have collected all the data, it is largely unstructured and sometimes makes no sense
when looked at a glance. Therefore, it is essential that as a researcher, you first need to
transcribe the data collected. The first step in analyzing your data is arranging it systematically.
Arranging data means converting all the data into a text format. You can either export the data
into a spreadsheet or manually type in the data or choose from any of the computer-assisted
qualitative data analysis tools.

Step 2: Organize the Data

After transforming and arranging your data, the immediate next step is to organize your data.
There are chances you most likely have a large amount of information that still needs to be
arranged in an orderly manner. One of the best ways to organize the data is by going back to
your research objectives and then organizing the data based on the questions asked. Arrange
your research objective in a table, so it appears visually clear. At all costs, avoid the temptations
of working with unorganized data. You will end up wasting time, and there will be no conclusive
results obtained.

Step 3: Set a Code to the Data Collected

Setting up proper codes for the collected data takes you a step ahead. Coding is one of the best
ways to compress a tremendous amount of information collected. The coding of qualitative
data simply means categorizing and assigning properties and patterns to the collected data.

Coding is an important step in qualitative data analysis, as you can derive theories from
relevant research findings. After assigning codes to your data, you can then begin to build on
the patterns to gain in-depth insight into the data that will help make informed decisions.

Step 4: Validate the Data

Validating data is one of the crucial steps of qualitative data analysis for successful research.
Since data is quintessential for research, it is imperative to ensure that the data is not flawed.
Please note that data validation is not just one step in qualitative data analysis; this is a
recurring step that needs to be followed throughout the research process. There are two sides
to validating data:

1. Accuracy of your research design or methods.

2. Reliability, which is the extent to which the methods produce accurate data
consistently.

Step 5: Concluding the Analysis Process

It is important to finally conclude your data, which means systematically presenting your data, a
report that can be readily used. The report should state the method that you, as a researcher,
used to conduct the research studies, the positives, and negatives and study limitations. In the
report, you should also state the suggestions/inferences of your findings and any related areas
for future research.

Data analysis in qualitative research consists of

1. Preparing and organizing the data (i.e., text data as in transcripts, or image data as in
photographs) for analysis,
2. Reducing the data into themes through a process of coding -reducing the data into
meaningful segments and assigning names for the segments,
3. Condensing the codes- combining the codes into broader categories or themes.
4. Finally representing the data in figures, tables, or a discussion- displaying and making
comparisons in the data graphs, tables, and charts.

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

Qualitative data refers to non-numeric information such as interview transcripts, notes, video and
audio recordings, images and text documents. Qualitative data analysis can be divided into the
following five categories:
1. Content analysis. This refers to the process of categorizing verbal or behavioural data to
classify, summarize and tabulate the data.

2. Narrative analysis. This method involves the reformulation of stories presented by

respondents taking into account context of each case and different experiences of each
respondent. In other words, narrative analysis is the revision of primary qualitative data by
researcher.

3. Discourse analysis. A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and all types of written
text.

4. Framework analysis. This is more advanced method that consists of several stages such as
familiarization, identifying a thematic framework, coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.

5. Grounded theory. This method of qualitative data analysis starts with an analysis of a single
case to formulate a theory. Then, additional cases are examined to see if they contribute to the
theory.

Types of qualitative analysis or

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

Different methods can be used for analyzing qualitative data. The researcher chooses
based on the objectives of their study.
The researcher plays a key role in the interpretation of data, making decisions about
the coding, theming, decontextualizing, and recontextualizing of data (Starks &
Trinidad, 2007).

Grounded theory
Grounded theory is a qualitative method specifically designed to inductively generate
theory from data. It was developed by Glaser and Strauss in 1967 (Glaser & Strauss,
2017).
This methodology aims to develop theories (rather than test hypotheses) that explain
a social process, action, or interaction (Petty et al., 2012).
To inform the developing theory, data collection and analysis run simultaneously.
 There are three key types of coding used in grounded theory: initial (open),
intermediate (axial), and advanced (selective) coding.
 Throughout the analysis, memos should be created to document methodological
and theoretical ideas about the data. Data should be collected and analyzed
until data
 saturation is reached and a theory is developed.

