CONTENTS

S. No Chapter name Page No.

1 MATTER 1

2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 22

3 PERIODIC TABLE 59

4 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS 84
AND MIXTURES
5 WORKSHEETS AND
ASSIGNMENTS
Chapter

1 MATTER MATTER

1
MODULE - I

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After reading this module, you will be able to
define matter.
differentiate material and substance.
explain the kinetic molecular theory of matter.
explain the characteristics of states of matter.
differentiate amorphous and crystalline solids.
explain diffusion.
compare the three states of matter.

INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is the branch of science that studies the structure and composition of
matter. It covers the study of the entire universe. Everythingwe see, and we can't, is made up
of chemical substances. Any change or transformation that happens, whether on the earth or
anywhere in the universe, involves chemical processes. All the reaction taking place in
theliving and non – living realm involve matter. All things around us, from the star to the
speck of dust is composed of matter.
1.1 MATTER
There are largenumber of things around us which we see and feel. Example:book, air,
stars, phone, etc.The book that you see occupies some space. The space occupied by the book
is called is volume. If you pick it up, you can also feel its weight. Hence, you canconcludethat
the book has some mass.In order to displace the book from one place to another, you have to
apply some force. This indicatesthat it offers some resistance.
Thus, matter can be defined as follows:
"Anythingthat occupies space, has mass and offers resistance is called matter"
The things that we cannot touchbut can feel through our sensescan also be called as matter.
Energy can be felt through our sensessuch as heat and electricity, but it is not a matter
because it has no mass nor it occupiesany volume.
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 Characteristics of matter:
2
1. Volume: Matter occupies space. This space occupied by matter is called volume.
2. Mass: It represents the quantity of matter, which can be found by a physical balance.
3. Weight: It represents the pull of gravity on matter. It can be found by a spring balance.
4. Perception by physical senses: It is perceived by our physical senses, i.e., sense of touch,
sense of hearing, sense of sight, sense of smell and sense of taste.
1.2 WHAT IS A MATERIAL?
The term used for a particular kind of matter is called material. For example, wood is a
material; water is a material; marble is a material, etc.
 Kinds of Material:
(i) Homogeneous materials:
The materials which have same composition and same properties throughout are called
homogeneous materials.
Example: Pure common salt is a homogeneous material and so is its solution in pure water.
(ii) Heterogeneous materials:
The materials which have different composition and different properties in their
different parts are called heterogeneous materials.
Example: In a marble rock, we can see grey or red grains of other materials.
1.3 WHAT IS A SUBSTANCE?
A homogeneous material which is made of only one kind of atoms or molecules, such
that its composition remains same throughout, is called substance. Forexample, sodium
chloride (common salt) is a substance because it has 23 parts of sodium and 35.5 parts of
chlorine by weight in its composition. Similarly, pure alcohol, pure water, pure gold, pure
silver are substances.
1.4 PHYSICAL NATURE OF MATTER
What do the following things have in common:tiger,building, book, pen, ocean, tree,
rock, car,bikeand bottle?
All these things are made up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are the building
blockof everything around us and in us. There are infinite number of ways to organize them
into three different kinds of matter.
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Generally, atoms cannot stay alone. They combine with other atoms and form substances.
3
Such smallest freely existing particles of matter are called 'molecules', whereas 'atoms' are the
smallest particles of matter which are incapable of independent existence.
Thus, the smallest structured unit of all chemical substances in the three states of
matter is molecule, atom or ion. It is the "molecularmodel" of matter in the three states which
determine their physical behaviour. It is described by the "kineticmolecular theory of matter".
The theory which visualises that all substances, whether solids, liquids or gases, made
of atoms, molecules or ions, in constant motion is called kinetic molecular theory of matter.

This theory may be stated as follows:

PROPERTY KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
All matter (solid, liquid or gas) is
Composition of matter composed of numerous sub-microscopic
particles called atoms, ions or molecules
The particles constituting matter are in a
Motion of particles stage of continuous motion either
vibratory or translatory
The particles in the gaseous and liquid
states particularly are executing
Collision of particles helter-skelter movement.Theycollide with
one another but these collisions are
elastic; the total energy of the colliding
particles remains the same
Kinetic energy of the particles is a
Energy possessed by the particles measure of the temperature

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER BASED ON PHYSICAL NATURE

Depending on how the atoms or molecules arepacked, substances are classified as
solids, liquids or gases. For example, if they are very close to each other because of strong
attractive forces between them, they are solids. If there is not much attraction between them,
then they are liquids. If there is very little attraction between them, they are far apart from
each other, they exist in the gaseous state. The force of attraction which exists between the
molecules of matter is called intermolecular force. When the intermolecular force of
attraction exists between similar atoms or molecules, it is called cohesion.
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Adhesionis the intermolecular force of attraction existing between dissimilar atoms or

4
molecules.The space between the moleculesof matter is called intermolecular space.
1.5.1 Explanation of the states of matter on the basis of kinetic
theory:
The three states of matter differ from one another on account of
the difference in:
1. the state of packing of their constituent particles.
2. the energies associated with these particles.
3. the intermolecular forces between them.
 Characteristics of the states of matter on the basis on kinetic theory:
PROPERTY SOLID LIQUID GAS
The particles are The particles are The particles are
closely packed and loosely packed and wide apart and
State of their positions are their positions are their positions
packing also fixed not fixed are also not fixed
Particles can vibrate The particles can The molecules
only to andfroabout move about freely move about more
Energy their mean and have freely and have
associated positions, considerable energy maximum energy
thereforehave small due to their motion due to their
energy due to their motion
motion

The particles are The forces are strong The particles are
held together by enough to keep them held together by
strong within the boundaries very weak inter
intermolecular of the liquid. The molecular forces,
Intermolecular forces, therefore, liquids therefore do the gases
forces have definite shape not have a definite therefore, have
and volume shape but still have neither a definite
definite volume shape nor a
definite volume
1.5.2 Factors that determine the physical state of a substance:
(i) “Randomness” (disorderliness) caused by the kinetic energy (thermal agitation) of the
particles constituting a substance.
(ii) “Cohesion” (orderliness) caused by the intermolecular forces of attraction.
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The physical state of a substance depends largely on the balance between the ordering
5
forces of cohesion and disordering effect of thermal agitation.
The strength of the cohesive forces depends on the nature of the substance, while the
disruptive forces responsible for randomness are a function of temperature. Therefore, for a
given substance, it is the temperature factor which determines its state.

Example: Water exists as gas above 100oC , as liquid between 0oC and 100oC and as solid at 0oC
and below.
1.6 PROPERTIES OF STATES OF MATTER
1.6.1 Solid:
A solid is a state of matter which has definite shape and definite volume.
 Properties of Solids:
(i) Solids have definite shape and volume.
(ii) Solids are generally rigid. If some solid (such as rubber) changes its shape on the
application of external force, then it regains its shape, on the removal of force.
(iii) Solids can have any number of free surfaces.
(iv) The intermolecular spaces are very small.
(v) The intermolecular forces are very large.
(vi) The density of solids is generally high.
(vii) The dimensions of solids do not increase in large proportion on heating or cooling.
(viii) When two solids are kept in contact with one another they do not mix with each other,
i.e., they do not diffuse.
 Explanation of a solid on the basis of kinetic model:
The definite shape and volume of solids can be explained on the basis of kinetic theory
of matter. In case of solids the kinetic energy of the molecules is least and the force of
attraction between the molecules is maximum. The molecules of the solids can just vibrate
about their mean positions, but cannot migrate from one position to another.
Thus, the solids have a definite shape and definite volume.
Examples of solids: All metals; wood and wood products; rocks of various kinds, ice, etc.
 Classification of solids:
Solids are classified into two groups based on the arrangement of atoms or molecules.
(a) Crystalline solids (b) Amorphous solids
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(a) Crystalline solids:

6
Solids which have highly ordered three dimensional arrangement of particles.
(b) Amorphous solids:
Solidswhich have a random arrangement of particles
 Difference between crystalline and amorphous solids
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
(i) They have a definite crystal shape due to They do not have a definite geometrical shape
the ordered arrangement
(ii) They have sharp melting points They do not have sharp melting points
(iii) They are bounded by planes or phases They don't have phases
(iv)Examples: Crystals of NaCl, CrBr, ZnS, etc. Examples:Rubber, plastic, glass, etc.

1. Crystalline solid model

 Materials:
Dishwashing detergent, watch glass and drinkingstraw.
 Procedure:
You can use an aqueous solution of detergent to make a model of a crystalline solid.
Place the solution in a watch glass and use a straw to blow bubbles into the solution. What do
you observe?

1.6.2 Liquid:
A liquid is a state of matter which has definite mass and volume but no definite shape.
 Properties of Liquids:
(i) Liquids have definite mass and volume.
(ii) Liquids do not have definite shape, but take the shape of the container.
(iii) The force of attraction between molecules of the liquids is less than the solids. Thus, the
liquids can flow.
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(iv) Intermolecular spaces in liquids are larger than in the solids. Thus, liquids are slightly
7
more compressible than the solids.
(v) Liquids have only one free surface.
(vi) The density of the liquids is relatively less than the solids.
(vii) Liquids expand far more than the solids on heating and contract far more on cooling.
(viii) The particles of two different liquids can diffuse into one another, depending upon the
nature of the molecules of liquids. For example, milk and water particles diffuse in one
another, but the particles of oil and water do not.

Liquid Gold is not the molten form of gold but a word used to mention
something which is delicious,especially the melted cheese.

 Explanation of a liquid on the basis of kinetic model:

On the basis of kinetic theory of matter, we can say that the kinetic energy of the
molecules of a liquid is very large, and so is the distance between the molecules. Thus, the
attractive force between the molecules of a liquid is small as compared to the solids.
Therefore, the molecules of a liquid are free to move about within the liquid and hence, the
liquid can easily take the shape of the container. However, the volume of the liquid does not
change, because, the molecules do not leave the liquid.
Examples of Liquids: Water, alcohol, benzene, milk, mercury, kerosene oil, etc.
 MATTER

2. Temperature and boiling

 Purpose:
To dispel the misconception that the temperature of a liquid increases as it boils.
 Materials:
Thermometer, beaker, ring stand,clamp,water and Bunsen burner.
 Procedure:
Fill the beaker with water and fit it in the ring stand. Heat the contents of the beaker
with a Bunsen burner. Measure the temperature of water for every 30 seconds as it is heated
and boiled. Use the data to construct a graph of temperature versus time Explainthe
observation.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) exhibit both the properties of

liquids and solids. LCDs are used in calculators and wrist
watches.

