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CBSE CLASS IX
SCIENCE
A COMPLETE PREPARATION FOR CBSE CLASS IX SCIENCE

Latest Syllabus Unit-wise MCQ Well Researched Content

 CONTENT TABLE

Sr No Topics Page No

1 Nature of Matter 02 - 37
2 Particle nature and their basic units 38 - 51
3 Structure of Atom 52 - 63
4 Cell - Basic Unit of life 64 - 91
5 Tissues, Organs, Organ System, Organism 92 - 104

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6 Motion 105 - 121
7 Force and Newton’s Laws 122 - 146

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8 Gravitation 147 - 173
Floatation 174 - 180

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10 Work, Power, and Energy 181 - 200
11 Sound 201 - 216
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12 Food Production 217 - 243
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 Chapter – 1 Nature of Matter
What is Matter?

The matter is defined as everything that has mass and takes up space. Different types of matter include pens, paper, clips, sand,
air, ice, and so on. Every substance is made up of microscopic particles.

These particles are so small that they are invisible to the human eye. Let’s look at the many properties of matter particles.

Nature of Particle
• Matter is made up of very tiny particles which may be atoms or molecules, for example- when we dissolve a spoon of salt or
sugar in a glass of water.
• Matter is made up of particles– The particles of matter are very small beyond imagination these particles have space between
them.

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• Particles of matter are in continuous motion– This is because of the kinetic energy possessed by the particles which increases
on increasing the temperature and so particles move much faster.
• Particles of matter attract each other by attractive forces– The attractive forces bind the particles of matter in a single body
and lead to particles’ arrangement. The particles of matter have a force acting between them.

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Characteristics of Particles of Matter
• Particles of matter have space between them: This property simply explains that the particles of matter are packed but

•
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still there is a slight amount of space between them and due to which it can be categorized into solid, liquid, and gas.
Particles of matter are continuously moving: This property means that the particles are not at rest, they are continuously
moving and colliding and producing Kinetic energy.
Particles of matter attract each other: This property of matter explains that particles of matter attract each other.
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Classification Of Matter
From early times, we human beings have been researching to create a basic understanding of the surroundings. Centuries ago,
Indian philosophers classified matter into five elements i.e., the Panch Tatva– air, earth, fire, sky, and water. They stated that
everything, living or nonliving, was made up of these five basic elements. Ancient Greek philosophers had arrived at a similar
classification of matter.
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Modern-day scientists have evolved two types of classification of matter based on their physical properties and chemical nature.

(1) Classification Based on Physical Nature

• Solid– In Solid, the particles are very closely packed. And thus, the force of attraction between particles is very strong.
Due to its closely packed nature, it has a definite shape and volume. The solids have a high density and cannot be diffused.
A rubber band is a solid because it can change its shape under force and regain its shape when force is removed if
excessive force is applied it breaks. This is an exceptional case of the solid.
• Liquid– In Liquids, the particles are less closely packed as compared to solid. And thus, the force of attraction between
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particles is also less strong. They do not have a definite shape but have a definite volume. Also, Density is lower than
solids and can diffuse.
• Gas– In Gas, the particles are far apart from each other. The Force of attraction between particles is negligible. Gas
neither has a definite shape nor definite volume. Density is least and can easily diffuse.

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• Plasma- Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter. Plasma is a mixture of free electrons and ions. It occurs naturally in
the stars. Inside the stars, the temperature is so high that the atoms break down. And this mixture of free electrons and ions
in a state is called plasma. The sun and the other Stars glow because of the pressure of Plasma in them. Plasma can also be
made on the earth by passing electricity through gases at less temperature plasma makes the fluorescent tube glow.
• B.E. Condensate (Bose-Einstein)- In 1921 Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose did some calculations for the fifth state of
matter. Based on their calculations, Albert Einstein predicted the existence of a new state of matter. The fifth state of matter
was achieved finally by three scientists Cornell, Keller, and Wieman of the USA cooling gas in extremely low density to super
low temperature.
Now, let’s study the properties of the three major states of the matter in detail.

Properties of Solid
• Definite shape, size, volume, and distinct boundaries.
• Negligible compressibility.
• Solids tend to maintain their shape when subjected to outside force.
• They are rigid, difficult to change their shape.

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• Mass per unit volume of a substance is called density.
• Intermolecular force is high in solids.
• Kinetic energy is very low in solids.
• Solids do not possess the property of diffusion.

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Properties of Liquid
• Do not have a definite shape or distinct boundaries but have a fixed volume.
• They can be compressed.
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• In Science the common name of gases and liquids is fluid.

• Liquids are not Rigid but have the property of flowing, that’s why liquids are called fluids.
• Intermolecular force is less than the solids.
• In liquid kinetic energy is more than solid.
• Liquid has moderate density.
• Liquids possess the property of diffusion.
• They can take any shape.
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• The gases Oxygen and Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuse and dissolve in water. Due to these gases, aquatic plants
and animals can survive.
• Diffusion is much more in liquid than in solid due to the free movement of particles of liquid.

Properties of Gas
• Gas is neither a definite shape nor a definite volume.
• They can be compressed much.
• Gases have maximum fluidity and less rigidity.
• The intermolecular force of attraction is the least.
• The kinetic energy of its particles is maximum.
• Gases have no density.
• They can take any shape.
• Very fast diffusion.
• The particles in a gas are free to move and hence gases can flow in any direction. They occupy all the volume available to
them.
• LPG = Liquefied Petroleum Gas and CNG = Compressed Natural Gas that is fuel in vehicles.

