DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

Faculty of Computing
Federal University of Lafia
Nasarawa State – Nigeria.

COURSE CODE: IFT 211

COURSE TITLE: DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

Course Lecturer: U. M. Bako

(2024/2025 Academic Session)

UNIT -I:
Number System and Boolean algebra:
Number Systems, Base Conversion Methods, Complements of Numbers, Codes- Binary Codes, Binary
Coded Decimal Code and its Properties, Unit Distance Codes, Error Detecting and Correcting Codes.
Digital Logic Gates (AND, NAND, OR, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR), Properties of XOR Gates, Universal
Gates, Basic Theorems and Properties, Switching Functions, Canonical and Standard Form.

UNIT -II:
Minimization Techniques:
Introduction, The minimization with theorems, The Karnaugh Map Method, Three, Four and Five
variable K- Maps, Prime and Essential Implications, Don’t Care Map Entries, Using the Maps for
Simplifying, Quine-McCluskey Method, Multilevel NAND/NOR realizations.

UNIT -III:
Combinational Circuits:
Design Procedure – Half Adder, Full Adder, Half Subtractors, Full Subtractors, Parallel Binary Adder,
Parallel binary subtractors, Binary Multiplier, Multiplexers/DeMultiplexers, decoder, Encoder, Code
Converters, Magnitude Comparator. Classification of sequential circuits, the binary cell, The S-R-
Latch Flip-Flop, the D-Latch Flip-Flop, the “Clocked T” Flip-Flop, the “Clocked J-K” Flip-Flop, Design
of a Clocked Flip-Flop, Timing and Triggering Consideration.

UNIT -IV:
Sequential Circuits:
Introduction, Basic Architectural Distinctions between Combinational and Sequential circuits,
Latches, Flip-Flops, SR,JK,D,T and Master slave, characteristic Tables and equations, Conversion
from one type of Flip-Flop to another, Counters - Design of Single Mode Counter, Ripple Counter,
Ring Counter, Shift Register, Ring counter using Shift Register

UNIT -V:
Memory Devices:
Classification of memories – ROM: ROM organization, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, RAM: RAM
organization, Write operation, Read operation, Static RAM, Programmable Logic Devices:
Programmable Logic Array (PLA), Programmable Array Logic, Implementation of Combinational
Logic circuits using ROM, PLA, PAL.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Digital Design- Morris Mano, PHI, 3rd Edition.
2. Switching Theory and Logic Design-A. Anand Kumar, PHI, 2nd Edition.
3. Switching and Finite Automata Theory- Zvi Kohavi & Niraj K. Jha, 3rd Edition,
Cambridge.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
 1. Introduction to Switching Theory and Logic Design – Fredriac J. Hill, Gerald R. Peterson, 3rd
Ed,John Wiley & Sons Inc.
2. Digital Fundamentals – A Systems Approach – Thomas L. Floyd, Pearson, 2013.
3. Switching Theory and Logic Design – Bhanu Bhaskara –Tata McGraw Hill Publication, 2012
4. Fundamentals of Logic Design- Charles H. Roth, Cengage LEanring, 5th, Edition, 2004.
5. Digital Logic Applications and Design- John M. Yarbrough, Thomson Publications, 2006. 6.
Digital Logic and State Machine Design – Comer, 3rd, Oxford, 2013.

OUTCOMES
Upon completion of the course, student should possess the following skills:
 Be able to manipulate numeric information in different forms
 Be able to manipulate simple Boolean expressions using the theorems and postulates of
Boolean algebra and to minimize combinational functions.
 Be able to design and analyse small combinational circuits and to use standard combinational
functions to build larger more complex circuits.
 Be able to design and analyse small sequential circuits and to use standard sequential
functions to build larger more complex circuits.