1.6.3 Gas:
A gas is a state of matter, which has definite mass, but no definite shape and no definite
volume.
 Properties of Gases:
(i) A gas contained in a vessel has a definite mass.
(ii) A gas can occupy the entire space of a given vessel in which it is enclosed.
(iii) Intermolecular spaces are very, very large as compared to solids and liquids. It is due to
this reason that gases are highly compressible.
(iv) Intermolecular forces are negligible. It is due to this reason that they can fill entire space.
(v) Gases have no free surface.
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(vi) Gases expand to a large extent when heated. On cooling they contract to a large extent.
9
(vii) Gases diffuse into one another rapidly to form homogeneous mixtures. This is due to
large intermolecular spaces.
(viii) The density of the gases is extremely small as compared to solids and liquids.
 Explanation of a gas on the basis of kinetic model :
The intermolecular distances between the molecules of a gas are very large with the
result that the force of attraction between the molecules is negligible. Moreover, the
molecules have a very large kinetic energy. Thus, the molecules are free to move in any
direction and hence, can fill any space. Thus gases have no definite shape and no definite
volume. It is because of large intermolecular spaces that gases can be easily compressed.
Examples of gases: Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, etc.

3. Observing gas pressure

 Materials:
Small glass with a smooth even rim,water and index card.
 Procedure:
Fill the glass to its rim with water. Place the index card on the top of the glass. Working
over a sink, use one hand to press the index card firmly to the top of the glass. Then
quicklyinvert the glass, keeping your hand in place. Remove your hand from the index card.
What do you observe when you removed your hand?

1.7 DIFFUSION
The process in which the particles of a substance may enter spontaneously into
another substance is called diffusion.
(i) Solids do not have the property of diffusion as the movement of particles in a solid is
restricted.
(ii) Since liquids have fluidity, they undergo diffusion. Solids, liquids and gases all diffuse
into liquids.
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(iii) Gases have high intermolecular space and kinetic energy and so they diffuse very easily
10
into another.
Rate of diffusion depends on both temperature and surface area
Higher the temperature and surface area of a substance, higher is the rate of diffusion.
1.8 COMPARISON OF THE THREE STATES OF MATTER
STATES OF MATTER
PROPERTY
SOLID LIQUID GAS

Mass Definite Definite Definite

Volume Definite Definite Varies with
temperature and
pressure
Shape Definite Varies with the shape Varies with the shape of
of the container the container

Rigidity Highly rigid Less rigid Not rigid

Density High density Usually low density Very low density

Packing ofthe Most closely Less closely packed Least closely packed
particles packed

Number of Any number One (the upper None

free surfaces surface)

Expansion on Less More than solids Very large than solids

heating
Intermolecular Minimum Slightly more than Very large than solids
space solids

Intermolecular Maximum Less than the solids Negligible

Force of attraction

Motion of the Oscillatory Translatory Translatory

constituent
particles
Kinetic energy of Least Large Very large
the particles
Compressibility Incompressible Low High
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MODULE – II
11

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
In the previous module, you wouldhave studied about the three states of matter
i.e., solid, liquid and gas. By the end of this module, you will be ableto
explain the interconversion of matter.
test the purity of a substance.
differentiate gas and vapour.
differentiate boiling and evaporation.
list out the uses of interconversion of state of matter.
explain Plasma and BoseEinstein condensate.
convert o C to K and vice versa.

Familiar weather events can remind you that water exists on Earth as a liquid, a solid
and a vapour. A spring shower brings liquid raindrops and a winter blizzarddelivers solid
snowflakes. On a humid summer day, you may be uncomfortable because there is a high
concentration of water vapour in the air. As water cycles through the atmosphere, the oceans
and earth's crust, it undergoes repeated changes of state. In this section, you will learn what
conditions can control the state of a substance.
2.1 INTERCONVERSION OF MATTER INTO DIFFERENT STATES
The phenomenon of change of matter from one state to another state and back to
original state, by altering the conditions of temperature and pressure is calledthe
interconversion of matter. The various states of matter can be interchanged into one another
by altering the conditions of temperature and pressure.

2.1.1 Altering the Temperature of Matter:

(i) Interconversion of a solid into liquid and vice versa:
Solids can be converted into liquids by heating them. Similarly, liquids can be cooled to form

solids. Forexample, ice at 0oC changes into water, when heat energy is supplied to it.

Conversely, water at 0oC changes into ice on freezing.

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 Melting or Fusion: The process by which a solid changes into liquid state at a constant
12
temperature by absorbing heat energy is called melting or fusion.
 Freezing or Solidification: The process by which a liquid changes into solid state at a
constant temperature by giving out heat energy is called freezing or solidification.
 Melting point: The constant temperature at which a solid changes into the liquid state by
absorbing heat energy is called melting point.
 Freezing point: The constant temperature at which a liquid changes into the solid state
by giving out heat energy is called freezing point.
The numerical value of melting point and freezing point is same. For example, if melting point

of ice is 0oC , then freezing point of water is 0oC .

 Why is melting point determined?
The melting point of a pure substance is always a constant quantity and is a good
measure to find the purity of a solid. For example, melting point of pure ice at a pressure of

76cm of mercury is 0oC . MELTING POINTS OF COMMON SOLIDS

However, if the solid is not pure then it does Ice 0oC
not have a sharp melting point. As a matter of fact, Sodium 97oC
impurities generally reduce the melting point of a
Sulphur 119o C
pure solid. For example, the melting point of paraffin
Lead 327o C
o
wax is not sharp and can be anywhere between 62 C
Zinc 420o C
o
to 65 C , depending upon the kind of compounds
Iron 1535o C
present in it.
(ii) Interconversion of liquid into gaseous state and vice versa:
Liquids can be converted into gases by heating them. Similarly, gases can be converted into
liquids by cooling them.

For example, water at normal pressure changes into gas (steam) at 100oC by absorbing heat.

Similarly, steam at 100oC changes into water by giving out heat energy
 Boiling or Vaporisation: The process by which a liquid changes into gaseous state by
absorbing heat energy is called boiling or vaporisation.
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 Condensation or Liquefaction: The process by which a gas changes into liquid state by
13
giving out heat energy is called condensation or liquefaction.

 Boiling point: The constant temperature at which a liquid rapidly changes into gas by
absorbing heat energy is called boiling point.
 Condensation point: The constant temperature at which a gas changes into liquid by
giving out heat energy is called condensation point.
The numerical value of condensation point and boiling point is same. For example, if water

changes into steam at 100oC , then steam changes into water at 100oC .
 Why is boiling point determined?
The boiling point of any pure liquid at a
BOILING POINTS OF SOME COMMON LIQUIDS
pressure of 76cm of mercury is sharp and can be
used for finding the purity of the liquid. Water 100oC
However, the presence of impurities Ethyl alcohol 78.3o C
generally tends to increase the boiling point of a Benzene 80.2o C
liquid. For example, if a spoonful of salt is
Mercury 357o C
dissolved in pure water, its boiling point becomes

more than 100oC .

 Evaporation:The process by which a liquid slowly changes into gaseous form (vapour) at
a temperature far below its boiling point is called evaporation. Evaporation occurs at all
temperatures.
 Factors affecting evaporation:
(i) Nature of the liquid:
Lower the boiling point of a liquid, higher is the rate of evaporation.
(ii) Temperature of the liquid:
Higher the temperature of a liquid, higher is the rate of evaporation.
 MATTER

(iii) Surface area of the liquid:

14
Larger the surface area of a liquid, higher is the rate of evaporation.
(iv) Wind velocity:
In an airy place, the rate of evaporation of a liquid is faster.
(v) Humidity:
In humid air, very little evaporation takes place; while in dry air, rapid evaporation occurs.
 Evaporation causes cooling:
The process of evaporation occurs at the surface of a liquid. Some of the surface
particles take heat energy from the bulk of the liquid. So, they become more energetic and
escape into air as gas. This results in the fall of temperature of the liquid. The liquid is thus
cooled.
 Difference between evaporation and boiling:
S.No Evaporation Boiling
1. It is a spontaneous process It occurs at a particular temperature,
occurringat all temperatures called the boiling point of the liquid

2. It occurs only at the surface of It occurs throughout the mass of the liquid
the liquid with the formation of bubbles

 How does gas differ from vapour?

A gas is a substance, which has low boiling point so that it is in the gaseous state at
ordinary temperature.
Examples: Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, carbon monoxide,etc.
A vapour is the gaseous state of a substance which is a solid or liquid at ordinary
temperature.
Examples: water vapour, alcohol vapour, HCl vapour,etc.
(iii) Direct interconversion of solid into gaseous state and vice versa:
Some solids, on heating, directly change into gaseous state, without changing into the
liquid state. Conversely the gaseous state, on cooling, changes back into solid state, without
changing into the liquid state.
 Sublimation: The process by which a solid directly changes into gaseous state on heating,
without changing into the liquid state, and the gaseous state on cooling directly changes
 MATTER

into solid state is called sublimation.The product obtained from thesublimation process is
15
called sublimate.
Examples: Ammonium chloride, iodine, solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), naphthalene and
camphor.

4. Sublimation
 Purpose:
To observe the sublimation of air freshener
 Materials:
Small pieces of solid air freshener, small shallow container, 2 clear plastic cups, hot tap
water, ice and3 thick cardboard strips.
 Procedure:
Place a few pieces of air freshener in one of the
cups. [CAUTION:work in a well – ventilated room]. Bend
the cardboard strips and place them over the rim of the
cup that has the air freshener pieces. Place the second cup
inside the first. The base of the second cup should not
touch the air freshener. Adjust the cardboard stripsas
necessary. This assembly is your sublimator. Fill the top
cup with ice. Do not get any ice or water in the bottom cup.
Fill the shallow container about one-third with hot tap water. Carefully place your sublimator
in the hot water. Observewhat happen and record your observations.

2.1.2 By altering pressure:

Pressure of atmosphere helps in altering the state of matter.
When pressure is lowered, boiling point of a liquid is lowered. This helps in rapid
change of liquid into gaseous state.
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Example: Water boils at 100oC and rapidly changes into steam. However, if the atmospheric
16
pressure is lowered, it boils at a temperature far below 100oC and changes into vapour state.
Carbon dioxide is a gas under normal conditions of temperature and pressure. It can be
liquefied by compressing it to a pressure 70 times more than atmospheric pressure.
If the pressure from liquid carbon dioxide is suddenly released, some amount of it
changes into solid carbon dioxide

Why does it take longer

time to cook food in water at
higher altitudeand why does
food take less time tocook in
a pressure cooker?