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(2) Classification Based on Chemical Nature

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• Mixture- Whenever two or more substances mix without engaging in a chemical process, the resulting product is called
a Mixture. For e.g., Seawater is a mixture of various salt and water.
• Pure Substances- Substances that are made up of some kind of particles and have a fixed composition. E.g., silver,
copper, etc.

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Why Solids, Liquids and Gases Have Different Properties

What is the matter?

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We come across many substances like a small pebble to high mountains, these all substances are made up of tiny particles that
have their own mass and occupy certain space. This is matter, everything in the existing world is made up of particles having
space and volume like rocks, sand, households to everything we see around.
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The matter is defined as a substance that has mass and occupies a certain space or volume.
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What are Solids?

The solid is a state of matter that has a fixed shape and definite volume. It has a rigid structure hence does not take the shape of
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the container, unlike liquid or gases. The solids have tightly packed molecules and as a result have high intermolecular force. As
the molecules are tightly packed, they do not flow and acquire high density.

Solids show the least expansion as compared to other states of matter due to their rigid nature. They cannot be compressed easily
under normal conditions. Whereas some of their states can be changed into a liquid with an increase in temperature.

Some of the examples of solids are sugar, salt, sand, stone, wood, etc.

Properties of Solids
• Solids have high inter-molecular force.
• Solids have fixed shapes and volumes.
• Solid cannot be compressed too much.
• They have really high density and are heavy in nature.
• As the molecules of solids are highly packed so they do not flow.
• Most of the solids are rigid in nature. Hence, their shape cannot be changed easily but can be broken down under the
influence of force.

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What are Liquids?
The liquid is a state of matter that does not have a fixed shape but has fixed volume. Liquid takes the shape of the container in
which it is kept and also occupies space. The liquids have low inter-molecular force in between the molecules as compared to
solids but higher than that of gases. The inter-molecular space between the molecules of liquid allows them to flow.

Liquids can expand more comparative to solid under the influence of thermal expansion. They are slightly more compressible.
Under suitable conditions and temperature, the state of the solid can be changed into a liquid. Whereas liquid can also be
converted into solid.
Some of the examples of liquids are alcohol, water, oil, milk, etc.

Properties of Liquids
• Liquids have comparatively lower inter-molecular force than solids.
• Liquids do not have fixed shape, hence, take the shape of the container in which it is kept.
• Liquids have fixed volume.
• Liquid as like solid cannot be compressed much.

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• They have moderately high density. But not as much as solids.
• As the molecules are not tightly packed with each other they can flow.

What are Gases?

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Gas is a state of matter that does not have a fixed shape or volume. The shape and volume of gases depend on the container in
which it is stored. The intermolecular force between the molecules of gases is negligible as the distance between the molecules is
large. The inter-molecular distance between the molecules ranges from about 10-17 to 10-5.

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The gases expand under the influence of thermal expansion as well as their volume can also be decreased as they are highly
compressible. The molecules of gases show different forms of motion like rotatory, translatory, and vibratory.

Some of the examples of gases are air, oxygen, nitrogen, vapor, hydrogen, etc.
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Properties of Gases
• Gases have a very low inter-molecular force acting between the molecules.
• They do not have a fixed shape or volume. The shape and volume change according to the container used to store it.
• Gases can be highly compressed. And also, can be changed into a liquid state.
• They have low density. Hence, they are very light in nature.
• As the molecules are loosely placed, they can flow easily.
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• As now we have discussed the different states of matter and their properties let’s look into the question,

Classification of Matter

What is Matter?
Matter refers to the material things around us which have mass, occupied space and its presence can be felt by any one or more
of our five senses. Everything in this universe is made up of material that scientists have named ‘matter’.
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The matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Space: Space occupied by a substance is known as ‘volume’.
Mass: The quantity of metal present in an object is called its ‘mass’.

Classification of Matter
Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of 5 basic elements as Air, Earth, Fire, Sky, and Water called ‘panch tatva’.
Ancient Greek philosophers also applied a similar classification of matter. Classification on the basis of physical properties and
chemical properties. What is observed and measured without changing the chemical identity of samples like color, length and
volume are physical properties, and what is observed and measured that simply change its chemical identity are called chemical
properties.

On the basis of the physical state of matter, it is classified as solid, liquid, and gas. On the basis of chemical composition, the matter
is classified as pure substance and mixture. Pure substances may be elements and compounds whereas Mixtures may be
homogeneous mixture and heterogeneous mixture.

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Physical Nature of Matter
• Matter is made up of very tiny particles which may be atoms or molecules, for example- when we dissolve a spoon of salt or
sugar in a glass of water.
• Matter is made up of particles– The particles of matter are very small beyond imagination these particles have space
between them.
• Particles of matter are in continuous motion– This is because of the kinetic energy possessed by the particles which
increases on increasing the temperature and so particles move much faster.
• Particles of matter attract each other by attractive forces– The attractive forces bind the particles of matter in a single
body and also lead to the arrangement of particles. The particles of matter have a force acting between them.

Difference Between Solid, Liquid and Gas

SOLID LIQUID GAS
1. Solids have a fixed volume and a Liquids have a fixed volume but Gases have neither a fixed shape nor a
definite shape. It has distinct have no fixed shape. They take the fixed volume. They take the shape and
boundaries. shape of containers but do not fill volume of the vessel. They fill the

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it. container.
2. Solids are rigid and are not Like solids, liquids cannot be Gases are easily compressible.
compressible. compressed much.
3. Space and movement of a particle is Movement of particles is Movement of particles is maximum.

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minimum. intermediate.
4. Solids do not flow and do not Liquids generally flow easily and Gases flow easily and have a strong
diffuse. can diffuse more than solids. tendency for diffusion.
5. Solid have high densities. They are generally less dense than Gases have very low densities and are

6.