OBJECTIVES
This course provides in-depth knowledge of the logic design techniques of digital circuits, which is
the basis for design of any digital circuit. The course objectives are:
• To learn basic techniques for the design of digital circuits and fundamental concepts used in
the design of digital systems.
• To understand common forms of number representation in digital electronic circuits and to
be able to convert between different representations.
• To implement simple logical operations using combinational logic circuits
• To design combinational logic circuits, sequential logic circuits.
• To impart to student the concepts of sequential circuits, enabling them to analyse sequential
systems in terms of state machines.
• To implement synchronous state machines using flip-flops.

UNIT - 1
NUMBER SYSTEMS & BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

• Introduction about digital system

• Philosophy of number systems
• Complement representation of negative numbers
• Binary arithmetic
• Binary codes
• Error detecting & error correcting codes
• Hamming codes
Objectives
1. Introduction: The first part of this unit introduces the material to be studied later.
In addition to getting an overview of the material in the first part of the course,
you should be able to explain
a. The difference between analog and digital systems and why digital systems are
capable of greater accuracy
b. The difference between combinational and sequential circuits
c. Why two-valued signals and binary numbers are commonly used in digital
systems
2. Number systems and conversion

Study Guide
When you complete this unit, you should be able to solve the following types of
problems:
a. Given a positive integer, fraction, or mixed number in any base (2 through 16);
convert to any other base. Justify the procedure used by using a power series
expansion for the number.
b. Add, subtract, multiply, and divide positive binary numbers. Explain the addition
and subtraction process in terms of carries and borrows.
c. Write negative binary numbers in sign and magnitude, 1’s complement, and 2’s
complement forms. Add signed binary numbers using 1’s complement and 2’s
complement arithmetic. Justify the methods used. State when an overflow occurs.
d. Represent a decimal number in binary-coded-decimal (BCD), 6-3-1-1 code, excess-
3 code, etc. Given a set of weights, construct a weighted code.

DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

INTRODUCTION ABOUT DIGITAL SYSTEM

Digital Systems and Switching Circuits

Digital systems are used extensively in computation and data processing, control
systems, communications, and measurement. Because digital systems are capable of
greater accuracy and reliability than analog systems, many tasks formerly done by
analog systems are now being performed digitally.

In a digital system, the physical quantities or signals can assume only discrete values,
while in analog systems the physical quantities or signals may vary continuously over
a specified range. For example, the output voltage of a digital system might be
constrained to take on only two values such as 0 volts and 5 volts, while the output
voltage from an analog system might be allowed to assume any value in the range -10
volts to +10 volts.

The design of digital systems may be divided roughly into three parts—system design,
logic design, and circuit design.
 System design involves breaking the overall system into subsystems and
specifying the characteristics of each subsystem. For example, the system design
of a digital computer could involve specifying the number and type of memory
units, arithmetic units, and input-output devices as well as the interconnection
and control of these subsystems.
 Logic design involves determining how to interconnect basic logic building
blocks to perform a specific function. An example of logic design is determining
the interconnection of logic gates and flip-flops required to perform binary
addition.
 Circuit design involves specifying the interconnection of specific components
such as resistors, diodes, and transistors to form a gate, flip-flop, or other logic
building block. Most contemporary circuit design is done in integrated circuit
form using appropriate computer aided design tools to lay out and interconnect
the components on a chip of silicon.

Many of a digital system’s subsystems take the form of a switching circuit (Figure 1-1).
A switching circuit has one or more inputs and one or more outputs which take on
discrete values. In this course, we will study two types of switching circuits—
combinational and sequential. In a combinational circuit, the output values depend
only on the present value of the inputs and not on past values. In a sequential circuit,
the outputs depend on both the present and past input values. In other words, in order
to determine the output of a sequential circuit, a sequence of input values must be
specified. The sequential circuit is said to have memory because it must “remember”
something about the past sequence of inputs, while a combinational circuit has no
memory. In general, a sequential circuit is composed of a combinational circuit with
added memory elements. Combinational circuits are easier to design than sequential
circuits and will be studied first.
 The basic building blocks used to construct combinational circuits are logic gates.
The logic designer must determine how to interconnect these gates in order to convert
the circuit input signals into the desired output signals. The relationship between
these input and output signals can be described mathematically using Boolean algebra.