Content analysis
 Content analysis was first used in the early twentieth century to analyze textual
 materials such as newspapers and political speeches.
 Content analysis is a research method used to identify and analyze the presence
and patterns of themes, concepts, or words in data (Vaismoradi et al., 2013).
 This research method can be used to analyze data in different formats, which
can be written, oral, or visual.
 The goal of content analysis is to develop themes that capture the underlying
 meanings of data (Schreier, 2012).
 Qualitative content analysis can be used to validate existing theories, support
the development of new models and theories, and provide in-depth descriptions
of particular settings or experiences.
 The following six steps provide a guideline for how to conduct qualitative content
 analysis.
1. Define a Research Question: To start content analysis, a clear research question
should be developed.
2. Identify and Collect Data: Establish the inclusion criteria for your data. Find the
relevant sources to analyze.
3. Define the Unit or Theme of Analysis: Categorize the content into themes.
Themes can be a word, phrase, or sentence.
4. Develop Rules for Coding the Data: Define a set of coding rules to ensure that
all data are coded consistently.
5. Code the Data: Follow the coding rules to categorize data into themes.
6. Analyze the Results and Draw Conclusions: Examine the data to identify patterns
and draw conclusions in relation to your research question.

c. Discourse analysis
 Discourse analysis is a research method used to study written/ spoken language
in relation to its social context (Wood & Kroger, 2000).
 In discourse analysis, the researcher interprets details of language materials and
the context in which it is situated.
 Discourse analysis aims to understand the functions of language (how language
is used in real life) and how meaning is conveyed by language in different
contexts.
 Researchers use discourse analysis to investigate social groups and how
language is used to achieve specific communication goals.
 Different methods of discourse analysis can be used depending on the aims and
objectives of a study.
However, the following steps provide a guideline on how to conduct discourse analysis.
1. Define the Research Question: Develop a relevant research question to frame the
analysis.
2. Gather Data and Establish the Context: Collect research materials (e.g.,
interview transcripts, documents). Gather factual details and review the literature to
construct a theory about the social and historical context of your study.
3. Analyze the Content: Closely examine various components of the text, such as the
vocabulary, sentences, paragraphs, and structure of the text. Identify patterns
relevant to the research question to create codes, then group these into themes.4.
Review the Results: Reflect on the findings to examine the function of the
language, and the meaning and context of the discourse.

Thematic analysis
  Thematic analysis is a method used to identify, interpret, and report patterns in
data, such as commonalities or contrasts.
 Although the origin of thematic analysis can be traced back to the early
twentieth century, understanding and clarity of thematic analysis is attributed to
Braun and Clarke (2006).
 Thematic analysis aims to develop themes (patterns of meaning) across a
dataset to address a research question.
 In thematic analysis, qualitative data is gathered using techniques such as
interviews, focus groups, and questionnaires. Audio recordings are transcribed.
The dataset is then explored and interpreted by a researcher to identify patterns.
 This occurs through the rigorous process of data familiarisation, coding, theme
development, and revision. These identified patterns provide a summary of the
dataset and can be used to address a research question.
 Themes are developed by exploring the implicit and explicit meanings within
the data.
 Two different approaches are used to generate themes: inductive and deductive.
 An inductive approach allows themes to emerge from the data. In contrast, a
 deductive approach uses existing theories or knowledge to apply preconceived
ideas to the data.
Phases of Thematic Analysis
Braun and Clarke (2006) provide a guide of the six phases of thematic analysis. These
phases can be applied flexibly to fit research questions and data.
Phase
Procedure for each step
1. Gather and transcribe data
Gather raw data, for example interviews or focus groups, and transcribe Phase

Procedure for each step

audio recordings fully
2. Familiarization with data
Read and reread all your data from beginning to end; note down initial ideas
3. Create initial codes
Start identifying preliminary codes which highlight important features of the data and may be relevant to
the research question
4. Create new codes which encapsulate potential themes
Review initial codes and explore any similarities, differences, or
contradictions to uncover underlying themes; create a map to visualize
identified themes
5. Take a break then return to the data
Take a break and then return later to review themes
6. Evaluate themes for good
fit
Last opportunity for analysis; check themes are supported and saturated
with data

Template analysis
 Template analysis refers to a specific method of thematic analysis which uses
 hierarchical coding (Brooks et al., 2014).
 Template analysis is used to analyze textual data, for example, interview
transcripts or open-ended responses on a written questionnaire.
 To conduct template analysis, a coding template must be developed (usually from
a subset of the data) and subsequently revised and refined. This template
represents the themes identified by researchers as important in the dataset.
 Codes are ordered hierarchically within the template, with the highest-level codes
demonstrating overarching themes in the data and lower-level codes representing
 constituent themes with a narrower focus.
 A guideline for the main procedural steps for conducting template analysis is outlined
below.
1. Familiarization with the Data: Read (and reread) the dataset in full. Engage,
reflect, and take notes on data that may be relevant to the research question.
2. Preliminary Coding: Identify initial codes using guidance from the a priori codes,
identified before the analysis as likely to be beneficial and relevant to the analysis.
3. Organize Themes: Organize themes into meaningful clusters. Consider the
relationships between the themes both within and between clusters.
4. Produce an Initial Template: Develop an initial template. This may be based on a
subset of the data.
5. Apply and Develop the Template: Apply the initial template to further data and
make any necessary modifications. Refinements of the template may include adding
themes, removing themes, or changing the scope/title of themes.
6. Finalize Template: Finalize the template, then apply it to the entire dataset.