7.
Solids stay where they are placed.

Interparticle force of attraction is

strongest in solids.
solids.

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Liquids can be poured.

Interparticle forces are weaker.

very light.
Gases spread out quickly.

Interparticle force of attraction is

weakest.
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8. Solid possess rigidity. Liquid possess fluidity. Gases possess the highest fluidity.

9. For example- ice, wood, sugar, etc. Ex- water, juice, etc. Ex- Oxygen, Nitrogen, etc.

Brownian Movement
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What is the Brownian Movement?

Brownian Motion occurs in a colloidal solution or in a fluid when the particle of the colloidal solution collide with each other
randomly. Brownian movement is observed in liquids as well as in gases. For example, when sunlight enters a room, we may
sometimes observe microscopic dust particles suspended in the air moving quickly and randomly. This is an example where
Brownian motion in gases (as air is a gas) is demonstrated.

Since they are constantly impacted by fast-moving air particles, the small dust particles move around. Though we cannot see the
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incredibly small particles or molecules of air, we can witness the effect created by their continuous and quick motions. The quick
and random movement of small dust particles hanging in the air demonstrates that air is made up of particles that are
continuously moving. Brownian motion is the zig-zag random movement of tiny particles floating in a liquid or gas. Brownian
motion leads to two conclusions regarding the nature of matter,
• The matter is made up of small particles.
• Particles are in a state of continuous motion.

Brownian motion is the uncontrolled or irregular movement of particles in a fluid caused by collisions with other fast-moving
molecules. Random particle movement is usually reported to be stronger in smaller particles, less viscous liquids, and at higher
temperatures.

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The following image shows the Brownian movement of the particle inside a gas chamber,

Brownian Movement in Colloids

Brownian motion is best described in colloidal solutions. This motion is observed in colloidal solutions because the particles
collide with unequal forces because the particle size is not uniform in the colloidal solution. The particles in the colloidal solution
do not coagulate and settle at the bottom of the container because of the Brownian Movement.

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Cause of Brownian Motion
The different causes of the Brownian Motion can be summarized as follows,
• The velocity of the particles is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of the particles; therefore, the smaller
size particles move faster as compared to the larger size particles and vice versa. Therefore, after the Brownian motion

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smaller particles quickly acquire a higher velocity.
• The viscosity of fluids (a resistive force) is inversely proportional to the speed in Brownian Motion, i.e., a higher viscosity
restricts the motion of the particle, whereas a lower viscosity results in a higher velocity. Therefore, Brownian motion is

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more dominant in the lower-viscosity fluids.

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The velocity of the particles is directly proportional to the temperature of the fluid and therefore the higher the temperature
higher will be the Brownian motion and vice versa.

Effects of Brownian Motion

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Various effects of the Brownian Motion are,
• Particles of fluid (liquid or gas) are in constant motion because of the Brownian movement.
• Brownian motion is responsible for distinguishing a true sol from a colloidal sol.
• Brownian motion prevents the coagulation of some solutions.

Brownian Motion Examples

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The random or zig-zag motion of the particles in a fluid (liquid or gas) is Brownian motion. The following daily-life examples show
the presence of Brownian motion in natural phenomena,

Diffusion of Particles in the Air

Air pollutants, dust particles, gas molecules, and dust motes are mixed up in the air and exhibit the Brownian motion. There are
several types of pollutant gases (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur, etc.) in the air that mix up with the air and deteriorates
its quality due to Brownian motion.
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The particles in the air get diffused and follow the Brownian Motion.

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Movement of Electrons in Conductors
Conduction of electricity is only possible with the movement of electrons inside a conductor, however, due to the presence of a
large number of free electrons in the conductor, their motion is followed by the Brownian motion when there is no electric field
applied.

Changing States of Matter

Change of State of Matter

Solid-state, liquid state, and gaseous state are three states of matter, and any physical change in their state is called a change of
state of matter. These changes are reversible in nature means they can attain any state again and again. This reversible property
of the three states depends upon different parameters and conditions which will be discussed below.

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A physical change in a matter is referred to as a change of state of matter. They are reversible modifications that do not require
any changes in the matter’s chemical composition. Melting, freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and vaporisation are

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examples of common state transitions.

We can understand the meaning of a change of states of matter in one more way i.e., when a solid is heated it changes into liquid,

•
•
Changing the temperature
Changing the pressure
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and when a liquid is heated it changes into a gas, and when a gas is cooled it changes to a liquid when a liquid is cooled it changes
to solid. And we can interchange these states by:
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Why do States of Matter Change?
The change in state occurs due to the following factors:
• The change in intermolecular space and force of attraction,
• The change in temperature,
• The change in pressure and
• The change in kinetic energy of the particle.
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Let’s discuss each point in more depth as

1. By Changing the Temperature: The temperature effect on heating a matter depends upon the nature of the matter and the
conditions required in bringing the change. So, let’s discuss all the 6 interchanges between these states now.
• Solid to Liquid change- This process is known as Melting. The process in which a solid substance changes into a liquid
on heating is called melting. On increasing the temperature of the solid the kinetic energy of the particle increases which
overcomes the force of attraction between the particles thereby solid melts and is converted into liquid.
• Liquid to Gas change- This process is known as Boiling or Vapourisation. The process in which a liquid change into gas
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rapidly on heating is called boiling. The temperature at which a liquid boils and changes rapidly into the gas at
atmospheric pressure is called the boiling point of the liquid.
• Gas to Liquid change- This process is known as Condensation. The process of changing gas into liquid by cooling is
called condensation. Condensation is the reverse of boiling.
• Liquid to Solid change- This process is known as Freezing. The process of transformation of liquid into a solid by
cooling is called freezing. Freezing means solidification. It is the reverse of the melting process.
• Solid to Gas change- This process is known as Sublimation. The change of solid directly into vapor on heating without
passing through the intervening liquid state is called sublimation. The common substances which undergo sublimation
are ammonium chloride, iodine, camphor, naphthalene, and anthracene. e.g., Solid carbon dioxide (or dry ice) sublimes
to form carbon dioxide gas. Naphthalene balls disappear with time without leaving behind any residue.
• Gas to Solid change- This process is known as Deposition or Desublimation. It is a thermodynamic process in which
gas changes into a solid directly without entering into the liquid phase.