2.2 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

The specific latent heat is defined as the amount of heat energy absorbed or released
per unit mass of a substance during its change of state at constant temperature.
The amount of heat energy absorbed when a substance changes from solid to liquid at
its melting point is called latent heat of fusion of the solid.
The amount of heat energy absorbed when a substance changes from liquid to vapour
at its boiling point is called latent heat of vaporisation of the liquid.
 MATTER

A summary of the interconversion of matter canbe shown as follows:-

17

The solid, liquid and vapour phases of water are in dynamic equilibrium
at 0.016oC and 0.61kPa and this is called the triple point of water. Freezing,
melting, boiling and condensation all occur at the same time.

2.3 USES OF CHANGE OF STATES OF MATTER

(i) Water can change into steam (or water vapour) and can freeze to form ice. These
changes taking place in nature, provide us with ice, snow and fresh water. Without these
changes life would not have been possible.
(ii) Water is changed into steam by absorbing heat energy which is used to drive turbines in
thermoelectric stations.
(iii) By heating metals, we can melt them. The molten metals are then poured into moulds
where they solidify to some predetermined shape. Many immovable parts of machinery
are cast out of molten metals.
(iv) By liquefying air, we can separate oxygen and nitrogen gases. Oxygen gas is then used
for artificial respiration, whereas nitrogen is used for making fertilizers.
2.4 PLASMA AND BOSE EINSTEIN CONDENSATE
We came across the three basic states of matter,namelysolids, liquids and gaseous
state in our daily life. We have even experienced some practical conditions in TV, electronics,
inthe sterilization of medical tools governing the state of mattercalled the 'plasma state' and
even a fifth state called the 'Bose – Einstein condensate'.
What are these? Why are they called so? What are their basic properties and the
factors governing these states of matter?
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2.4.1 The Plasma state of matter:

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Scientists are reported to have discovered a new state of matter which is called
plasma. This state does not fit into any of the hitherto known three states of matter. Hence, it
is often called the fourth state of matter. Plasma state consists of highly ionized gas in which
the particles exist in super energetic and super excited states.
The discovery of plasma has found some practical
applications. You must have seen fluorescent tubes and neon
sign bulbs. The fluorescent tube contains helium or some
other gas. When electric current is passed through the gas, it
produces glowing plasma, having a characteristic colour
depending upon the nature of the gas.
Plasma is produced in the sun and in the stars due to
high temperature. It is the presence of plasma that makes them emit light.
2.4.2 Bose - Einstein condensate:
In 1920, the noted Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose on the basis of his statistical
calculations gave the concept of the fifth state of matter. Einstein too predicted the possibility
of such a state. Later three American scientists succeeded in obtaining this state
bysupercooling a gas of extremely low density. The process is called Bose-Einstein
condensation, and this state of matter is called Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). More details
about this state is a subject of higher studies.
2.5 RELATION BETWEEN CELSIUS(0C) AND KELVIN (K)
0o C is related to K as follows
=t C (273.15 + t ) K
For example 0o C = 273.15 + 0 = 273.15 K
=
20 C 273.15 + 20 = 293.15 K

100oC = 273.15 + 100 = 373.15 K

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Exercise
19

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Example for a solid at room temperature
(a) wood (b) iodine (c) dry ice (d) all the above
2. Which of the following is a fluid?
(a) water (b) nitrogen (c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
3. _____________ is an example to explain compressibility of gas.
(a) water gas (b) CNG (c) coal gas (d) all the above
4. The smell of food being cooked reaches us by the process
(a) vaporisation (b) condensation (c) diffusion (d) osmosis
5. Palm feel cold when we put _____________
(a) oil (b) lime water (c) acetone (d) gold
6. Plasma state is used in
(a) tube light (b) discharge tubes (c) neon sign blub (d) all the above
7. Ice floats on the surface of water because
(a) it is lighter than water (b) the density of both water and ice is the same
(c) ice is a solid form of water (d) none of these
8. The smell of perfume spreads out by a process known as
(a) diffusion (b) evaporation (c) condensation (d) fusion
9. Cooling is observed on
(a) evaporation (b) condensation (c) sublimation (d) none of these
10. As the pressure of air decreases, the boiling point of a liquid ___________
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) remains fixed (d) none of these
11. The conversion of a liquid into gas is called
(a) sublimation (b) gasification (c) freezing (d) vaporisation
12. The temperature at which a liquid changes into vapour is called
(a) melting point (b) boiling point (c) eutectic point (d) critical point
13. ___________ objects absorb more heat
(a) black (b) white (c) green (d) yellow
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14. ___________ are incompressible.

20
(a) Gases (b) Liquid (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Solids
15. ___________ the wind velocity, higher is the rate of evaporation.
(a) lower (b) higher (c) normal (d) all the above conditions
II. Fill in the blanks
1. The compressibility of a gas is _______________.
2. A _______________has a definite shape.
3. _______________ have high melting points.
4. Anything that occupies space, has mass and offer resistance is called _______________.
5. Matter changes its state with the change in _______________.
6. The kinetic energy of the particle is increased by _______________.
7. Density is measured in _______________.
8. The change of solid into gas is called _______________.
9. A substance is a form of matter that has a _______________ composition.
10. Matter is made up of very small _______________.
III. True or False
1. The volume of a gas expands on cooling.
2. The conversion of a gas into liquid is called condensation.
3. All the material substances contain small particles.
4. Matter has no volume.
5. Solid, liquid and gas are three states of matter.
o
6. Water has boiling point 100 C.
7. Two gases can diffuse into each other.
8. Solids can flow.
9. The intermolecular force of attraction are greater in solids than in liquids.
10. Rapid evaporation depends on the surface area exposed to atmosphere.
IV. Short answer questions
1. How does water kept in an earthen pot become cold during summer?
2. Why are we able to sip hot tea or milk faster from saucer than from a cup?
3. What type of clothes should we wear in summer?
4. Why is solid carbon dioxide known as dry ice?
 MATTER

5. How is ammonia gas liquefied?

21
6. What are the two ways in which the physical state of matter can be changed?
7. Define the term “latent heat of fusion”.
o o
8. Which contains more heat: 1 kg of water at 100 C or 1 kg of steam at 100 C? Give reason
for you answer.
9. What is sublimation? Name two substances which undergo sublimation.
10. Draw the ‘states of matter triangle’, to show the interconversion of states of matter.
V. Long answer questions
1. (a) What are the three states of matter. State two characteristic properties of each.
(b) Why does a gas exert pressure?
2. What is evaporation? Why does evaporation cool a liquid? How can the evaporation of a
liquid be made faster?
3. (a)How does perspiration or sweating help keep our body cool on a hot day?
(b)Why does an air cooler cool better on a hot, dry day.
4. (a) Explain briefly how gases can be liquefied.
(b) How does applying pressure help in the liquefaction of a gas?
5. (a) Define matter. Give four examples of matter.
(b) What are the conditions for ‘something’ to be called ‘matter’?
6. Compare the properties of the three states of matter.
7. (a) Name two gases of air which dissolve in water by diffusion. What is the
importance of this process?
(b) Why do gases diffuse very fast?
8. Can air be compressed? Mention an activity to justify your answer.
9. State five postulates of kinetic theory of matter.
10. On the basis of kinetic theory of matter, explain.
(i) Melting of solid
(ii) Vaporisation of liquid.
Chapter
ATOMIC STRUCTUREATOMIC STRUCTURE
2
22
MODULE - I

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module, you will be able to
describe the concept of divisibility of matter.
explainDalton's atomic theory.
describethe evidence for the existence and properties of electrons and protons.
describeThomson's atomic model.
describethe main features of Rutherford's model of an atom.
explainthe discovery of neutrons.

INTRODUCTION
Have you ever beenaskedto believe in something you couldn't see? Using your eyes,
you cannot see the tiny fundamental particles that make up matter. We know that the
complicated structures of matter have basic structural and functional units. Let us examine
this with reference to a storybook.
Consider a storybook. It contains different stories written in the form of paragraphs,
which in turn are a group of sentences. Sentences are formed according to certain rulesby
combining different words, and thesewords are nothing but a meaningful group of some
letters. Hence, a letter is the structural unit of alanguage, including that in the storybook.
Analogous to the example, let us divide and subdivideour subject of concern, that is,
chemistry. Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter consistsof
substances which are made of molecules. Molecules are group of atoms combined in a specific
way. Thus, the unit structure of chemistry are the atoms. We can call them as the building
blocks or letters of chemistry. Thus, an atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains
its identity in a chemical reaction.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

23

You are never actually touching anything. Your atoms’electrons repel

objects when they are 10-8meters away from you,but you can feel the force of
resistance.

1.1 CONCEPT OF DIVISIBILITY

The concept of the atom intrigued a number of early scholars. Although these
philosophers and scientists could not observeindividual atoms, they were still able to propose
ideas on the structure of atoms.
According to the Indian philosopherMaharishi Kanad,if we go on dividing matter, we
will get smaller and smaller particles. Eventually, a stage will be reached wherein we will
come across the smallest particle, beyond which further division will not be possible. He
named these particles "paramanu" (meaningvery small, ultimate building blocks in Sanskrit).
The Greek philosopher Democritus believed that atoms were indivisible and
indestructible. He named the ultimate particles"atomos" (theuncutor the indivisible in Greek).
The ideas of Kanad and Democritus remained forgotten for a very long time until the
British Scientist John Dalton revivedthem in the earlynineteenth century.
By using experimental methods, Dalton transformed Democritus’ ideason atoms into a
scientific theory. The result was Dalton's atomic theory, which includes the ideas listed below.
1. All elements are composed of tinyindivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical. The atoms of any one element are different
from those of any another element.
3. Atoms of different elements can physically mix together or can chemically combine in
simple whole number ratioto form compounds.
4. Chemical reaction occurs when atoms are separated, joined or rearranged. Atoms of one
element, however, are never changed into atoms of another elementas a result of a
chemical reaction.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Much of Dalton's atomic theory is accepted today. One important change, however, is
thatthe atoms are now known to be divisible. In the late 19thcentury, experiments conducted
24
by Thomson and Goldstein, during a study of electrical conduction in gases, led to the
discovery of particles smaller than the atom. The particles are called the subatomic particles
and they are electrons, protons and neutrons. Now, let us see how these particles were
discovered.

How small an atom is?

1.2 CATHODE RAYS AND ELECTRONS

A. Discovery of cathode rays:
Much of the information about electrons is obtained
from the study of cathode rays, during the experiments with
discharge tubes. A discharge tube is a long glass tube
containing a gas at low pressure.
This tube is fitted with metal electrodes on either end
across which high voltage can be applied. The tube is also
connected to a vacuum pump for controlling the pressure of the gas inside the discharge tube.
On applying high voltage, cathode rays are generated from the cathode and they glow on the
spot where they fall upon.
B. Properties of cathode rays:
(i) Cathode rays travel in straight lines: An object
placed in the path of cathode rays casts a sharp
shadow. It shows that the cathode rays travel in
straight lines.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

(ii) Heating effect: When cathode rays are focused on a thin metal foil, it gets heated to
incandescence.
25
(iii) Cathode rays consist of material particles: This is indicated by the fact that a light
paddle wheel placed in the path of the cathode rays starts rotating.