Frame analysis
Frame analysis is a comparative form of thematic analysis which systematically
analyzes data using a matrix output.
Ritchie and Spencer (1994) developed this set of techniques to analyze qualitative
data in applied policy research. Frame analysis aims to generate theory from data.
Frame analysis encourages researchers to organize and manage their data using
summarization.
This results in a flexible and unique matrix output, in which individual participants (or
cases) are represented by rows and themes are represented by columns.
Each intersecting cell is used to summarize findings relating to the corresponding
participant and theme.Frame analysis has five distinct phases which are interrelated,
forming a methodical and
rigorous framework.
1. Familiarization with the Data: Familiarize yourself with all the transcripts.
Immerse yourself in the details of each transcript and start to note recurring themes.
2. Develop a Theoretical Framework: Identify recurrent/ important themes and add
them to a chart. Provide a framework/ structure for the analysis.
3. Indexing: Apply the framework systematically to the entire study data.
4. Summarize Data in Analytical Framework: Reduce the data into brief summaries
of participants’ accounts.
5. Mapping and Interpretation: Compare themes and subthemes and check against
the original transcripts. Group the data into categories and provide an explanation
for them.
Advantages of Qualitative Data

1. It helps in-depth analysis: Qualitative data collected provide the researchers with a detailed
analysis of subject matters. While collecting qualitative data, the researchers tend to probe the
participants and can gather ample information by asking the right kind of questions. From a
series of questions and answers, the data that is collected is used to conclude.

2. Understand what customers think: Qualitative data helps the market researchers to
understand the mindset of their customers. The use of qualitative data gives businesses an
insight into why a customer purchased a product. Understanding customer language
helps market research infer the data collected more systematically.

3. Rich data: Collected data can be used to conduct research in the future as well. Since the
questions asked to collect qualitative data are open-ended questions, respondents are free to
express their opinions, leading to more information.

Disadvantages of Qualitative Data

1. Time-consuming: As collecting qualitative data is more time-consuming, fewer people are

studying in comparison to collecting quantitative data. Unless time and budget allow, smaller
sample size is included.

2. Not easy to generalize: Since fewer people are studied, it is difficult to generalize the results
of that population.

3.Dependent on the researcher’s skills: This type of data is collected through one-to-one
interviews, observations, focus groups, etc. it relies on the researcher’s skills and experience to
collect information from the sample.

Types of qualitative analysis

•Content analysis

•Narrative analysis
•Discourse analysis

•Framework analysis

•Grounded theory

Content analysis

•Content analysis is the procedure for the categorization of verbal or behavioural data for the
purpose of classification, summarization and tabulation

The content can be analyzed on two levels

 Descriptive: What is the data?

 Interpretative: what was meant by the data?

Framework Analysis
•Familiarization: Transcribing & reading the data
•Identifying a thematic framework: Initial coding framework
which is developed both from a priori issues and from emergent
issues
•Coding: Using numerical or textual codes to identify specific
piece of data which correspond to different themes
•Charting: Charts created using headings from thematic
framework (can be thematic or by case)
•Mapping and interpretation: Searching for patterns,
associations, concepts and explanations in the data

Strategies for analyzing observations

•Chronology: describe what was observed chronologically overtime, to
tell the story from the beginning to the end
•Key events: describing critical incidents or major events, not
necessarily in order of occurrence but in order of importance
 •Various settings: describe various places, sites, settings, or
locations in which events/behaviours of interest happen
•People: describing individuals or groups involved in the events
•Process: describing important processes (e.g. Control,
recruitment, decision-making, socialization, communication)
•Issues: Illuminating key issues –how did participants change

Choosing and Using Computer software

•It is possible to conduct qualitative analysis without a computer

Concerns: relying too much on computers shortcuts will impede the process by
distancing the researcher from the text

Advantages: ease the burden of cutting and pasting by hand, and produce more
powerful analysis by creation and insertion of codes in to text files, indexing, construction of
hyperlinks, and selective retrieval of text segments

Traditional Method of Qualitative analysis

Traditional Qualitative data analysis is labor-intensive.