2. By Changing the Pressure: The physical state of matter can also be changed by changing the pressure. By applying high
pressure, the particles of a gas can be brought close together means gases can be liquefied easily by applying pressure and
reducing temperature. When pressure is applied particles come together thus the force of attraction increases and

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 intermolecular space decreases. Hence, gas liquefies. When pressure around the solid carbon dioxide is reduced its
temperature increases and it directly changes into carbon dioxide gas.

Interconversion of Three States of Matter

The states of matter are interconvertible. The state of matter can be changed by changing the temperature or pressure. The
transition of one state to another is referred to as the interconversion of matter. It is a process in which matter transitions from
one state to another and then returns to its original state with no change in its chemical makeup. Heating may transform solids
into liquids. These changes are shown in the figure given below.

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Important Definition related to Change of State of Matter
• Melting Point: The temperature at which a solid melt to form a liquid at atmospheric pressure is called its melting point.
During melting the temperature of ice does not rise even though heat is being supplied continuously due to latent heat of

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boiling point of water is 373 k.

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fusion this latent heat is used to overcome the force of attraction between the particles of ice.
Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid boil to form vapors at atmospheric pressure is called its boiling point. The

Latent Heat: The heat energy which has to be supplied to change the state of a substance is called latent heat. It is called
latent heat because it becomes/gets hidden in the substance changing state and does not show its presence by raising the
or
temperature. The latent heat which we supply is used up in overcoming the forces of attraction between the particles of a
substance during the change of state. Latent heat is of two types: The latent heat of fusion and the latent heat of vaporization.
o Latent Heat of Fusion (solid to liquid change): The latent heat of fusion (or melting) of a solid to liquid is the quantity of
heat in joules required to convert 1 kilogram of the solid (at its melting point) to liquid without any temperature change.
o Latent Heat of Vaporization (liquid to gas change): During boiling, the temperature of the water does not right even do
heat is being supplied continuously as this heat of vaporization is used to overcome the force of attraction between
water particles.
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• Freezing point: Freezing is the transformation of liquid water into solid ice. The freezing point is the temperature at which
it happens.
• Boiling point: The process through which a liquid boil and transforms into a gas is known as vaporization. The boiling point
of a liquid is the temperature at which it begins to boil.
• Condensation: The mirror is prone to fog up when you take a hot shower in a closed bathroom. You may be wondering why
this occurs. When hot water evaporates from the shower, it cools and loses energy when it comes into touch with colder
surfaces such as the mirror. Cooler water particles lack the energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them. They
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combine to create droplets of liquid water. Condensation is the process through which gas transforms into a liquid.
• Vaporization: If the water is sufficiently heated, it begins to boil. Water vapor bubbles develop in the boiling water. This
occurs when liquid water particles gather enough energy to totally overcome the force of attraction between them and
transition to the gaseous form. The bubbles rise through the water and exit as steam from the saucepan. The process through
which a liquid boil and transforms into a gas is known as vaporization. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at
which it begins to boil.
• Sublimation: Sublimation is the process through which solids immediately transform into gases. When solids absorb enough
energy to totally overcome the forces of attraction between them, this happens. Dry ice is an example of solids that undergo
sublimation.
• Evaporation: The change of a liquid into vapor at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation. It is a surface
phenomenon in which particles from the surface gain enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction. This operation
causes cooling because when a liquid evaporates the particles of the liquid absorb heat from the surroundings and its
surroundings become cool. Particles on the surface of a liquid have higher kinetic energy than others, so they break the forces
of attraction between the particle and escape from the surface of the liquid in the form of vapors.

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Evaporation

What is Evaporation?
Evaporation is a process where the liquid state of matter is converted into a gaseous state of matter in the presence of heat.
Many people got confused between evaporation and boiling as in boiling also liquid changes to a gaseous state. But there is a
difference, the very first is boiling of liquid happens at a particular temperature while evaporation can happen at any temperature
below the boiling point. Also boiling is a bulk phenomenon whereas evaporation is a surface phenomenon, which means
evaporation can happen only at the surface of the liquid.

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During evaporation, the molecule having higher kinetic energy only dissipated from the topmost layer of the liquid. There is also
one unique property of evaporation that causes a cooling effect. The earthen pot was used to store cool water in summer as the
water got oozed out from tiny pores of the pot causing evaporation and leading to the cooldown of the water inside the pot. Desert
cooler also works on the principle of evaporation.

For evaporation to occur, molecules in a liquid must be near the surface, must be moving away from the body of the liquid, and
must have enough kinetic energy to escape the interface. When molecules do escape, the average kinetic energy of the remaining
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molecules is lowered. This lowers the temperature of the liquid and is the basis for the phenomenon of evaporative cooling.

Evaporation depends on some factors too, like temperature, the surface area of the liquid, wind speed, and humidity. We will
discuss this in detail in this article.