(iv) Effect of electrical field: When electric field is

applied to a stream of cathode rays, they get
deflected towards the positive plate. It shows that
cathode rays are negatively charged.
(v) Effect of magnetic field: When magnetic field is
applied, the cathode rays get deflected. The
direction of deflection again indicates that the cathode rays are negatively charged.
(vi) On striking against the walls of the discharge tube, cathode rays produce faint greenish
fluorescence.
(vii) Cathode rays ionise the gas through which they pass.
(viii)Cathode rays produce X-rays when they are made to fall on metals such as tungsten,
copper etc.
(ix) They can penetrate through thin metal foils.
(x) The charge to mass ratio (e/m) for the particles in cathode rays is independent of the
nature of the gas taken in the discharge tube or the nature of the cathode.
The above mentioned properties of cathode rays indicates that they consist of
fast-moving negatively charged particles. These particles were named electrons.
C. Characteristics of an electron:
-19
1. The absolute charge on an electron is -1.6 x 10 C. Assuming the above charge equal to
unit electric charge, we can say that the relative charge on an electron is −1.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

2. The absolute mass of an electron is 9.1 x 10-28 g. However, if the above mass is compared
with 1 atomic mass unit (amu), then the relative mass of an electron is 1/1837 amu or
26
1/1837 times the mass of one atom of hydrogen.

The television picture tube is a cathode ray tube in which a picture is

produced due to fluorescence on the television screen coated with a
suitable material. Similarly, fluorescent light tubes are also cathode ray
tubes coated inside with suitable materials which produce visible light on being hit with
cathode rays.

1.3 ANODE RAYS AND PROTONS

A. Anode rays (or) Canal rays:
Goldstein is credited with the discovery of
protons, the positively charged particles. He reasoned
that if electrons are knocked out from a gas at low
pressure, then there must be some residual positively
charged particles left. The particles must move
towards cathode and hence, get discharged. However, if
the cathode is perforated, then some of these particles
must pass through it. These particles could be detected by zinc sulphide screen on which they
will cause scintillations.
Goldstein set up an apparatus as shown in the figure on the right. When high voltage
electric discharge was passed through discharge tube, the scintillations were produced on
zinc sulphide screen as expected by Goldstein. These scintillations were due to positively
charged particles. Further, experiments were conducted on these positively charged particles.
B. Properties of anode rays:
(i) Anode rays travel in straight lines.
(ii) Anode rays consist of material particles.
(iii) Anode rays are deflected by electric field towards the negatively charged plate. This
indicates that they are positively charged.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

(iv) Anode rays are deflected by magnetic field. The direction of the deflection indicates that
they are positively charged.
27
(v) Charge to mass ratio (e/m) of the particles in the anode rays depends upon the nature of
the gas taken in the discharge tube and (e/m) ratio is much less than that of an electron.
C. Characteristics of a proton:
-19
(i) The electric charge on a proton is +1.6 x 10 C.
-24
(ii) The mass of proton is 1.67 x 10 g. It is estimated that a proton is 1837 times as heavy
as an electron.

What could be the reason

for the brilliant colours in
northern lights?

1.4 THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL

With the discovery of electrons and protons, it was important to know, how these
particles were arranged within an atom. The atomic model proposed by
J.J.Thomson at that time is called plum-pudding model.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

J.J.Thomson believed that an atom is made up of positively charged substance in the

form of a sphere. Into this sphere are embedded electrons, much the same way as plums in
28
pudding. Furthermore, the total positive charge of the sphere is equal to the total negative
charge of electrons and hence, the atom remains electrically neutral.
Drawback:
J.J. Thomson’s model of an atom was not accepted by the fellow physicists, as it was
unable to explain how positively charged particles were shielded from negatively charged
particles, without getting neutralised.
1.5 RUTHERFORD’S ATOMICMODEL - DISCOVERY OF NUCLEUS
A. Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment:
Rutherford in 1911, performed an experiment which led to the downfall of Thomson’s
model. The experiment involved the bombardment of a thin sheet of gold (thickness of
-5
4 x 10 cm) by alpha (α) particles. These particles were obtained in the form of a narrow
beam by passing through a slit in the lead plate.
A circular screen coated with zinc sulphide( ZnS ) was placed around the foil to detect
the deflection suffered by α-particles as shown in the figure.
(i) Most of the α-particles (nearly 99 %) passed through the gold foil undeflected.
(ii) Some of the α-particles were deflected by small angles.
(iii) A few particles (1 in about 106) were either deflected by a very large angle or were
actually reflected back along their path.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

B. Explanation for the observations:

29
Since most of the α-particles passed through the foil undeflected, most of the space in
an atom is empty.α-particles being positively charged and having considerable mass could be
deflected only by some heavy, positively charged centre. The small angle of deflections of
α-particles indicated the presence of a heavy positive centre in the atom. This positive centre
is thenucleus.
α-particles which make head-on collisions with the heavy positive centre are deflected
through large angles. Since the number of such α-particles is very small, the space occupied by
the heavy positive centre must be very small.
C. Rutherford’s atomic model:
From the experiment discussed above, Rutherford proposed the following model of an atom :
i. The volume occupied by an atom mostly consists of large empty space.
It is supported by the fact that most of the alpha particles pass through the gold foil
without deflection.
ii. The nucleus is located within the atom, containing positively charged particles.
It is because only a few alpha particles get deflected when they approach the nucleus very
closely.
iii. The size of the nucleus must be very small as compared to the total volume of the atom.
This fact can easily be understood. because most of the alpha particles pass through the
gold foil.
iv. The electrons within an atom must revolve around the nucleus at various distances at a very
high speed, so that they can counterbalance the electrostatic force of attraction between the
positively charged nucleus by centrifugal force.
In a way, Rutherford likened the structure of the atom to the solar system. i.e., just as in
the solar system, the sun is having the maximum mass and planets revolve around it.
Similarly, in an atom, the nucleus forms the main mass of an atom and the electrons revolve
around it at various distances.
D. Drawback of Rutherford’s atomic model:
The comparison of electrons to the planets in the solar system is the main drawback of
Rutherford’s atomic model.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

According to classical electrodynamics, if an electrically charged particle revolves around a

circular path, itcontinuously radiates out energy. Thus, if an electron moves around the
30
nucleus, it must continuously radiate out energy and hence, gradually move towards the
nucleus in a spiral path, till it collides with the nucleus.
However, we know that the atom is very stable and Rutherford’s model could not
explain this stability.

1. Atomic model
 Materials:
Box containing a regularly shaped object fixed in place and a loose marble.
 Procedure:
1. Do not open the box.
2. Manipulate the box so that the marble moves around the fixed object.
3. Gather data (clues) that describe the movement of the marble.
4. Sketch a picture of the object in the box, showing its shape, size and location within the
box.
5. Repeat this activity with a different box containing a different object.
Analysis and conclusions:
1. Find a classmate who had the same lettered box that you had and compare yourfindings.
2. What experiment that contributed to a better understanding of the atom does this remind
you of?

1.6 DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON

We know that the mass of an atom is concentrated within its nucleus and the electrons
have practically negligible mass as compared to protons. Thus, the atomic mass of an element
should be equal to the mass of its protons.However, when the number of protons were
calculated in the nucleus of an atom and their mass was found out, it was discovered that the
mass of total number of protons was far less than the atomic mass calculated experimentally.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

For example, in case of helium, there are two protons in its nucleus and hence, its atomic mass
should be 2 x 1.008 = 2.016 amu. However, experimental value of atomic mass of helium is
31
4.003 amu.
James Chadwick (1932), while studying the bombardment of light elements, such as
beryllium, boron and lithium, by fast moving α-particles obtained highly penetrating
radiations. These radiations were found to have high ionizing power and were not deflected
by electric or magnetic field. These neutral particles were found to have mass of about
1.675 × 10−24 g and were named neutrons. The reactions responsible for the production of
neutron were later found to be

2 He + 4 Be 9 → 126 C +
4
0n 1

(α − particle ) ( neutron)
4
2 He + 11
5 B → 14
7 N + 10n

Thus, a neutron is defined as a sub–atomic particle which has mass almost equal to that of a

( )
proton 1.675 × 10−27 kg but has no charge.

This discovery led to the modification of Rutherford's atomic model. In that model,
nucleusconsistsof protonsand neutronsand these are collectively termed as nucleons. The
entire mass of the atom is due to the number of nucleonspresent in the atom.
Mass and charges of major subatomic particles:
Particle Symbol Charge Mass in atomic mass unit (amu)
Electron 0
e or e − − 1 or 1.6 or × 10−19 C 1
−1
0.00054 amu or of hydrogen atom
1837
Proton 1
+1 p or P + + 1 or 1.6 × 10−9 C 1.0073 amu ≅ 1.008 amu

Neutron 1
0 n or n0 Zero 1.0087 ≅ 1.009 amu

Every year about 98 % of atoms in your body are replaced and an atom is over
99.9 % empty space.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

32
MODULE - II

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module, you will be able to
describe atomic number, mass number , isotopes, isobars and isotones.
explain Bohr's atomic model.
explain modern atomic model.
describe Bohr's Bury scheme.
describe the quantum numbers.
explain Pauli's exclusion principle, Aufbau principle and Hund's rule.

2.1 ATOMIC NUMBER

Moseley reasoned that as the atom is neutral, the charge of the nucleus is equal and
opposite to the charge of the electrons revolving around the nucleus. He therefore, devised an
experiment to determine the positive charge on the nucleus of an atom. Having done that, he
proposed that the charge on the nucleus is a fundamental characteristic of the element that
determines its properties. He called this property “atomic number”.
Positive charge on the nucleus is due to the presence of protons and each proton
carries one unit positive charge. The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus of its atom.
Further in an atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. Hence
atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom of the element.

Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons or Number of electrons.

2.2 MASS NUMBER

The mass of an atom is mainly concentrated in the nucleus.In the nucleus, there are
protons and neutrons. So the mass of an atom is mainly due to protons and neutrons. Protons
and neutrons are collectively called nucleons. Total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus is called mass number of the atom. It is generally represented by the letter A.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Mass Number(A) = number of protons + number of neutrons = numbers of nucleons

33

An element is represented as ZA X , where X denotes the symbol of the element, subscript Z

denotesthe atomic number, subscript A denotes the mass number.