After gathering data researchers

 Transcribe the source material with a word processor,

 Make multiple photocopies of the text,

 Painstakingly read through and assign codes to the material,

 Cut the pages up in to coded passages, and then

 Manually sort the coded text in order to analyze the patterns they find

Qualitative analysis with softwares

•With qualitative softwares, your workflow will be similar, but each step will
be made easier by the computer’s capability for data storage, automated
searching and display.
We can use text, picture, audio and video source files directly
 •You can assign codes manually (autocode) to any section
of text, audio or video or part of a picture
 •Analysis is easy with the report feature, where you can
select a subset of cases and codes to work with, choose what
data to use, and sort your reports automatically

Uses of computer software in Qualitative Studies

1)Transcribing data

2)Writing/editing the data

3)Storage of data

4)Coding data (keywords or tags)

5)Search and retrieval of data

6)Data linking of related text

7)Writing/editing memos about the data

8)Display of selected reduced data

9)Graphic mapping

10)Preparing reports

Common qualitative softwares

Atlas ti 6.0 (www.atlasti.com)

HyperRESEARCH 2.8 (www.researchware.com

The Ethnograph 5.08

QSR N6 (www.qsrinternational.com)

QSR Nvivo (www.qsrinternational.com)

Weft QDA (www.pressure.to/qda)

Open code 3.4 (www8.umu.se)

MAXQDA is a computer software program that helps the researcher to systematically evaluate and
interpret qualitative texts. It is also a powerful tool for developing theories and testing theoretical
conclusions. The main menu has four windows: the data, the code or category system, the text being
analyzed, and the results of basic and complex searches. It has a visual mapping feature. Data can be
exported to statistical programs, such as SPSS or Excel, and the software can import Excel or SPSS
programs as well. It is easily used by multiple coders on a particular project. Images and video segments
can also be stored and coded in this program. MAXQDA is distributed by VERBI Software in Germany.

ATLAS.ti (http://www.atlasti.com). This program enables you to organize your text, graphic,
audio, and visual data files, along with your coding, memos, and findings, into a project. Further,
you can code, annotate, and compare segments of information. You can drag and drop codes
within an interactive margin screen. You can rapidly search, retrieve, and browse all data
segments and notes relevant to an idea and, importantly, build unique visual networks that allow
you to connect visually selected passages, memos, and codes in a concept map. Data can be
exported to programs such as SPSS, HTML, XML, and CSV. This program also allows for a
group of researchers to work on the same project and make comparisons of how each researcher
coded the data.

HyperRESEARCH (http://www.researchware.com/). This program is an easy-to-use qualitative

software package enabling to code and retrieve, build theories, and conduct analyses of the data.
Now with advanced multimedia capabilities, HyperRESEARCH allows the researcher to work
with text, graphics, audio, and video sources—making it a valuable research analysis tool.
HyperRESEARCH is a solid code-and-retrieve data analysis program, with additional theory-
building features provided by the Hypothesis Tester. This program also allows the researcher to
draw visual diagrams, and it now has a module that can be added, called “Hyper-Transcriber,”
that will allow researchers to create a transfer of video and audio data. This program, developed
by ResearchWare, is available in the United States.

QSR NVivo (http://www.qsrinternational.com/). NVivo is the latest version of software from

QSR International. NVivo combines the features of the popular software program N6 (or
NUD*IST 6) and NVivo 2.0. NVivo helps analyze, manage, shape, and analyze qualitative data.
Its streamlined look makes it easy to use. It provides security by storing the database and files
together in a single file, it enables a researcher to use multiple languages, it has a merge function
for team research, and it enables the researcher to easily manipulate the data and conduct
searches. Further, it can display graphically the codes and categories. A good overview of the
evolution of the software from N6 to NVivo is available from Bazeley (2002). NVivo is
distributed by QSR International in Australia. A demonstration copy is available to see and try
out the features of this software program.

triangulation in qualitative research?

Triangulation refers to the use of several approaches in a study to comprehensively
understand phenomena. This method helps to increase the validity and credibility of
research findings.Types of triangulation include method triangulation (using multiple
methods to gather
data); investigator triangulation (multiple researchers for collecting/ analyzing data),
theory triangulation (comparing several theoretical perspectives to explain a
phenomenon), and data source triangulation (using data from various times, locations,
and people; Carter et al., 2014).

What is coding data in qualitative research?

