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Chemistry: The branch of science which deals with study of materials (substances), especially about their
chemical composition, methods of preparation and their reactions with other substances is called as
chemistry.
It is the study of the elements and the compounds they form. Chemistry is mainly concerned with
effects that depend on the outer electrons in atoms. Chemistry is divided into three main branches. i.e.
Physical, organic and inorganic chemistry.
i. Physical Chemistry: the branch of chemistry concerned with the effect of chemical structure on
physical properties. It includes chemical thermodynamics and electrochemistry.
ii. Organic Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the compounds of carbon. i.e.
the chemical compounds in which carbon is one of the constituents.
iii. Inorganic Chemistry: it is the branch of chemistry concerned with compounds of elements other
than carbon. Certain simple carbon compounds, such as CO, Co 2, CS2 and carbonates and
cyanides, are usually treated as inorganic chemistry.
Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass is known as matter. (matter may be defined as anything
that occupies space possesses mass and the presence of which can be felt by any one or more of our five
senses)e.g. Iron, Copper, water, Air, Sugar, Salt, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Plastic, wood etc. with regard to the
modern concept of matter, it is being classified on the basis of its physical and chemical properties. On the
basis of physical properties matter is classified as solid, liquid, and gaseous. On the basis of its chemical
properties matter is classified as elements, compounds and mixtures. Recently two new states of the matter
have been classified as Plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate.
Physical nature of matter: The physical nature or composition of matter shows that matter is made up of
particles, and the particles are very small in size.
In order to see that matter is made up of particles, we take some sugar or salt in a spoon and
dissolve it in a glass of water homogeneously to make it dissolve in water. After some time we will not find
any particles of sugar or salt in water, because the dissolved salt or sugar particles get into the spaces
between the particles of water. This proves that matter is made up of particles as the particles of sugar or
salt have filled up some empty spaces between the particles of water and hence get dissolved. Now both
sugar and water or salt and water are made up of particles of smaller size. These particles are too small to
see, even under a microscope. When the sugar or salt dissolves, tiny particles break off from each solid
granule of sugar or salt. These sugar or salt particles go with the spaces between the particles of water and
mix with them. So, the sugar or salt solution will taste salty or sweet even though we cannot see these
particles in the solution. This shows that the matter is made up of very small particles which are so small
that they are beyond our imagination.
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Characteristics of particles of matter: After studying the physical nature of matter, it is clear that matter is
made up of particles which are very small in size. The important characteristics of particles of
matter(kinetic theory of matter) are:
i. The particles of matter are very small in size.
ii. The particles of matter have space between them.
iii. The particles of matter are constantly moving.
iv. The particles of matter attract each other.
It is because of these characteristics of particles of matter that matter is classified as solids, liquids
and gases on the basis of intermolecular (particle to particle) spaces and intermolecular forces of attraction
between the particles of matter.
Classification of matter on the basis of physical properties (states of matter): On the basis of physical
properties (nature) of matter, it is classified into three categories. i.e. solids, liquids, and gases.
i. Solids: All those substances in which the particles are closely packed due to the strong intermolecular
forces of attraction and the less intermolecular spaces between the particles are known as solids. The
particles of solid vibrate about their fixed positions but cannot move and these particles have the
minimum kinetic energy. So due to this the solids have following properties.
1. Solids have definite shape, size and volume.
2. Solids cannot be compressed much.
3. Solids have high density and hence cannot flow.
4. Solids cannot flow and hence cannot fill the container completely.
5. Solids can be stores without vessel.
ii. Liquids: All those substances in which the particles are loosely packed due to weak intermolecular
force of attraction and the larger intermolecular space between their particles are known as liquids.
Sue to comparatively less interparticle forces, the positions of particles in a liquid are not fixed. The
particles of a liquid can move from one position to another within the liquids. Due to this the liquids
have the following properties.
1. Liquids have definite volume, but not definite shape and size.
2. Liquids take the shape of container and have only one free surface at the top which is always flat
3. Liquids cannot be compressed much due to their moderate densities as compared to solid.
4. Liquids generally flow easily, when dropped out of the container.
5. Liquids can be stored in open containers.
iii. Gases: All those substances in which particles are much farther apart from each other due to the very
large interparticle spaces and the negligible intermolecular force of attraction between the particles
are known as gases. The particles of gases are free to move in any direction and the positions of
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particles of a gas as well as the spaces between them are not fixed. Due to this the gases have the
following properties.
1. Gases neither have definite shape, size nor definite volume hence acquire the shape and size of the
container.
2. Gases can be compressed easily due to their very low densities.
3. Gases fill their containers completely.
4. Gases can be stored in a closed container only.
5. Gases can flow in all the directions easily.
Graham's law of diffusion: The rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square
root of its density
Plasma: This state consists of super energetic and super excited particles.These particles are in the
form of ionized gases.The fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs contain plasma when electricity is
passed through them.The sun and the stars glow due to the presence of plasma. the plasma in star is
formed due to high temperature
Bose-Einstein condensate(BEC):in 1920 Indian physicist satyendra nath bose had done some
calculations on the fifth state of matter.Based on these calculations, Albert Einstein predicted a new
state of matter called the Bose Einstein condensate.in 2001, Cornell,Ketterle and Wieman shared the
Noble prize in physics for achieving Bose Einstein condensate."The BEC is formed when a gas
having very low density of the order of 1/100,,1/1000th of the density of normal air is cooled to super
low temperature
Change of states of matter: The matter can exist in three physical states. i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous
states. e.g. water exists in all the three states of mater. i.e. in the solid state as ice, in the liquid state as
water and in the gaseous state as steam (or water vapor).
The state of matter can be changed by changing the temperature and by changing the pressure. The
change of sate of matter by changing its temperature means the change of state by heating or cooling while
as the change of state of matter by changing the pressure means the change of state by increasing or
decreasing its pressure.
So, it is clear that the spaces between the particles, the force of attraction between the particles and
the amount of movement (kinetic energy) of particles can be changed by changing the pressure or
temperature of a substance. So, depending upon the pressure and temperature of a substance etc. the same
substance can exist in all the three states of matter. i.e. Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous state.
i. Effect of change of temperature: by increasing the temperature a solid can be converted into liquid
and the liquid can be converted into gaseous state. By decreasing the temperature a gaseous state
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can be converted into liquid state and a liquid state into solid state. e.g. conversion of ice into water
then to vapor and water vapor back to water and then to ice
Melting point:The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at atmospheric pressure is
called its melting point.The process of melting is also called fusion
Latent heat of fusion:The amount of heat energy that is required to change 1kg of solid into liquid at
atmospheric pressure at its melting point is called latent heat of fusion e.g latent heat of fusion of ice
is 3.347×100000j/kg
Boiling point:The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is called
boiling point
Latent heat of vaporization:The amount of heat energy that is required to change 1kg of a liquid
into vapour at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point is called latent heat of vaporization e.g the
latent heat of vaporization of water is 22.59×100000j/kg
Sublimation: Conversion of solid directly into the gaseous state on heating and vice versa on
cooling with no temperature change without passing through the intervening liquid state.
Application of sublimation
1.The process of sublimation is very useful in the purification of such solids which sublime on
heating and contains non volatile impurities
2.in very cold places, the snow does not melt but sublime directly to vapours
3.in frost free refrigerator,ice on the walls of the freezer sublime when warm air is circulated
through the compartment during the defrost cycle