Examples of Evaporation
There are many examples of evaporation but here we are discussing only a few of them:
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• Drying of clothes in sun: We all dried up our clothes in the sun, the wet clothes get dries up because of evaporation where
the water turns into water vapor.
• Drying of water bodies: We have seen in summer water in the ponds and lake get decrease or sometimes dried up due to
evaporation.
• Water cycle: This is a very good example of evaporation, in the above two we discussed how evaporation turns water into
water vapor. This water vapor further goes to the sky and gets condensed to form a cloud, and later it gets precipitated. So,
evaporation is significant to regulate the water cycle.
• Salt formation: Naturally or industrially salt forms due to evaporation where the water gets evaporated to leave us salt.
• Drying of a Mopped Floor
• Working in the desert cooler in summer.

Process of Evaporation
A liquid evaporates when it is heated. This implies that the molecules in the liquid must acquire kinetic energy. A liquid’s
molecules expand out and vibrate more quickly as it acquires kinetic energy. The liquid turns into a gas as a result, changing its
state of matter.

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Water is a common substance where evaporation occurs. Water changes from a liquid to a gas when energy or heat is applied
because the bonds keeping the molecules together start to weaken. The boiling point of water, which is 212 degrees Fahrenheit
or 100 degrees Celsius, is the point at which it transforms from a liquid to a gas.

Factor affecting Evaporation

Evaporation eases our life in many ways, and even it is contributing to the water cycle too. But evaporation is dependent on some
factors which will be going to control the rate of evaporation. One more thing to note evaporation is a slow process but some
external factors increase or slow down the rate of evaporation. Let’s discuss all these factors of evaporation:

Temperature
The very first factor is temperature since we know evaporation can happen at any temperature before the boiling point, but
temperature has a role in evaporation too. It will determine the rate of evaporation, the more the temperature more is the rate of
evaporation. Now the question is how? We all know the temperature will increase the kinetic energy, as the energy used to break
intermolecular forces that bind the liquid molecule. So, when we apply more temperatures the molecule fastly breaks its
intermolecular forces and get evaporated.

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This implies,
Temperature ∝ Evaporation

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For Example, we all have seen in the hot summer clothes get fastly dried up than on normal days. This is due to the Temperature
factor.

Surface Area of the Liquid

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Earlier we discussed that evaporation is a surface phenomenon, and the surface plays a role in the rate of evaporation. The more
a surface area more will be the rate of evaporation. So, if more surface area will be there then more liquid molecules will present
on the surface, meaning more molecules break their intermolecular bonds which will increase the rate of evaporation. So we can
write it as;
or
Surface area of liquid ∝ Evaporation

For example, the same amount of water gets evaporated more quickly on a plate than the water in a shallow cup, this is because
the plate offers a greater surface area for the liquid than the shallow cup.

Humidity
Humidity refers to the amount of wetness or water vapor in the air. The more water vapor in the air we will say the more humidity
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with more humidity, the rate of evaporation gets decreased.

Humidity ∝ 1/Evaporation

For example, in the rainy season when our surroundings are more humid than it is very difficult to dry our clothes.

Wind Speed
Wind speed is directly proportional to evaporation means with the increase in wind speed there would be an increase in the rate
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of evaporation.
Wind Speed ∝ Evaporation

For example, on a windy day, clothes get quickly dried up than on normal days. This is because the wind decreased the humidity
which will increase the rate of evaporation.

How Does Evaporation Cause Cooling?

What is Evaporation?
Evaporation is the process of liquid changing into vapours before achieving its boiling point is called and can only occur from the
surface the liquid.

Evaporation can occur at room temperature which is significantly lower than the boiling point of a liquid as well, it doesn’t require
liquid to boil. As liquid molecules have high kinetic energy due to their random motion, they collide with each other and transfer
their kinetic energy from this collision. Some of these molecules which become highly energized, turn into gas and escape from
the liquid.

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How Does Evaporation Cause Cooling?
Natural cooling is caused by evaporation. The basic concept is that in order for matter to change state, it must either receive or
lose energy. When matter molecules shift phases from liquid to gas, they require energy to overcome their potential energy
through kinetic energy. As a result, the liquid absorbs energy from its surroundings.

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When energy is transmitted, the temperature of the material rises or falls depending on whether the energy is transferred from
the substance to the surroundings or vice versa. There are, however, exceptions to this rule. Although the temperature of the
material rises until the boiling point is reached during evaporation, there is no visible heat transfer.

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The molecules of the material constantly absorb heat energy from their environment and also from the collision of other
molecules until these molecules have enough energy, at which point they begin to break away from the liquid and transform into

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vapour. Because there is no temperature difference until the evaporation process has been completed, i.e. the complete liquid is
changed into vapour, the energy required for this phase change is referred to as the latent heat of vaporization, implying that this
heat will not affect the temperature interpreting on a thermometer.

Applications of Evaporative Cooling

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There are several applications of Evaporative cooling in daily life, some of which are as follows:

Chilly Sensation on Touch of Spirits

When we put some spirit or petrol on the back of our hands and wave them about, the spirit soon evaporates, and our hands get
extremely chilly. This is due to the fact that the spirit requires latent vaporization heat to transition from a liquid to a vaporized
form. The spirit pulls this dormant vaporizing energy from our grasp. The hand loses heat and cools down.
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Working of Earthen Pot

During hot summer days, water is frequently kept cold in a clay pot called a pitcher or a Matka. For cooling during hot summer
days, water is generally kept in an earthen pot known as a pitcher or Matka. The earthen pot contains a huge number of extremely
small pores, or holes, in its walls. Some of the water is constantly passing through these pores to the pot outside. This water
evaporates constantly, absorbing the latent heat necessary for vaporization from the clay pot and the remaining water. As a result,
the remaining water loses heat and becomes chilly. This is an example of evaporation-induced cooling as well. It should be
mentioned that owing to the large value of the latent heat of water vaporization, all of the water on the planet does not evaporate.
Ed

Cooling of Homes
During the hot summer evenings, many people, especially in villages, sprinkle water on the ground in front of their homes. This
water evaporates by eliminating the high latent heat of vaporization from the ground and surrounding air. After the heat is
removed from the area, it becomes chilly and comfortable. The water that evaporates from the leaves of trees cools the
surrounding air in the same manner.