Coding data is a qualitative data analysis strategy in which a section of text is
assigned with a label that describes its content.
These labels may be words or phrases which represent important (and recurring)
patterns in the data.
This process enables researchers to identify related content across the dataset. Codes
can then be used to group similar types of data to generate themes.
What is data saturation in qualitative research?
Data saturation is a methodological principle used to guide the sample size of a
qualitative research study.
Data saturation is proposed as a necessary methodological component in qualitative
research (Saunders et al., 2018) as it is a vital criterion for discontinuing data
collection and/or analysis.
The intention of data saturation is to find “no new data, no new themes, no new
coding, and ability to replicate the study” (Guest et al., 2006). Therefore, enough data
has been gathered to make conclusions.

Writing qualitative report

Qualitative research generates rich information-thus deciding where to focus and the level of
sharing is very challenging.

Choosing a Style and Focus

•Format

 Research report

 Scientific research article

 Report to donor

 Field report

 Evaluation report...

Focus

 Academic: conceptual framework/theories, methodology and interpretation

 Practitioners: Concrete suggestions for better practice, policy recommendations

 Lay readers: Problem solving, reform on

Variations in the Report Format

 Problem-solving approach (problem-based)

 Narrative approach (chronological)

 Policy approach (evidence-based)

 Analytic approach (Theory/conceptual framework based)

Reporting Qualitative Research

Typically use quotes from data

 Descriptive

 Direct link with data

 Credibility

Ways to use quotes

 Illustrative

 Range of issues

 Opposing views

Interpretation

•Interpretation is the act of identifying and explaining the core meaning of the data
 •Organizing and connecting emerging themes, sub-themes and contradictions to get the
bigger picture-what it all meansThink how best to integrate data from multiple sources and
methods

•Make generalization-providing answers to questions of social and theoretical

significance

•Ensuring credible or trustworthy interpretations

The interpretation should usually be grounded in interviewees or respondents'

contributions and may be semi-quantified, if this is possible or appropriate, for example, “Half of
the respondents said …” “The majority said …” “Three said…” Readers should be presented with
data that enable them to “see what the researcher is talking about.”1 Sufficient data should be
presented to allow the reader to clearly see the relationship between the data and the
interpretation of the data. Qualitative data conventionally are presented by using illustrative
quotes. Quotes are “raw data” and should be compiled and analyzed, not just listed. There should be
an explanation of how the quotes were chosen and how they are labeled. For example, have
pseudonyms been given to each respondent or are the respondents identified using codes, and if so,
how? It is important for the reader to be able to see that a range of participants have contributed to
the data and that not all the quotes are drawn from 1 or 2 individuals. There is a tendency for
authors to overuse quotes and for papers to be dominated by a series of long quotes with little
analysis or discussion. This should be avoided.

Researchers engage in interpreting the data when they conduct qualitative research.
Interpretation involves making sense of the data, the “lessons learned,” as described by Lincoln
and Guba (1985).
“Interpretation in qualitative research involves abstracting out beyond the codes and
themes to the larger meaning of the data.”
It is a process that begins with the development of the codes, the formation of themes
from the codes, and then the organization of themes into larger units of abstraction to make sense
of the data.
Several forms exist, such as interpretation based on hunches, insights, and intuition.
Interpretation also might be within a social science construct or idea or a combination of
personal views as contrasted with a social science construct or idea.
 Thus, the researcher would link his or her interpretation to the larger research literature
developed by others. For postmodern and interpretive researchers, these interpretations are seen
as tentative, inconclusive, and questioning.

Computer assisted QDA uses com soft to assist qda through creating, applying, and
refining categories , tracing linkage between concepts, and making comparisons between cases
and events.

Standard Report Format

1.IntroductionLiterature review

Purpose of the study

Brief description of the study Who did the study, where and when

Description of relevant cultural and contextual information

2.Methods: study design, sampling method, data collection method, data analysis
methods

3.Results: Presentation, interpretation, relate to relevant conceptual framework, discuss

methodological difficulties affecting your results

4.Conclusion: Key findings, logical next step, implication of findings

The conclusion should summarize the main findings from the study and emphasize what the
study adds to knowledge in the area being studied.

5.Recommendations: Relate to policy or practice

6.Acknowledgement

7.Refere

It also involves organizing the data, conducting a preliminary read-through of the database,
coding and organizing themes, representing the data, and forming an interpretation of them.
Across many books on qualitative research, this is the general process that researchers use.
Undoubtedly, there will be some variations in this approach. Beyond these steps, the five
approaches to inquiry have additional analysis steps. All of these authors comment on the central
steps of coding the data (reducing the data into meaningful segments and assigning names for the
segments), combining the codes into broader categories or themes, and displaying and making
comparisons in the data graphs, tables, and charts. These are the core elements of qualitative data
analysis

The processes of data collection, data analysis, and report writing are not distinct steps in the process—
they are interrelated and often go on simultaneously in a research project