ii. Effect of change of pressure: The physical state of matter can be changed by changing the pressure
i.e. by increasing or decreasing pressure. e.g. Gasses can be changed into liquids by increasing the
pressure (accompanied by lowering of temperature) and some solids like dry ice (solid carbon
dioxide) can be changed into gases on decreasing the pressure.
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Evaporation: The phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapors at any temperature below its boiling point

is called as evaporation. i.e. the process of change of liquid state of a substance into its gaseous state
(vapors) at even below its boiling point is called as evaporation.
The particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest. At a given temperature in any gas,
liquid or solid, there are particles at the surface, having higher kinetic energy is able to break away from
the forces of attraction of other particles and gets converted into vapors.
Factors affecting evaporation: The evaporation of a liquid depends upon the following factors
i. Temperature. ii. Surface area iii. Humidity. iv. Wind v. Speed
i. The rate of evaporation of a liquid increases on heating when the temperature of a liquid is
increased by heating it, more particles of the liquid get enough kinetic energy to go into the vapor
state. This increases the rate of evaporation.
ii. The rate of evaporation increases on increasing the surface area of the liquid. If the surface area of
a liquid exposed to the air is increased gives the particles of water a greater chance of escaping from
the liquid. e.g. Spread out of washed closed while drying increases the surface area of evaporation
of water from the wet clothes.
iii. The humidity of air indicates the degree of dampness of air. So when the humidity of air is low, the
rate of evaporation is high and water evaporates more readily. When the humidity of air is high then
the rate of evaporation is low, and water evaporates very slowly.
iv. The rate of evaporation of a liquid increases with increase in wind speed. As the increase in wind
speed makes the particles of water vapor move away faster and decreases the amount of water vapor
present in the surroundings and hence increases the rate of evaporation of water.
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How does evaporation cause cooling: The cooling caused by evaporation is based on the fact that when a
liquid evaporates, it draws (or takes out) the latent heat of vaporization from anything which it touches. So
by loosing heat that thing gets cooled.
Examples:
i. If we put a little amount of spirit (ether or petrol) at the back of hand and wave it around, the spirit
evaporates rapidly and our hand feels very cold. It is because the change of spirit from liquid to
vapor state requires latent heat of vaporization which it gets from our hand. Hence our hand losses
heat and gets cooled during this process. Hence proves that evaporation causes cooling.
ii. It is a common observation that we are able to sip hot tea or milk faster in a saucer than that of a
cup, as the large surface area of saucer makes the evaporation of hot tea or milk faster and cools
down the tea or milk making it more convenient for us to drink.
Scales of measuring the temperature
F =9/5 C + 32
K= 273 +C where F is Fahrenheit,C is Celsius,K is kelvin or absolute scale
Note: SI unit of temperatures is Kelvin