A Digital system is an interconnection of digital modules and it is a system that

manipulates discrete elements of information that is represented internally in the
binary form.

Now a day’s digital systems are used in wide variety of industrial and consumer
products such as automated industrial machinery, pocket calculators,
microprocessors, digital computers, digital watches, TV games and signal processing
and so on.

Characteristics of Digital systems

• Digital systems manipulate discrete elements of information.
• Discrete elements are nothing but the digits such as 10 decimal digits or 26 letters
of alphabets and so on.
• Digital systems use physical quantities called signals to represent discrete
elements.
• In digital systems, the signals have two discrete values and are therefore said to
be binary.
• A signal in digital system represents one binary digit called a bit. The bit has a
value either 0 or 1.

Analog systems vs Digital systems

Analog system process information that varies continuously i.e.; they process time
varying signals that can take on any values across a continuous range of voltage,
current or any physical parameter.

Digital systems use digital circuits that can process digital signals which can take either
0 or 1 for binary system.
 Advantages of Digital system over Analog system

1. Ease of programmability
The digital systems can be used for different applications by simply changing the
program without additional changes in hardware.

2. Reduction in cost of hardware

The cost of hardware gets reduced by use of digital components and this has been
possible due to advances in IC technology. With ICs the number of components that
can be placed in a given area of Silicon are increased which helps in cost reduction.

3. High speed
Digital processing of data ensures high speed of operation which is possible due to
advances in Digital Signal Processing.

4. High Reliability
Digital systems are highly reliable, one of the reasons for that is use of error correction
codes.

5. Design is easy
The design of digital systems which require the use of Boolean algebra and other
digital techniques is easier compared to analog designing.

6. Result can be reproduced easily

Since the output of digital systems unlike analog systems is independent of
temperature, noise, humidity and other characteristics of components, the
reproducibility of results is higher in digital systems than in analog systems.

Disadvantages of Digital Systems

• Use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus
producing more heat as well.
 • Digital circuits are often fragile, in that if a single piece of digital data is lost or
misinterpreted the meaning of large blocks of related data can completely
change.
• Digital computer manipulates discrete elements of information by means of a
binary code.
• Quantization error during analog signal sampling.

Digital Logic is the basis of electronic systems, such as computers and cell phones.
Digital Logic is rooted in binary code, a series of zeroes and ones each having an
opposite value. This system facilitates the design of electronic circuits that convey
information, including logic gates. Digital Logic gate functions include and, or and
not. The value system translates input signals into specific output. Digital Logic
facilitates computing, robotics and other electronic applications.

Digital Logic Design is foundational to the fields of electrical engineering and

computer engineering. Digital Logic designers build complex electronic components
that use both electrical and computational characteristics. These characteristics may
involve power, current, logical function, protocol and user input. Digital Logic Design
is used to develop hardware, such as circuit boards and microchip processors. This
hardware processes user input, system protocol and other data in computers,
navigational systems, cell phones or other high-tech systems.

Digital Number Systems and Conversion

Many number systems are in use in digital technology. If base or radix of a number
system is ‘r’, then the numbers present in that number system are ranging from zero
to r-1. The total numbers present in that number system is ‘r’. The most common are
the decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems. The decimal system is clearly the
most familiar to us because it is a tool that we use every day.
We observe that binary number system take more digits to represent the decimal
number. For large numbers we have to deal with very large binary strings. So this fact
gave rise to three new number systems.
i) Octal number systems
ii) Hexa Decimal number system
iii) Binary Coded Decimal number (BCD) system
To define any number system we have to specify
 Base of the number system such as 2,8,10
or 16.
 The base decides the total number of digits available in that
number system.
 First digit in the number system is always zero and last digit in the number system
is always base-1.