Given the atomic number and mass number of an element, the number of each
fundamental particle can be calculated.
Element Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
number number protons neutrons electrons
(Z) (A) (Z) (A − Z) (Z)

1 H1 1 1 1 0 1

9 F 19 9 19 9 10 9

18 A40 18 40 18 22 18

A Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) holds a one atom sized tip

over a sample that conducts electricity. Electric current flows between the tip
and the sample

2.3 ISOTOPES
Fruits and vegetables come in different varieties. For example, a grocery store might
sell three varieties of apple. Apple varieties can differ in colour, size,aroma, texture and taste.
Just as apples come in differentvarieties, a chemical element can come in different
varietiescalled isotopes.
While working with neon, J.J.Thomson observed two kinds of neon atoms. They were
exactly alike chemically but different in mass. Atoms of the same element that differ in mass
number are called isotopes. Isotopes have the same number of protons but different number
of neutrons. For example, the isotopes of neon are neon-20, which has 10 neutrons, neon-21,
which has 11 neutrons, and neon-22, which has 12 neutrons.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Because an atom is electrically neutral, the number of electrons must be equal to the number
of protons. The mass difference of isotopes must be due to the different numbers of neutrons
34
in the nucleus. Thus, the number of protons determines the identity of the element and the
number of neutrons determines the particular isotope of the element.
Thus, isotopes of an element are the atoms of the element with same atomic number but
different mass-number.
 Isotopes of Hydrogen: Hydrogen has three isotopes, Protium(H), Deuterium(D) and
Tritium(T). All the three isotopes have atomic number 1, however the mass numbers are 1, 2
and 3 respectively.
The isotopes of hydrogen can be represented as 11 H , 12H and 31 H . They have 0, 1 and 2 neutrons

respectively.
 Isotopes of Carbon: Carbon has three isotopes, 12
6 C , 13
6 C ,and 6 C . All three isotopes have 6
14

electrons and 6 protons each. The number of neutrons in 12

6 C ,13
6 C ,and 6 C
14
is 6, 7 & 8

respectively. 12
6 C is the most abundant isotope. 14
6 C is radioactive.

A. Properties of Isotopes:
a. All isotopes of an element have the same atomic number, i.e. the same number of protons
and electrons. Therefore, they have the same number of valence electrons, same valency
and same chemical properties.
b. As different isotopes have different mass numbers, they have different physical properties
like mass, density, melting point, boiling point, etc.
B. Fractional Atomic Masses:
Naturally occurring samples of many elements consist of two or more isotopes in
varying proportions. As a result, the atomic weight of the element is the weighted average of
the atomic weights of the different isotopes taken in proportion of its abundance in the
sample. For example, naturally occurring chlorine (in NaCl say) consists of two isotopes in the
following proportions: 25% in 17
37
Cl and 75% is 17
35
Cl . As a result, the atomic weight of chlorine

is 35.5 amu as calculated below.

Atomic weight = 25% of 37 + 75% of 35 = 35.5
As a result of the presence of isotopes, many elements have fractional atomic weights.
Examples: zinc− 65.37, Iron − 55.85, boron − 10.81, copper − 63.5, mercury −200.59,
nickel −58.71, etc.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

2.4 ISOBARS
35
Atoms whose atomic numbers are different but mass numbers are same are called
isobars.
Some important examples of isobars are as follows:
Argon 18 Ar 40 , Potassium 19 K 40 and calcium 20 Ca40 are isobars.

2.5 ISOTONES
Atoms of different element, in which number of electrons and protonsare different, but
their number of neutrons are same, are called isotones. For example, in radium and actinium,
despite having same number of neutrons (138), they show different properties because
number of protons present in them are different.
Isotones Z A Electrons Protons Neutrons

11 Na23 11 23 11 11 23 − 11 = 12
12 24 12 12 24 − 12 = 12
12 Mg24
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

36

2. Atomic mass
 Materials:
3 different coloured drawing pins (each 25),pen and balance.
 Procedure:
Treat each colour of drawing pin as an isotope. Separatethe three isotopes into groups
labeled A, B and C and measure the mass of each isotope. Count the number of atoms in each
isotope.
Calculate the following with the help of the formulae given below and fill the table.

Tips for calculation:-

Total mass
1. Average mass =
Number of particles
Number of particles
2. Relative abundance =
Total number of particles
3. Percentage abundance = Relative abundance × 100
4. Relative mass = Relative abundance × Average mass
5. Weighted average mass = Sum of all relative masses= atomic mass
Determine the atomic mass of the second isotope and compare it with the first. Suggest
reasons for any differences between the samples.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

2.6 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

37
In 1913, Neil Bohr, a young Danish physicist, suggested that the classical laws of
mechanics and electro-dynamics cannot be used to describe the motion of electrons around
the nucleus. He suggested that the electrons revolving around the nucleus are confined to
certain fixed orbits (shells or energy levels) and envelop the nucleus, much the same way, as
the skin of an onion. The electrons do not lose any energy, while revolving around the
nucleus.
He further suggested that the electrons cannot move in
the areas between two orbits. He called those areas asforbidden
territories. However, he suggested that an electron revolving in
some particular orbit, on gaining certain fixed amount of
energy, can jump to the next orbit and vice versa. However, the
electron will not position itself in between the space of two
orbits.
As for moving from one orbit to another orbit, the electrons have to absorb or radiate
out some fixed amount of energy, therefore, these orbits are called energy levels.
For the sake of convenience, the orbits (shells) or energylevels are given specific names.
If an electron is revolving in the shell closest to the nucleus, then that electron is called K -
electron and the shell in which it is revolving is known asK - shell. The various shells and
energy level are shown in the figure on the right.Bohr explained how the energy of an atom
changes when it absorbs or emits light. His model
gave results in arrangement with the experiment for the hydrogen atom. However, it still
failed in many ways to explain the energies absorbed or emitted by atoms with more than one
electron.
2. 7 MODERN VIEWS ABOUT STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Imagine a person whirling a big fire sparkler attached to a
string in all possible directions. It is practically impossible for you
to tell, where the sparkle is at some particular position as the
glow of sparkle will appear to encircle the man in the form of
glowing sphere. Exactly, the same way, electrons are believed to
spin around the nucleus.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Let us take the case of simplest of all the atoms, i.e., hydrogen atom, which has one
electron and one proton. The electron revolves around the nucleus in an elliptical path which
38
continuously changes its direction as illustrated in figure. The electron comes closer to the
nucleus and then moves away from it, before taking another path.
As this electron moves within the atom at an extremely high speed, it can make billions
of revolutions around the nucleus in one second. In a way, we can say that the nucleus is
surrounded by an envelope or sphere of negative charge, in which the possibility of finding
electron is anywhere and everywhere.
This spherical configuration in which the electron revolves is called electron cloud.
The electron cloud is a blurred region in space with no boundary. In certain regions the
probability of finding the electron is high and in certain regions it is low.
The probability of finding the electron in the region with the criss cross lines is high.
Elsewhere inside and outside this region, it is much lower.
2.7.1 Summary of modern atomic model:
After the careful study of the research done by J.J. Thomson, Rutherford, Neil Bohr,
Chadwick and other physicists, the following model of atom is proposed:
1. The smallest unit of matter is an atom. The atom consists of
sub-atomic particles which have a definite mass.
2. All atoms have a central core called nucleus, which is
surrounded by electrons.
3. The nucleus has a positive charge. The magnitude of positive
charge of a nucleus is different for different elements.
4. An atom is electrically neutral, such that the total positive
charge on the nucleus is equal to the total negative charge of
the electrons revolving around the nucleus.
5. The mass of an atom is entirely the mass of its nucleus, as electrons have practically
negligible mass.
6. All electrons have same electric charge, which cannot be subdivided.
7. Every nucleus is an assembly of protons and neutrons.
8. The mass of a proton is essentially equal to the mass of an atom of hydrogen.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

9. All protons are identical and have a charge equal and opposite to the charge of an
electron.
39
10. Neutrons have no electric charge. However, their mass is almost the same as the mass of
one atom of hydrogen.
11. The volume of an atom is the volume of the electron cloud surrounding it.
12. The ratio of volume of an atom to the volume of the nucleus is 1012: 1 or even more.

3. Evolution of atomic model

Compare the evolution of the car to the development of the atomic model, in particular
the roleof scientific discoveries and new technologies.

2.9 CONTRADICTION TO DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY BY MODERN ATOMIC THEORY

S.No. Dalton's atomic theory Modern atomic theory
1 Matter consists of small Atom is no longer indivisible, but consists of
indivisible particles called atoms
neutrons, protons and electrons
2 Atoms of same element are All atoms have isotopes. It means some of the
similar in all aspects atoms of an element have different atomic
weights
3 Atoms of different elements are Atoms of different elements are similar in
different in all aspects some aspects. For example, atoms of argon
and calcium have same atomic weight
4 Atoms combinein small whole Atoms in organic compounds do not combine
number ratioto form molecules in small whole number ratio. The molecules of
proteins are highly complex

2.8 ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM

(i) Orbit:
An orbit or shell is a circular path around the nucleus in which the electrons revolves.
These are represented by the symbol K, L, M and N.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

(ii) Orbital:
An orbital is the region around the nucleus within which the probability of finding an
40
electron is maximum. These are represented by the symbols s,p,d and f. It represents three
dimensional motion of an electron around the nucleus.
We know that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits and have energy
associated with them. We also know that the electrons while revolving around the nucleus do
not lose energy and their number is always equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
However, the problem is we do not know how many electrons revolve in any particular
shell. The distribution of electrons in various shells was resolved by Bohr and Bury and is
commonly called Bohr -Bury scheme of electronic configuration.
2.10 BOHR - BURY SCHEME OF ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
(a) The maximum number of electrons which can be present in any shell of an atom is given
2
by the formula 2n , where n is the shell number as counted from the nucleus. Thus,
according to the above formula:
2
Maximum no. of electrons in the first shell (K - shell) = 2n2 = 2(1) = 2
2
Maximum no. of electrons in the second shell (L - shell) = 2n2 = 2(2) = 8
2
Maximum no. of electrons in the third shell (M - shell) = 2n2 = 2(3) = 18
2
Maximum no. of electrons in the fourth shell (N - shell) = 2n2 = 2(4) = 32
(b) The outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons and the second last cannot have
more than 18 electrons.
(c) It is not necessary for a given shell to be completely full before another shell starts
forming. As a rule, the new shell is formed as soon as the outermost shell attains eight
electrons.
(d) An atom becomes stable (it stops reacting chemically with other elements) when its
outermost shell has eight electrons (octet rule), or it has only one shell containing two
electrons (duplet rule).
2.11 QUANTUM NUMBERS
We have studied that the orbital is thearea around the nucleus in which the probability
of finding the electron is maximum. However, an atom contains a large number of orbitals,
which are distinguishedby their size, shape and direction in space. The parameters by which
the orbitals are distinguishedcan be expressed by a set of number known as quantum
numbers.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