Textual questions
Q1. Which of the following is matter?
Chair, air, love, smell, hate, almonds, thought, cold, cold drink, smell of perfume.
Ans:
Chair- It is matter
Air - It is matter
Love- It is not matter
Smell - It is not matter
Hate - It is not matter
Almonds It is matter
Thought - It is not matter
Cold - It is not matter
Cold drink It is matter
Smell of perfume It is matter

Q2. Give reasons for the following observation: The smell of hot sizzling food reaches you several meters
away, but to get the smell from cold food you have to go close.
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Ans: Particles of hot sizzling food possess large kinetic energy and diffuse in air rapidly and reach several
meters away whereas particles of cold food possess kinetic energy and are not able to reach several meters
away.

Q3. A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. Which property of matter does this
observation show?
Ans: This shows that the particles of matter have space between them.

Q4. What are the characteristics of particles of matter?

Ans: The characteristics of particles of matter are:
(i) All matter is composed of very small particles which can exist independently.
(ii) Particles of matter have spaces between them.
(iii) Particles of matter are continuously moving.
(iv) Particles of mater attract each other.

Q1. The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density (density = mass/volume). Arrange the
following in order of increasing density - air, exhaust from chimney, honey, water, chalk, cotton, and
iron.
Ans: The given substances in the increasing order of their densities can be represented as:
Exhaust from chimney < Air < Cotton < Water < Honey < Chalk < Iron

Q3. Give reasons:

(a) A gas fills completely the vessel in which it is kept.
(b) A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container.
(c) A wooden table should be called a solid.
(d) We can easily move our hand in air, but to do the same through a solid block of wood, we need a
karate expert.

Ans: (a) A gas completely fills the vessel in which it is kept because there is negligible force of attraction
between the particles of gas. Thus, the gas particles move freely in all directions.
(b) A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container because the particles of gas move randomly in all
directions at high speed. As a result, the particles hit each other and also hit the walls of the container with
a force. These collisions of the gas particles with the walls of the container exert pressure on the walls of the
container.
(c) A wooden table should be called a solid because it has a definite shape and volume. It is very rigid and
cannot be compressed i.e., it has the characteristics of a solid.
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(d) We can easily move our hand in air, but to do the same through a solid block of wood, we need a
karate expert because the particles of air have large intermolecular spaces and least force of attraction
between them. Thus, one can easily move the hand in air and push the particles of air apart. However, the
particles of solid have minimum amount of intermolecular space and maximum force of attraction between
them. Thus, a greater amount of force is required to move the particles of solid apart. Thus, a much greater
force is required to move hand through a solid block of wood.

Q4. Liquids generally have lower density as compared to solids. But you must have observed that ice
floats on water. Find out why?
Ans: The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density (density = mass/volume). As the volume of a
substance increases, its density decreases. Though ice is a solid, it has large number of empty spaces
between its particles. These spaces are larger as compared to the spaces present between the particles of
water. Thus for a given mass of water, volume of ice is greater than that of water. Hence, the density of ice
is less than that of water. A substance with lower density than water can float on water. Therefore, ice floats
on water.

Q1. Why does a desert cooler cool better on a hot dry day?
Ans: When a liquid evaporates, the particles of the liquid absorb energy from the surroundings to
compensate the loss of energy during evaporation. Since evaporation causes cooling, this makes the
surroundings cool.
In a desert cooler, the water inside it is made to evaporate. This leads to absorption of energy from
the surroundings, thereby cooling the surroundings. Evaporation depends on the amount of water vapour
present in air (humidity). If the amount of water vapour present in air is less, then evaporation is more. On a
hot dry day, the amount of water vapour present in air is less. Thus, water present inside the desert cooler
evaporates more, thereby cooling the surroundings more. That is why a desert cooler cools better on a hot
dry day.