Cooling of Body
Perspiration, often known as sweating, is the mechanism through which our bodies maintain a constant temperature. When our
body temperature rises too high on a hot day or after engaging in strenuous exercise, our sweat glands release moisture or
perspiration on our bodies. When perspiration evaporates, our bodies absorb the vaporizing latent heat. This keeps our bodies
cool.

Desert Cooler
A desert cooler cools better on a hot and dry day since it operates on the evaporation principle. The greater the temperature on
a hot day, the slower the rate of water evaporation Thus, the higher the rate of water evaporation. As a result of the higher rate of
water evaporation, a desert cooler cools better on a hot and dry day.
12
Temperature of Tea
It’s a well-known fact that humans can drink hot tea from a saucer faster than from a cup. Surface area is one of the factors
affecting the rate of evaporation and the saucer has a large surface area. Because of the huge surface area of the saucer, hot tea
evaporates more quickly. This rapid evaporation cools the hot tea faster in a saucer than in a cup, making it easier to drink from
a saucer.

What is Condensation?
Condensation is the opposite process of evaporation. In evaporation heating water make to change its phase from liquid to gas,
but in the case of condensation water vapours (gaseous form) come in contact with a cold object to form water droplets. Thus,
condensation is defined as the process in which water vapours cool in the presence of any cooler substance to form water droplets.

We readily see condensation in our daily life such as the water droplets collected on the plate that is placed on the boiling water
is an example of condensation.

Effect of Change of Temperature

a
Effect of Change of Temperature on Matter
The kinetic energy of matter particles increases as temperature rises, and they begin to vibrate at a higher frequency. As a result,
the interparticle force of attraction between particles decreases, and particles become unattached from their positions and free

l
to travel.

The condition of matter begins to alter as a result. Liquids are formed when solids undergo a phase transition. Liquids, too, go

il
through a phase change to become gases. The processes related to the change of state of matter due to temperature i.e., melting,
boiling, etc. are mentioned below.
or
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Melting
Melting is a physical process that causes a matter’s phase change from solid to liquid. When the internal energy of a solid
increases, usually due to the application of heat or pressure, the temperature of the matter rises to the melting point. Melting is
the transformation of a solid into a liquid. The melting point is the temperature at which something melts.

For example: When ice cubes are removed from the freezer and brought to room temperature, they turn into a liquid. As a result,
Ed

the ice cube melts and turns into water.

13
How does melting occur?
When a solid is heated, it transforms into a liquid. In a solid, the particles gather enough energy to overcome the bonding forces
that keep them together. During melting, particles usually begin to move about, keeping close to their neighbours, before moving
more freely. The temperature at which this transition takes place in pure substances is known as the melting point of the material.

Freezing
Freezing refers to the transformation of liquid water into solid ice. Freezing is a phase transition in which a liquid becomes a solid
when its temperature falls below its freezing point. The solidification phase change of a liquid, usually owing to cooling, is defined
as freezing. The freezing point is the temperature at which liquid becomes solid.

For example: Water in an ice cube tray solidifies when maintained in the freezer. As a result, the water freezer is used to make
ice cubes.

l a
How does freezing occur? il
or
When a liquid cools and solidifies, it is called freezing. A solid is formed when the particles in a liquid cease moving around and
settle into a stable configuration. This is known as freezing, and it happens at the same temperature as the freezing point.

Boiling
Boiling is the fast evaporation of a liquid that occurs when it is heated to its boiling point, which is the temperature at which the
liquid’s vapour pressure equals the surrounding atmosphere’s pressure. Boiling is the transformation of a liquid substance into
a gas when heated rapidly. The boiling point is the temperature at which something begins to boil.
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For example: “Boiling of water” refers to the quick transformation of water into steam or water vapour when heated.
Ed

14
How does boiling occur?
When particles in a liquid gather enough energy to overcome the bonding forces that hold them loosely together in the liquid,
they boil and become free, fast-moving individual particles in a gas. The temperature at which this transition takes place in pure
substances is known as the boiling point of the material.

Condensation
Condensation is the process of changing the physical state of matter from gas to liquid. It is the inverse of vaporization. The term
is most commonly used to describe the water cycle.

For example: The existence of water droplets on the surface of a glass containing cold water is due to the fact that when airborne
water vapour collides with the cold glass of water, it loses its energy and condenses to a liquid state.

How does condensation occur?

When a gas is cooled, the particles stop moving around as quickly and become a liquid. Condensation is a process that happens
at the same temperature as boiling. As a result, a substance’s boiling point and condensation point are the same temperatures.

a
Sublimation
Sublimation is the process of a substance going from a solid to a gaseous state without transitioning to a liquid state (or vice
versa). Sublimation is the term used to define the process of the water cycle to describe the process of snow and ice converting.

l
into water vapour in the air without first melting into water.

For example: When dry ice (a frozen form of carbon dioxide) is exposed to air, it instantly transforms from a solid to a gaseous
state, which is visible as fog.

How does sublimation occur?

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The change in state occurs when a solid goes directly to a gas called “sublimation” it does not occur at any particular temperature
but varies in rate with temperature. For a solid to sublime, individual particles on the surface of the solid obtain enough energy
or
from their surroundings to jump off the surface of the solid and become individual gas particles.

Melting Point

What is Melting Point?