❖ Decimal System:
The decimal system is composed of 10 numerals or symbols. These 10 symbols are 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9; using these symbols as digits of a number, we can express
any quantity. The decimal system, also called the base-10 system because it has 10
digits. The decimal system is a positional-value system in which the value of a digit
depends on its position. For example, consider the decimal number 453.
We know that the digit 4 actually represents 4 hundreds, the 5 represents 5 tens, and
the 3 represents 3 units. In essence, the 4 carries the most weight of the three digits;
it is referred to as the most significant digit (MSD). The 3 carries the least weight and
is called the least significant digit (LSD).
Consider another example, 27.35. This number is actually equal to 2 tens plus 7 units
plus 3 tenths plus 5 hundredths, or 2 x 10 + 7 x 1 + 3 x 0.1 + 5 x 0.01. The decimal point
is used to separate the integer and fractional parts of the number.
Moreover, the various positions relative to the decimal point carry weights that
can be expressed as powers of 10. This is illustrated in Figure (1), where the number
2745.214 is represented. The decimal point separates the positive powers of 10 from
the negative powers. The number 2745.214 is thus equal to
(2 x 10+3) + (7 x 10+2) + (4 x 101) + (5 x 100) + (2 x 10-1) + (1 x 10-2) + (4 x 10-3)

Figure (1): Decimal position values as powers of 10.

In general, any number is simply the sum of the products of each digit value and its
positional value.

❖ Binary System:
In the binary system there are only two symbols or possible digit values, 0 and 1.
Even so, this base-2 system can be used to represent any quantity that can be
represented in decimal or other number systems. In general though, it will take a
greater number of binary digits to express a given quantity. All of the statements
made earlier concerning the decimal system are equally applicable to the binary
system. The binary system is also a positional value system, wherein each Binary digit
has its own value or weight expressed as a power of 2. This is illustrated in Figure (2).

Figure (2): Binary position values as powers of 2.

Here, places to the left of the binary point (counterpart of the decimal point) are
positive powers of 2, and places to the right are negative powers of 2. The number
1011.101 is shown represented in the figure. To find its equivalent in the decimal
system, we simply take the sum of the products of each digit value (0 or 1) and its
positional value:

Notice in the preceding operation that subscripts (2 and 10) were

used to indicate the base in which the particular number is
expressed. This convention is used to avoid confusion whenever
more than one number system is being employed.
In the binary system, the term binary digit is often abbreviated to the term bit, which
we will use from now on. Thus, in the number expressed in Figure (2) there are four
bits to the left of the binary point, representing the integer part of the number, and
three bits to the right of the binary point, representing the fractional part. The most
significant bit (MSB) is the leftmost bit (largest weight). The least significant bit (LSB)
is the rightmost bit (smallest weight). These are indicated in Figure (2). Here, the
MSB has a weight of 23; the LSB has a weight of 2-3.

Octal Number System:

Characteristics
• Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
• Also called base 8 number system
• Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example:
80
• Last position in an octal number represents an x power of the base (8).
Example: 8x where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Octal Number − 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 × 84) + (2 × 83) + (5 × 82) + (7 × 81) + (0 × 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note: 125708 is normally written as 12570.
Hexadecimal Number System:
Characteristics
• Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
• Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14,
F = 15.
• Also called base 16 number system.
• Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base
(16). Example 160.
 • Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base
(16). Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent –
Step Hexadecimal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 × 164) + (9 × 163) + (F × 162) + (D × 161) +

(E × 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 × 164) + (9 × 163) + (15 × 162) + (13 × 161)

+ (14 × 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536 + 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note: 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Number System Conversion

The human beings use decimal number system while computer uses binary number
system. Therefore it is necessary to convert decimal number system into its equivalent
binary. There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers
from one base to another. We'll demonstrate here the following:
• Decimal to Other Base System
• Other Base System to Decimal
• Binary to Octal
• Octal to Binary
• Binary to Hexadecimal
• Hexadecimal to Binary
• Octal to Hexadecimal
• Hexadecimal to Octal

❖ Decimal to Other Base System:

To convert any Number from the decimal system to other systems we divided the
Number into two parts:
1. The Integer part:
Steps
Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant
digit) of new base number.
Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the
new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient
becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new
base number.
Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse

order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the
last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number (2910) = Binary Number (111012).