These are designated as principal quantum number (n), azimuthal quantum number (l)
magnetic quantum number (m) and spin quantum number (s).
41
2.11. 1 Principal quantum number (n):
This is an important quantum number which gives the following information about the
electron.
(i) This refers to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus i.e., it relates to the
size of the electron cloud.
(ii) It denotes the energy level to which it belongs.
(iii) It gives information about the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated
in any shell. The number of electrons in any shell is given by 2n2.
2.11.2 Azimuthal or Angular momentum quantum Number (l):-
This quantum number is denoted by 'l' and gives the following information about the
electron.
(i) It tells the number of sub shells within the given principal energy shell to which the
electrons belong. For a given value of principal quantum number 'n', the azimuthal
quantum number 'l', may have all integral values from 0 to (n-1) , each of which
represent a different sub energylevel or sub shell. These sub shellsare designated by
letters s, p, d and f for which l = 0,1,2 and 3 respectively.

n 1 2 3 4
l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
Sub shell s s p s p d s p d f
Designation of sub shell 1 s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f

The total number of sub shells for a given principal shell is equal to the value of n.
(ii) It tells about the relative energies of sub shellsbelonging to the same shell. The energies
of thesub shellspresent in the same principal shell are in the following order.
s<p<d<f
Increasing energy
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

(iii) The value of lrefersto the shape of the sub shells. For example,
l Sub shell Shape of sub shells
42

0 s Spherical
1 p Dumbbell
2 d Double dumbbell
3 f Complex shape
2.11.3 Magnetic quantum number (m):
This quantum number describes the behaviorof electron in a magnetic field.
Magneticquantum number gives the number of permitted orientations of sub shells. For
example, for a given value of 'l', the possible values of 'm' range from -lto 0 to +l. Each value of
m corresponds to one atomic orbital.
For example,
for s-sub shell, l=0 m=0 i.e., s-sub shellhas one orbital
for p-sub shell, l=1 m = -1, 0,+1 i.e., p-sub shellhas three orbitals
for d-sub shell, l=2 m =-2,-1, 0,+1,+2 i.e., d-sub shellhas five orbitals
for f-sub shell, l=3 m =-3,-2,-1, 0, +1,+2,+3 i.e., f-sub shellhas seven orbitals
2.11.4 Spin quantum number (s):
It has actually been observed that the electron in an atom is not only revolving around
the nucleus but is also spinning about its own axis. Spin quantum number accounts for the
spinning orientation of the electron. The electron in an orbital can have only two types of
spins i.e., in clockwise and anticlockwise direction. Therefore, the spin quantum number can
1 1
have only two values i.e., + and − . The two spins of the electrons in an orbital are usually
2 2
represented by arrows pointing is the opposite direction i.e., ↑and ↓ respectively.
The value of spin quantum number is independent of the values of other three
quantum numbers.
A shell is designated by the principal quantum
number (n),the sub shell by the azimuthal quantum
number (l) and the number of electrons in the sub
shellby appropriatesubscript number.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Sub shell Number of orbitals Maximum number of

Electrons
43

s 1 1×2=2
p 3 3×2=6
d 5 5 × 2 =10
f 7 7 × 2 = 14

Problem:
Whatdesignation is given to an orbital having
(i) n = 3 , l = 2 (ii) n = 5 , l = 3 (iii) n = 4 , l = 1
Solution:
(i) n = 3 , l = 2 means 3d orbital
(ii) n = 5 , l = 3 means 5f orbital
(iii) n = 4 , l = 1 means 4p orbital
2.12 RULES TO DETERMINE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
The electronic configuration of an element shows the manner in which the electrons of
an atom of the element are arranged in various atomic orbitals. The electronic configuration
of any element can be arrived by applying the following rules:
2.12.1 Pauli'sexclusion principle:
According to this principle,"no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of all
four quantum numbers”.
In other words,
(a) an orbital cannot have more than two electrons.
(b) if an orbital has two electrons, they must have opposite spin i.e., they must be paired
electrons.
↑↑× ↑↓
2.12.2 Aufbauprinciple:
In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in the increasing order of their
energies. In other words, the electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals availableto them
and then enter into the higher energy orbitals only when the lower energy orbitals are filled.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The order in which the energies of the orbitals increase and hence the order in which the
orbitals are filled are as follows:
44

2.12. 3 Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity:

This rule deals with the filling of electrons into degenerate (equal energy) orbitals of
the same sub-shell (p, d and f). According to this rule, electron pairing in p, d and f orbitals
cannot occur until each orbital of a given sub shellcontains one electron each or is singly
occupied. For example,in 7 N 14 , the electrons are filled as follows:


 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

MODULE – III
45

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module, you will be able to
explain octet and duplet rule.
write the electronic configuration of the elements.
depict the valenceelectrons of the elements.
explain chemical bonding.

3.1 THE OCTET AND DUPLET RULE

Noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon) are chemically inactive.
All the noble-gas atoms, except helium, have eight electrons in their outermost shell.
G N Lewis suggested that eight electrons in the outermost shell make the electronic
arrangement specially stable and that is why the noble gases are chemically inactive. The
group of eight electrons in the outermost shell is called an octet.
Helium, has two electrons in the outermost shell and it is also stable. The group of 2
electrons in the outermost shell is said to be duplet.
K L M N O
He 2 → Duplet
Ne 2 8
Ar 2 8 8 → Octet
Kr 2 8 18 8
Xe 2 8 18 18 8

3.2 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ATOMS AND IONS

Total number of electrons present in the atom of an element is equal to the atomic
number of that element. The distribution or arrangement of these electrons in various orbits
(shells) of the atom is called the electronic configuration of the atom of that element.
2
(i) Maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in an orbit is equal to 2n
where n is the number of the orbit.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

(ii) The outermost shell of an atom cannot have more than 8 electrons, even if it has the
capacity to accommodate more electrons. This means that the outermost shell of an
46
atom can take a maximum of 8 electrons.
(iii) The penultimate shell (last but one) cannot have more than 18 electrons.
(iv) A new shell is formed as soon as the outermost shell attains 8 electrons.
Using Pauli's exclusion principle, Aufbau principle and Hund's rule, distribute the
electrons in the orbitals and write the electronic configuration of the elements in accordance
with the shells and sub-shells.
Example 1:Write the electronic configuration 20
40
Ca .

Solution:Since atomic number is 20, it has 20 electrons. Now proceed as follows:

Fill the electrons in the increasing order of energy shells.
40
20Ca − 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

In case of shells,(i) there are 2 electrons in the 1s orbital

∴ n = 1,l = 0 K=2
(ii) there are 2 electrons in 2s orbital and 6 electrons in 2p orbital
∴ n = 2;l = 0 L=8
n = 2; l = 1
(iii)there are 2 electronsin 3s orbital and 6 electrons in 3p orbital
∴ n = 3; l = 0 M=8
n = 3; l = 1
(iv) there are 2 electrons in the 4s orbital
∴ n = 4;l = 0 N=2
The electronic configuration is
K L M N
Ca − 2 8 8 2
40
20

(or)
(i) Electrons in K, L and M shells are
2
K = 2 x 1 = 2,
2
L = 2 x 2 = 8 and
M = 20-(2 + 8) = 10
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

(ii) Since the outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons, the number of electrons in
M-shell would be equal to 8 and two electrons will go to N-shell. Thus, the electronic
47
configuration of 20Ca40 = 2, 8, 8, 2.

Now, we know that, A = p + n = e + n,

40 = 20 + n
∴ n = 40 − 20 = 20.
40
Thus the nucleus of 20 Ca contains 20 protons and 20 neutrons.

3.2.1 Exceptional electronic configuration:

Chromium and copper have exceptional electronic configuration as half filled (or)
completely filled atomic orbitals are more stable.
Chromiumwith atomic number 24, should have an electronic configuration of
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4. But it has the electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5,
makingthe d and s-orbitals half filled, which leads to greater stability.
Copper with atomic number 29, should have an electronic configuration of
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9.But it has the electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10 , making
the d-orbital completely filled which leads to greater stability.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS

48

Atomic Name and symbol Electronic Electronic configuration in

Number of the element configuration in various shells
(Z) sub shells (n=1) (n=2) (n=3) (n=4)
K L M N
1 Hydrogen (H) 1s1 1
2 Helium (He) 1s2 2
3 Lithium(Li) 1s2 2s1 2 1
4 Beryllium (Be) 1s2 2s2 2 2
5 Boron (B) 1s2 2s2 2p1 2 3
6 Carbon (C) 1s2 2s2 2p2 2 4
7 Nitrogen (N) 1s2 2s2 2p3 2 5
8 Oxygen (O) 1s2 2s2 2p4 2 6
9 Fluorine (F) 1s2 2s2 2p5 2 7
10 Neon (Ne) 1s2 2s2 2p6 2 8
11 Sodium (Na) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 2 8 1
12 Magnesium (Mg) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 2 8 2
13 Aluminium (Al) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 2 8 3
14 Silicon (Si) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 2 8 4
15 Phosphorous (P) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 2 8 5
16 Sulphur (S) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 2 8 6
17 Chlorine (Cl) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 2 8 7
18 Argon (Ar) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 2 8 8
19 Potassium (K) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 2 8 8 1
20 Calcium (Ca) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 2 8 8 2
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

3.3 GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

49
The electronic configuration of an atom can be derived using the rules discussed
earlier. It can be represented geometrically along with information regarding the number of
protons and neutrons in the atom.
Example 1: 11 H (1p, 0n) Example 2: 16
8 O (8p, 8n)

Example 3: 27
13 Al (13p, 14n) Example 4: 40
20 Ca (20p, 20n)

4. Electronic configuration
For the first 30 elements, write the electronic configuration by filling the
electrons in the orbitals and design an atomic model of an element.