The temperature at which a solid substance melts and transforms into a liquid at atmospheric pressure is termed the melting
point of a substance.
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Different solids display varying melting points. For example, the melting point of wax is 63 °C. The greater the melting point of
the substances, the more will be the intraparticle forces of attraction binding the particles. For instance, in the solid form of water,
ice melts at a temperature of 0 °C to form liquid water. Therefore, the melting point of ice is 0 °C at atmospheric pressure.

At the melting point, the solid and liquid states of matter coexist together. The melting point of a substance is its characteristic
property influenced by the applied pressure.
Ed

Explanation of Melting Point

Melting or fusion is the process by which a solid substance changes into a liquid on heating. On heating a substance, the particles
vibrate with greater intensity and move more vigorously. Heat energy is produced. The particles gain sufficient kinetic energy to
overcome the strong forces of attraction. They gain energy to break through to form small groups of particles. Solids, therefore,
melt to form a liquid state.

Melting of a substance occurs at defined ambient pressure conditions. The energy supplied to melt a system is known as Enthalpy
of fusion or Entropy of fusion. However, some of the substances pose an exception to this process, and heat has to be removed
from these systems in order to melt them. e.g., Helium.

15
 l a
Melting Point Determination Methods

il
In chemistry labs, there are various methods for the determination of melting points.
• Simple Melting Point Apparatus
• Automated Melting Point Apparatus
• Capillary Tube Method
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Metals
The melting point of some most common metals are:
Chemical Melting Point (K) Melting Point (°C)

Sodium (Na) 370.87 97.87

Magnesium (Mg) 923 650

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Aluminum (Al) 933.47 660.47

Potassium (K) 336.53 63.53

Titanium (Ti) 1941 1668

Iron (Fe) 1811 1538

Nickel (Ni) 1728 1455

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Copper (Cu) 1357.77 1084.77

Zinc (Zn) 692.88 419.88

Gallium (Ga) 302.9146 29.9146

Silver (Ag) 1234.93 961.93

Cadmium (Cd) 594.22 321.22

Indium (In) 429.75 156.75

Tungsten (W) 3695 3422

Platinum (Pt) 2041.4 1768.4

Gold (Au) 1337.33 1064.33

Mercury (Hg) 234.43 -38.57

Lead (Pb) 600.61 327.61

16
 Bismuth (Bi) 544.7 271.7

Non-Metals
The melting point of some most common non-metals are:
Element Melting Point (K) Melting Point (°C)

Hydrogen (H) 14 -259

Nitrogen (N) 63.15 -209.85

Oxygen (O) 54.36 -218.64

Sulfur (S) 388.36 115.36

Chlorine (Cl) 171.6 -101.4

Iodine (I) 386.85 113.85

a
Organic Compounds
The melting point of some most common organic compounds are:
Chemical Melting Point (K) Melting Point(°C)

l
Methane (CH4) 109 -164

Ethane(C2H6) 184 -89

Methanol (CH3OH)

Propane (C3H8)

Ethanol (C2H5OH)
il 338

231

351
65

-42

78
or
Butane (C4H10) 272 -1

Phenol (C6H6O) 315 42

Oxalic Acid (C2H2O4) 374 101

Benzoic Acid (C7H6O2) 395 122

Naphthalene (C10H10) 353 80

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Fructose (C6H12O6) 376 103

Glucose (C6H12O6) 419 146

Sucrose (C12H22O11) 459 186

Inorganic Compounds
Ed

The melting point of some most common inorganic compounds are:

Compound Melting Point (°C) Melting Point (K)

Water (H2O) 0 273

Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 801 1074

Calcium Carbonate (CaCO 3) 825 1098

Aluminum Oxide (Al 2O3) 2072 2345

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) 1713 1986

Copper (Cu) 1083 1356

Iron (Fe) 1538 1811

Lead (Pb) 327.5 600.5

Zinc (Zn) 419.5 692.5

17
 Silver (Ag) 961.8 1234.8

Gold (Au) 1064 1337

Mercury (Hg) -38.83 234.17

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) -78.5 194.5

Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3) 169.6 442.6

Applications of Melting Point

The application can be observed during the process of snow skating. The weight of the skater gets concentrated on a thin line,
there is considerable pressure applied on the ice slab. This results in the melting of ice beneath the shoe of the skater. This
melting ice lubricates the undersides of his skating shoes. This makes it possible to skate on the ice.

l a
il
or
Conversion of Solid to Liquid
The process of a solid turning into a liquid state is called melting. It is also known as fusion. The reverse process of a liquid
becoming a solid is in turn called solidification.

The temperature at which melting occurs for any pure substance is termed the melting point of that substance. Melting point is
considered to be a physical characteristic of any substance. To melt a substance from solid to liquid, there is always a requirement
of energy and as it requires energy, it is an endothermic reaction. Every pure substance requires a certain amount of energy which
uG

is required to change from a solid to a liquid state.

Energy is exclusively required to carry out the transition of the substance, from solid to liquid substance. The phase of a substance
is changed, and the temperature remains unchanged. Therefore, melting is known to be an isothermal process, since the substance
remains at the same unmodified temperature.

Heating Curve for the Conversion of Solid to Liquid

Ed

The heating curve denotes the temperature on the y-axis and the heat that has been supplied on the x-axis respectively. Let us
assume a constant rate of heating, owing to which the x-axis can be shown as the amount of time that is shown as the substance
is being heated. The curve majorly shows two main points:

The portion of the graphs, where the temperature rises as and when heat is supplied to the system, and
The portion of the graphs plateaus where the temperature remains at a constant level. Change in phase occurs at this plateau.