Q2. How does water kept in an earthen pot (matka) become cool during summers?
Ans: There are some pores in an earthen pot through which the liquid inside the pot evaporates. Since
evaporation causes cooling, this makes the water inside the pot cool. In this way, water kept in an earthen
pot becomes cool during summers.

Q3. Why does our palm feel cold when we put some acetone or petrol or perfume on it?

Ans: When we put some acetone or petrol or perfume on our palm, it evaporates. During evaporation,
particles of the liquid absorb energy from the surface of the palm to compensate for the loss of energy,
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making the surroundings cool. Hence, our palm feels cold when we put some acetone or petrol or perfume
on it.

Q4. Why are we able to sip hot tea or milk faster from a saucer than a cup?
Ans: A liquid has a larger surface area in a saucer than in a cup. One of the factors affecting evaporation is
surface area. Larger is the surface area more is the evaporation. Thus evaporation is faster in a saucer
causing more cooling than in a cup. For this reason, we are able to sip hot tea or milk faster from a saucer
than a cup.

Q5. What type of clothes should we wear in summers?

Ans: We should wear cotton clothes and light in coloured clothes in summers. During summers, we sweat
more. On the other hand, cotton is a good absorber of water. Thus, it absorbs sweat from our body and
exposes the sweat to the atmosphere, making evaporation faster. During this evaporation, particles on the
surface of the sweat gain energy from our body surface, making the body cool. Further light coloured
clothes are poorer absorber of heat and would be better for summer.

Q1. Convert the following temperatures to Celsius scale.

(a) 293 K (b) 470 K

Ans: (a) 293 K = (293 - 273)

= 20 °C
(b) 470 K = (470 - 273)
= 197 °C

Q2. Convert the following temperatures to Kelvin scale.

(a) 25°C (b) 373°C

Ans: (a) 25 °C = (25 + 273) K

= 298 K
(b) 373 °C = (373 + 273) K
= 646 K

Q3. Give reason for the following observations.

(a) Naphthalene balls disappear with time without leaving any solid.
(b) We can get the smell of perfume sitting several meters away.

Ans: Naphthalene undergoes sublimation easily i.e., the change of state of naphthalene from solid to gas
without intervention of liquid state. Thus, naphthalene balls disappear with time without leaving any solid.
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(b) Gaseous particles possess high speed and large spaces between them. Particles of perfume diffuse into
the particles of air at a very fast rate and reach our nostrils. This enables us to smell the perfume from a
distance.

Q4. Arrange the following substances in increasing order of forces of attraction between particles-- water,
sugar, and oxygen.
Ans: Sugar is a solid; the forces of attraction between the particles of sugar are strong. Water is a liquid;
the forces of attraction here are weaker than sugar. Oxygen is a gas; the forces of attraction are the weakest
in gases. Thus, the increasing order of forces of attraction between the particles of water, sugar and oxygen
is Oxygen < Water < Sugar

Q5. What is the physical state of water at?

(a) 25°C (b) 0°C (c) 100°C

Ans: Water at 25°C is present in the liquid state.

(b) At 0°C, water can exist as both solid and liquid.
NOTE: At 0 °C temperature, after getting the heat equal to the latent heat of fusion, the solid form of water
i.e., ice starts changing into its liquid form i.e., water.
(c) At 100°C, water exists in liquid state at 100oC. At this stage, if we keep on supplying heat energy, water
can change to gaseous state.

Q6. Give two reasons to justify-

(a)Water at room temperature is a liquid.
(b) An iron almirah is a solid at room temperature.
Ans: (a) At room temperature (25 °C), water is a liquid because it has the following characteristic of liquid:
(i) At room temperature, water has no shape but has a fixed volume i.e., it occupies the shape of the
container in which it is kept.
(ii) At room temperature, water flows.
(b) An iron almirah is a solid at room temperature (25 °C) because:
(i) It has a definite shape and volume like a solid at room temperature.
(ii) It is rigid as solid at room temperature.

Q8. What produces more severe burns, boiling water or steam?

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Ans: Steam has more energy than boiling water. It possesses the additional latent heat of vaporization.
Therefore, burns produced by steam are more severe than those produced by boiling water.

Q9. Name A, B, C, D, E and F in the following diagram showing change in its state.
Ans:

A. Fusion B. Vaporization C. Condensation D. Solidification E. Sublimation

F. Sublimation