3.4 VALENCY & METALLIC NATURE

3.4.1 Valence electrons:
The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are known as valence electrons and the
outermost shell is called valenceshell. To determine the number of valence electrons in an
element, the atomic number is first determined. As the atomic number is the number of
protons or electrons in an atom of an element, the electronic configuration of the element is
now determined. The number of electrons in the outermost shell is the number of valence
electrons in the element. As the outermost shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons, the
number of valence electrons in any element is a number between 1 and 8.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

For example, an atom of chlorine has 17 electrons as its atomic number is 17. The
electronic configuration is 2, 8, 7. Therefore, there are 7 valence electrons in all chlorine
50
atoms. The atomic number of aluminium is 13. Therefore, each atom of aluminium has 13
electrons. The electronic configuration of aluminium is 2, 8, 3. Aluminium has 3 valence
electrons.A hydrogen atom, having only the K shell, can achieve the maximum of two
electrons, i.e., a duplet. The atomic number of hydrogen is 1 and it has 1 electron. The
electronic configuration is 1. Therefore, the valence electron is 1.
3.4.2 Valence electrons and chemical properties of elements:
Protons and neutrons do not participate in chemical changes. It is only the electrons in
the outermost shell that participate in chemical reactions and determine the chemical
properties of an element. Therefore, the outermost electrons of an atom determine the
combining capacity or valency of an element. That is why the outermost electrons as known
as valence electrons.
(i) All atoms having similar number of valence electrons undergo similar chemical changes
and hence have similar chemical properties. For example, the atoms of lithium
(electronic configuration 2,1), sodium (electronic configuration 2,8,1) and potassium
(electronic configuration 2,8,8,1) have the same number of valence electrons. i.e., 1.
Therefore, these elements have similar chemical properties.
(ii) Atoms having dissimilar number of valence electrons undergo dissimilar chemical
changes. Therefore, based on the number of valence electrons, we can say whether two
elements have similar or dissimilar chemical properties. For example, two elements
having electronic configurations 2,8,3 and 2,8,8,7 have dissimilar number of valence
electrons and therefore have different chemical properties.
3.4.3 Valence electrons and metallic and non-metallic nature:
(i) Elements having 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons act like metals and have the physical and
chemical properties of metals. There are two exceptions to this-hydrogen that has 1 valence
electron, is a non-metal and helium that has 2 valence electrons, is an inert gas.
Examples:
a) Lithium, sodium and potassium have one valence electron and are metals.
b) Beryllium, magnesium and calcium have two valence electrons and are metals.
c) Aluminium and gallium have three electrons and are metals as well.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

(ii) Elements having four to seven valence electrons are non-metals and have the physical
and chemical properties of non-metals. Hydrogen is an exception as it is a non-metal but
51
has one valence electron only.
Examples:
a) Carbon and silicon have four valence electrons each and are non-metals.
b) Nitrogen and phosphorus have five valence electrons each and are non-metals.
c) Oxygen and sulphur have six valence electrons each and are non-metals.
d) Fluorine and chlorine have seven valence electrons each are non-metals.
(iii)Elements having a fully complete valence shell are inert or chemically inactive. Helium has
two electrons in its one and only shell, which can hold a maximum of 2 electrons. Similarly,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon have a completely filled valence shell, i.e., 8 electron.
Hence these elements are chemically inert and are known as inert or noble gases.
3.5 CHEMICAL BONDING
 Reason for inertness of noble gases:
As mentioned earlier, it is the valence electrons that determine the chemical nature of
an element. We also saw that the noble gases are chemically inactive. The reason for this is the
stable outermost electronic configuration which means they have minimum energy.
(i)Helium has only one shell and has two electrons. It has duplet structure or it is said to
satisfy the Law of Duplet or Duplet Rule. The law of Duplet states that if an atom has two
electrons in its outermost shell, which is also the first shell, then it is stable and hence chemically
inert.
(ii) Neon and the remaining noble gases have 8 electrons in the outermost shell. They have
octet structure or are said to satisfy the Law of Octet or Octet Rule. The Octet Rule states that
an atom having 8 electrons in the outermost shell is chemically inert as it has stable electronic
configuration.
 Reason for chemical bonding:
All elements that do not satisfy the Duplet or Octet Rule try to satisfy it to attain stable
electronic configuration (i.e., the configuration of the nearest inert gas). They chemically
combine with other atoms by either losing or gaining one or more electrons or by sharing
electrons with other atoms to form a chemical bond. The force of attraction between atoms
that have transferred electrons or have shared electrons that keeps them together is known
as the chemical bond.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

52

3.5.1The formation of ionic bond:

Electron transferfrom one atom to another results in the formation of charged species, called
ions. On losing electron(s) an atom has more protons thanelectrons, so it forms a positively
charged ion, called a cation.
On gaining electron(s), an atom has more electrons than protons, soit formsa negatively
charged ion, called an anion.
Elements which lose electrons are called electropositive elements and those which
gain electrons are called electronegative elements. Metals are electropositiveand non-metals
are electronegative. Atoms can lose or gain no more than three electrons. The valency of a
metal is equal to the number of valency electrons it loses to form the cation or gains to form
the anion. For example, 23
11 Na has electronic configuration 2,8,1. The nearest inert gas is neon

which has electronic configuration 2, 8.Therefore, when sodium combines with other
elements, it tries to achieve the octet by losing the one and only electron in its outermost
shell. The valency is +1.Similarly, 24
12 Mg has the electronic configuration 2, 8, 2 and tries to

achieve the octet by losing two electrons. The valency is +2. Chlorine on the other hand has
electronic configuration 2, 8, 7 and needs to attain the configuration of Argon. 2, 8, 8. The
valency is -1. It tries to achieve the octet by gaining one electron. Oxygen has electronic
configuration 2, 6 and needs to gain two electrons to achieve the octet.The valency is -2.
The cations and anions formed as a result of electron transfer from metals to non-metals,form
an ionic bond or electrovalent bond. The cations and anions are drawn towards each other
due to the electropositive force of attraction (Coulomb force).
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

For example,formation of NaCl : NaCl is a stable compound because it is formed by

53
atoms of sodium losing one electron to atoms of chlorine to form Na + and Cl − ions
respectively. The Na + ion has 10 electrons and 2,8 (stable) electronic configuration. The Cl −
ion has 18 electrons and 2,8,8 (stable) electronic configuration.

Sodium:“I lost an electron.”

Neon : “Are you sure?”
Sodium: “Yes, I am positive.”

3.5.2 The formation of covalent bond:

An atom can achieve the octet by sharing valence electrons with another atom. An
atom shares with another atom only as many as valence electrons as it lacks for the octet (or
duplet for hydrogen).The shared electrons revolve around both the atomic nuclei and so
belong to both of them.A chemical bond formed by the mutual sharing of valence electrons is
called a covalent bond.Covalent bonds are generally formed by non-metals.
Two atoms share electrons in pairs and each pairof electrons represents a covalent
bond.Two atoms can share only up to three pairsof electrons between them.Each shared
electron pair is equivalent to one covalent bond. Hence two atoms may have a single, a double
or a triple bond between them if they share one, two or three electron pairs respectively.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

For example, for the formation of nitrogen molecule (N 2 ), a nitrogen atom needs three
electrons to attain its octet. So, two N atoms bring 3 electrons each to share. Three pairs of
54
electrons are being shared between the two nitrogen atoms, they are triply bonded.

Similarly, for the formation of H 2 O, an oxygen atom needs two electrons for attaining the
octet. So, it shares one electron each with two H atoms to form the molecule H 2 O.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Exercise
55

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The fundamental units of matter are called atoms. This was proposed by
(a) Crooke (b) John Dalton (c) Thomson (d) Bohr
2. Which one of the following is not true about cathode rays?
(a) they contain charged particles (b) they travel in straight line
(c) they are made up of particles (d) they contain negatively charged particles
3. The (e/m) ratio is _____________ in canal rays.
(a) large and different for different gases (b) small and different for different gases
(c) large and same for all gases (d) small and same for all gases
4. α - particles are
(a) positively charged particles having no mass (b) negatively charged particles
(c) neutral particles (d) positively charged particles
5. The number of neutrons in an atom of U is
235
92

(a) 235 (b) 337 (c) 143 (d) 92

6. The charge to mass (e/m) ratio is maximum for
(a) proton (b) electron (c) neutron (d) positron
7. Elements A and B have same mass number but their atomic numbers are 18 and 20.
They are
(a) isotopes (b) isobars (c) isomers (d) isotones
8. The electronic configuration of an atom is 2, 8, 7. The number of valence electrons in the
atom is
(a) 8 (b) 1 (c) 7 (d) 2
9. Neutron was discovered by
(a) Chadwick (b) Rutherford (c) J.J.Thomson (d) Bohr
10. The number of electrons in Al3+ is
(a) 13 (b) 16 (c) 10 (d) 19
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

11. Isotone of 76
32 Ge is (are)
56
32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 34 Se
(a) 77 (b) 77 (c) 77 (d) 78

12. When α-particles are sent through a thin metal foil, most of them go straight through the
foil because
(a)α-particles are much heavier than electrons
(b) α-particles are positively charged
(c) the atom is mostly empty space.
(d) α-particles move with high velocity
13. Rutherford’s experiment on scattering of α-particles showed for the first time that the
atom has
(a) electrons (b) protons (c) nucleus (d) neutrons
14. Rutherford’s scattering experiment is related to the size of the
(a) atom (b) nucleus (c) electron (d) neutron
15. Bohr’s atomic model is based on which of the following postulates?
(a) an atom consists of nucleus
(b) an electron can rotate only in certain energy levels
(c) an electron remains moving with continuous loss of energy
(d) an electron shifts gradually from a lower energy level to higher energy
level by absorbing one or more photons of energy.
II. Fill in the blanks:
1. The atomic number of an element is equal to the _____________ charge on its nucleus.
+3
2. Al ion becomes aluminium atom by gaining _____________
3. A magnesium atom changes to magnesium ion by losing _____________
4. An atom with electronic configuration 2, 7 and mass number 19 will have _____________
neutrons.
5. An _____________is capable of independent existence in solution.
6. The maximum number of electrons in M-shell is_____________
7. An element has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7 and 18 neutrons. The number of nucleons
are_____________
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

8. Three isotopes of hydrogen are _____________,_____________ and _____________.

9. _____________is an element in the second period having valency zero.
57
10. _____________ electrons are responsible for the chemical properties of an atom.
III. True or False
1. Neutrons are positively charged.
2. Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass.
3. The nucleus of an atom is neutral.
4. The valency of noble gas is zero.
5. Goldstein discovered the presence of the proton.
6. An atom is neutral.
7. The physical properties of isotopes of the same element are not identical.
8. Helium is chemically extremely reactive.
9. The mass number of an atom is slightly less than the actual atomic mass.
10. The shells surrounding the nucleus of an atom are also known as ‘energy levels.’
IV. Short answer questions
1. What are the three fundamental particles of matter?
2. Find the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in calcium.
3. What are isotopes? Give an example.
4. Differentiate between the following terms.
(i)Nucleus and nucleons (ii) Octet and duplet
5. Atomic number and mass number.
6. Name the closest shell to the nucleus of an atom.
7. What characteristic feature is seen in the configuration of chemically inactive elements?
8. Which atom contains only two fundamental particles?
9. Calculate the atomic number of the element that has 13 neutrons and a mass number of
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

V. Long answer questions

58
1. What are canal rays? What are their properties?
2. Discuss the properties of cathode rays.
3. Complete the following table.