18
What is Vaporization?

a
Change of state in a substance is a physical change in a matter. These changes accommodate reversible changes, that is the changes
that can be changed from one physical state to another. It does not involve any chemical changes. The changes occur due to
variations observed in the temperature or pressure of a substance. For instance, on increasing the temperature the intra-

l
molecular interaction among the particles rise, therefore, the substance move more freely. On decreasing the temperature, the
substances settle down in a fixed and rigid structure. Governed by the three states of matter, the different processes encountered
in the cycle are melting, freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and vaporization.

il
or
uG

The various processes description is as follows:

Ed

Melting Freezing Evaporation Condensation Sublimation

The transition The transition The transition occurs The transition occurs The transition of the solid
occurs from the occurs from the from the liquid phase from the gaseous phase phase to the gaseous phase
solid phase to the liquid phase to to the gaseous phase. to the liquid phase. without undergoing through
liquid phase. the solid phase. the intermediate liquid
phase.

What happens when a liquid becomes a gas?

When a liquid becomes a gas, the particles separate from each other, with each particle going its own way in space. This is how
gases tend to fill their containers. Indeed, in the gas phase, most of the volume is empty space; only about 1/1,000th of the volume
is actually taken up by matter.

19
 a
Vaporization

l
The transition in phase observed from the liquid phase to the gaseous state of liquid. There are two types of vaporization:
Evaporation and Boiling.

Evaporation

il
Evaporation is the change of the liquid state into the gaseous state occurring at temperatures below the boiling point. Evaporation
takes place at the surface of the liquid. Molecules of a liquid evaporate if they are situated near the surface and transmitted or
moving in a specific direction. They must possess enough kinetic energy to overcome the intermolecular forces present in the
or
liquid phase.

Factors That Affect the Evaporation

• Temperature –An increase in the temperature of a substance results in an increased rate of evaporation.
• Surface area – An increase in the surface area of a substance results in an increased rate of evaporation.
• Humidity – An increase in atmospheric humidity results in a decreased rate of evaporation.
• Wind speed – An increase in the speed of wind in a specific area result in an increased rate of evaporation.
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Boiling
Boiling is the process in which the liquid changes to gas very quickly upon heating. The particles in water are bound together by
strong forces of attraction between them. When we supply energy and heat the water particles, their corresponding kinetic energy
increases. Some of these particles gain enough energy to break through the intramolecular forces of attraction and transform into
vapours. They escape the surface, and this process is known as boiling. The liquid thus makes a transition to the gaseous state.
The process of boiling is an instance of rapid vaporization which occurs either at or above the boiling temperature or at or below
Ed

the liquid’s surface.

Boiling point
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which a liquid boils and then further changes rapidly into the gas state at
atmospheric pressure. It is basically a measure of the force of attraction between the particles. The greater boiling point of a
solvent is an indicator of greater forces of attraction between the particles. The boiling points of different liquids are different.

Example:
Boiling point of water = 100°C
Boiling point of alcohol = 78°C
Boiling point of mercury = 357°C

Factors affecting the boiling point of a liquid:

• Intermolecular forces – The forces of attraction between the molecules of the liquid increase on increasing the boiling point
of the liquid.

20
• Pressure – As we increase the pressure applied on material, its volume reduces. This makes the molecules approach each
other more closely, thereby, leading to a greater intermolecular force. When we pressurize gas, it transforms to liquid and
then further to solid. It is also observed that liquids at high pressure have a high boiling point.
• Solutions – Solutions have a higher boiling point than pure solvents.
• Mixtures – On mixing two or more liquids, the obtained mixture will have a boiling point lying in a temperature range
between the boiling points of the two liquids.

l a
Factors affecting rate of vaporization
• Surface Area – Since the increase in surface area of an object leads to more number of particles getting exposure the

•
il
temperature change, therefore, the surface area is directly proportional to the rate of vaporization.
Pressure – As we decrease the pressure, the particles quickly gain the kinetic energy required to escape from the surface of
the container. Therefore, pressure is inversely proportional to the rate of vaporization.
Temperature –An increase in temperature results in an increase of the kinetic energy of the particles required to escape
from the surface of the container. This results in the decrease of the force of interaction between the particles. Therefore, the
or
temperature is directly proportional to the rate of vaporization.
• Speed of wind – Since the increase in wind speed leads to more number of particles getting being driven away by the wind,
therefore, speed of wind is directly proportional to the rate of vaporization.

Latent Heat of Vaporisation

The amount of heat required to simulate the conversion of 1kg of liquid to the gaseous state at its corresponding boiling point at
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a specific temperature. Latent heat of vaporisation is different for different liquids.

Daily Life examples of vaporization

• Extraction of salt from seawater. The seawater is subjected to evaporation, which leaves the excess salt behind.
• Drying up wet clothes.
• Isolation of the components of a mixture in various kinds of manufacturing processes. For instance, the separation of certain
components of petroleum.
Ed

What is Condensation?

Condensation is the process of changing the phase of water where the vapour transforms to the liquid state. Condensation can be
achieved in one of the following two ways:
• The cooling of air until its dew point.
• Saturation with water vapour until the point that it cannot hold any further quantity of water.

Condensation is considered to be the reverse reaction of evaporation, where the liquid water turns to a vapour state. The rate of
condensation can be measured through the process of evaporation into the air moisture at various atmospheric pressures and
temperatures. The process of condensation to involve the reaction where two molecules are combined together accompanied by
the loss of water droplets. It also involves the removal of heat from a system where the vapour is converted into liquid.

Water Cycle
The formation of clouds is due to the occurrence of the process of condensation in the atmosphere. The water vapour contained
in the atmosphere remains in the air. The molecules of water are in constant movement between the different states of matter-
that is solid, liquid or gas. The vapours present in the air are loosely bound to each other and in a state of constant random
21
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