2. The Fraction part:

Multiply the decimal number by the new base number to give an integer and a
fraction. The integer number after each multiplication will be the result, then the new
remainder of fraction is multiplied by the new base number to give a new integer and
a new fraction. The process is continued until the fraction becomes 0 or until the
number of digits has sufficient accuracy.

Example
Convert (0.6875)10 to binary
Operation Integer Fraction Result (Integer)

0.6875 x 2 1 0.3750 1
0.3750 x 2 0 0.7500 0
0.7500 x 2 1 0.5000 1
0.5000 x 2 1 0.0000 1

Therefore, the answer is (0.6875)10 = (0.1011)2.

❖ Other Base System to Decimal:

Steps

• Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on
the position of the digit and the base of the number system).
• Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.
• Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value
in decimal.
Example
Binary Number (11101)2
Calculating Decimal Equivalent
Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 11101 (1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (1 × 22) +

(0 × 21) + (1 × 20)
Step 2 11101 16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1

Step 3 11101 29

Binary Number (11101)2 = Decimal Number (29)10

Example

Convert (167)8 to Decimal

(167)8 = 1x82 + 6x81 + 7x80

= 64 + 48 + 7
= (119)10
Example
Convert (35.62)8 to Decimal

(35.62)8 = 3x81 + 5x80 + 6x8-1 + 2x8-2

= 24 + 5 + 0.75 + 0.031
= (29.781)10
Example
Convert (3C6E.2AF) 16 to Decimal
(3C6E.2AF) 16 = 3x163 + 12x162 + 6x161 + 14x160 + 2x16-1 + 10x16-2 + 15x16-3
= 12288 + 3072 + 96 + 14 + 0.125 + 0.039 + 0.003
= (15470.167)10

❖ Binary to Octal:
Steps
• Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right)
as in table below.
 Octal Number Groups in Binary

0 000

1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

• Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

❖ Octal to Binary:
Steps
• Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number.
• Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single

binary number.
Example
Convert (746)8 to binary
7468 = 7 4 6

= 111 100 110 = (111100110)2

❖ Binary to Hexadecimal:
 Steps

• Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right)
as in table follow.
• Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.
Hexadecimal Hexadecimal
Groups in Binary Groups in Binary
Number Number
0 0000 8 1000

1 0001 9 1001
2 0010 A 1010
3 0011 B 1011
4 0100 C 1100
5 0101 D 1101
6 0110 E 1110
7 0111 F 1111

❖ Hexadecimal to Binary:

Steps
• Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 4 digit binary number.
• Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single

binary number
 Octal to hexadecimal conversion:
The simplest way is to first convert the given octal no. to binary & then the binary
no. to hexadecimal.
Ex: 756.6038

7 5 6 . 6 0 3
111 101 110 . 110 000 011
0001 1110 1110 . 1100 0001 1000
1 E E . C 8 1

 Hexadecimal to octal conversion:

First convert the given hexadecimal no. to binary & then the binary no. to octal. Ex:
B9F.AE16
B 9 F . A E
1011 1001 1111 . 1010 1110
101 110 011 111 . 101 011 100
5 6 3 7 . 5 3 4

=5637.534
Binary Arithmetic
Arithmetic in binary is much like arithmetic in other numeral systems. Addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division can be performed on binary numerals. And it
is essential part of all the digital computers and many other digital systems.

Binary Addition
It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. There are four rules of
binary addition.
In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in the
given column and a carry of 1 over to the next column.
Example

Binary Subtraction
Subtraction and Borrow, these two words will be used very frequently for the binary
subtraction. There are four rules of binary subtraction.

Example

Binary Multiplication
Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication. It is simpler than decimal
multiplication because only 0s and 1s are involved. There are four rules of binary
multiplication.

Example
Binary Division
Binary division is similar to decimal division. It is called as the long division
procedure.
Example

Example
1001011 ÷ 11 = 011001

Hexadecimal and Octal Arithmetic