Number of
Atomic Mass
Atom Electrons Protons Neutrons
number number
P 15 16
S 16 16
Al 13 27

4. What evidence do we have to prove that all atoms have electrons?

5. Outline Rutherford’s experiment, which proved the existence of atomic nuclei.
6. Describe Bohr’s model of the atom.
7. Derive a relationship between the atomic number, mass number and number of
neutrons in an atom.
8. In bromine, the two isotopes are 49.7% and 50.3%. Calculate the atomic mass of Br.
9. How would you establish that,
(i) electrons have mass though negligible?
(ii) they travel in straight lines?
(iii) they are negatively charged?
10. What is a chemical bond? How do elements react?
11. Why are inert gases chemically unreactive?
Chapter

3 PERIODIC TABLE PERIODIC TABLE

MODULE - I 59

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module,you will be able to
realise the need for classification of elements.
learn the early attempts of classification:
• Lavoisier’s classification.
• Dobereiner’striads classification.
• Newlands’ Law of octaves.
• Mendeleev’s periodic table.
• Modern periodic table.

INTRODUCTION
The periodic table of elements is one of the most important tools of chemistry.
Through its ingenious organisation, the table provides concise and fundamental information
not only about every individual element, but also about general trends across all the elements.
By the year 1700, chemists identified around 13 elements. They suspected that there
might be many other elements present. As chemists began to use scientific methods to search
for elements, the rate with which elements were discovered increased.
In one decade (1765−1775), chemists identified five new elements, including 3
colourless gases-hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.Was there a limit to the number of elements?
How would chemists know when they had discovered all the elements? To begin to answer
these questions, chemists needed to find a logical way to organise and classify elements.
 NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION:
• It helps us to study the chemistry of elements in a systematic manner.
• It makes it unnecessary to remember the properties of all the elements separately. It is
the properties of the class as a whole which is important.
• Classification helps to understand the gradual changes in property from one element to
another in a class.
• It helps to understand the relationship between the different classes of elements.
 PERIODIC TABLE

EARLY ATTEMPTS OF CLASSIFICATION:

1.1 LAVOISIER’S CLASSIFICATION 60

Lavoisier classified elements into metals and non-metals. This classification was based
on certain distinctive physical properties such as hardness, malleability and lustre. On the
basis of these properties, sodium and lead were grouped together as belonging to the group of
metals.
 Limitations:
(i)Hardness, malleability and lustre were found to be the only common properties of sodium
and lead, otherwise the two elements were entirely different.
(ii) In such a classification, there was no place for elements with properties resembling those
of metals as well as non-metals.
Therefore, Lavoisier’s classification was found to be inadequate.
1.2 DOBEREINER’S LAW OF TRIADS
In 1829, German chemist, J.W Dobereiner (1780 −1849), published a classification
system. He identified the relationship between atomic masses and chemical properties of the
elements. In his classification elements were grouped into triads. A triad is a set of three
elements with similar properties. The atomic mass of middle member is the arithmetic mean
of atomic masses of the other members of the triad.

 Achievements of triads classification:

The most significant achievement of the triads classification is that it recognized for the first
time the relation between the atomic mass of an element and the properties of an element.
 PERIODIC TABLE

 Limitations:
(i) Quite a large number of elements cannot be grouped into triads. 61
(ii) Classification into triads left room for chance. It was possible to group quite dissimilar
elements into triads.
1.3 NEWLANDS’ LAW OF OCTAVES
In 1864, J Newlands, English chemist, proposed what is known as Newlands law of
octaves. According to this law, when elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic
mass the eight element is a kind of repetition of the first, i.e., it is similar to the first element in
properties.
Musicalnotes →Sare gama pa dhanee saa

When we start with hydrogen or with lithium, the 8th element would be fluorine and sodium
respectively. Hydrogen and fluorine have similar properties just like sodium and lithium.
 Achievements of Newlands’ classification:
(i) Atomic mass of an element was recognised as the basis for the classification of elements
(ii) The periodicity (repetition of property) as the fundamental property of an element was
recognised for the first time.
 Limitations:
(i) It did not extend properly beyond calcium.
(ii) It did not provide any specific place for hydrogen.
(iii) When the table was extended beyond calcium, odd groupings were formed.
(iv) It did not recognise transition elements.
 PERIODIC TABLE

Definition of Periodic Table: 62

It was understood that elements that had similar properties could be arranged in a
tabular format. The periodic table is a chart or table of elements prepared in a way that
elements with similar physical and chemical properties are grouped together.The repetition of
physical and chemical properties at regular intervals or periods is known as theperiodicity
ofelements.The horizontal rows of the table are known asperiods and vertical columns are
known as groups.

1.4 MENELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

From 1829, a lot of classification were proposed but none of them gained wide
acceptance. In 1869, Russian chemist and teacher, Dmitri Mendeleev, published a table of
element Mendeleev developed his table while working on a textbook for his students. He
needed a way to show the relationship among more than 60 elements. He wrote the
properties of each element on a separate note card. This approach allowed him to work more
on the cards until he found an organisation that worked. The organisation he chose was a
periodic table. Elements in a periodic table are arranged into groups and periodsbased on a
set of repeating properties.
Mendeleev proposed that “the properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic
masses” This is called Mendeleev’s periodic law. His periodic table had eight vertical
columns called groups and seven horizontal rows called periods.
 PERIODIC TABLE

The groups as designated as I, II, III, IV, V, VII, VII, and VIII. Except group VIII each group is
divided into two sub groups designated as A and B. The elements which lie on the left hand 63
side of each group constitute sub group A. These are called normal or representative
elements.The elements which lie on right hand side of each group constitute group B. These
are called transition elements. This sub-division is made on the basis of difference in their
properties. Group VIII contains nine transition elements in three sets each containing three
elements. These three sets lie in the 4th, 5th and 6th period. In a period, properties gradually
change from metallic to non-metallic character.
 Characteristic features of Mendeleev’s periodic table:
(i) Elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights. In some cases, a
heavier element is placed before a lighter element because of similar properties in the
same column.
(ii) He left gaps for elements based on the periodic pattern of properties. These elements
were later discovered and added to the periodic table. For example, he left a gap below
silicon for an undiscovered element and he named it as eka-silicon which was
discovered later and named germanium. He had also left gaps for scandium (eka-boron)
and gallium (eka- aluminium).
(iii) The periodic table helped in correcting wrong atomic weights. For example, the atomic
weight of Be was corrected.
MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE:
 PERIODIC TABLE

 Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table:

(i) It is based on the more fundamental property i.e., atomic mass of an element. Thus, it is 64
better than the earlier classification.
(ii) Vacant places left for undiscovered elements provided clues that helped in discovering
the elements.
(iii) It pointed out errors in atomic masses of already discovered elements which led to the
correction of atomic masses.
Note:
The noble gases (or inert gases or the rare gases of the atmosphere) were not known
at the time of Mendeleev’s periodic table.Therefore, there was no group for noble gases in
Mendeleev’s original periodic table. However, when these gases were discovered around the
year 1900, a new group called the zero group was added to the Mendeleev’s periodic table.

 Demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic table:

1. Position of hydrogen: The position of hydrogen in the table is not certain because it can
be placed in both IA and VIIA group, as it resembles the alkali metals of IA group and
non-metals of VIIA group.
2. Lanthanides and Actinides: A group of 15 elements (atomic number: 57 to 71) called
rare earths or lanthanides are placed together in one position i.e., in group IIIB of the 6th
period. Similarly, another group of elements called actinides do not find their proper
place in the periodic table.
3. Position of isotopes: Isotopes of elements are placed in the same position in the table.
But they should have been placed in different positions according to their atomic
masses.
4. Certain chemically similar elements like copper and mercury are placed in different
groups while some other dissimilar elements like copper, silver and gold have been
placed in the same group.
5. Anomalous pairs of elements: The atomic mass of iodine (I) is 126.90. The atomic
mass of tellurium (Te) is 127.60. Based on its chemical properties, iodine belongs in a
group with bromine and chlorine, so Mendeleev broke his rule and placed tellurium
before iodine in his periodic table.
 PERIODIC TABLE

He assumed that the atomic masses of iodine and tellurium were incorrect, but they
were not. Iodine has a smaller atomic mass than tellurium does. A similar problem 65
occurred with other pair of elements i.e., argon with atomic mass 40 precedes potassium
with atomic mass 39 in the periodic table. These pair of elements are called as
anomalous pairs.
The problem was not the atomic masses, but using atomic masses to organise the periodic
table.

Mendeleev wrongly assumed that all the elements are unchanging. But
radioactive atoms have unstable nuclei, meaning they can move around the
chart. For example, uranium (element 92) gradually decays into a whole series
of lighter elements, ending with lead (element 82).

1. ELEMENTS

Ask each student to choose an element without revealing the choice to other students.
Each student should write a short description of the chosen element and must read to the
class. Ask the other students to identify the elements from its description. Encourage students
to be as specific as possible in their description.

1.5 MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Mendeleev developed his table before scientists knew about the structure of atoms. He
didn’t know that the atoms of each element contain a unique number of protons (atomic
number). In 1913, British physicist, Henry Moseley, determined an atomic number for each
known element. In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in the order of
increasing atomic number.
The elements are arranged in the order of atomic number, starting with hydrogen,
which has atomic number one. There are seven rows or periods in the table and 18 columns
or groups in the periodic table.
 PERIODIC TABLE

There are about 1, 21,000 results on google on how to memorise periodic 66

table.

 Periods:
Horizontal rows of the periodic table are called periods. A period consists of a series of
elements having same valence shell. There are seven periods.
1. The first period has 2 elements-hydrogen and helium (the shortest period)
2. The second and third periods have 8 elements each. (Short periods)
3. The fourth and fifth periods have 18 elements each (long periods)
4. The sixth period has 32 elements, including lanthanides. (the longest period)
5. The seventh period includes actinide elements and is incomplete.
 Groups:
Vertical columns of the periodic table are called groups. A group consists of a series of
elements having similar configuration of the outer energy shell. The elements belonging to the
same group are said to constitute a family. The subgroup A and B from the Mendeleev’s
periodic table have been separated in the modern periodic table.
There are 18 groups in the periodic table. In the IUPAC system, they are numbered from 1 to
18 as we from left to right. In the old system, the first two groups are labelled IA and IIA. The
next five groups are labelled IIIB to VIIB. The next three groups (8, 9 & 10) of elements are
called VIIIB. Groups 11 and 12 are called IB and IIB. Groups 13 to 18 are called IIIA toVIIIA.
Group VIIIA is also called zero group.
(i) The elements of groups IA to VIIA are called representative elements. The last electron
is added to the outermost shell.
(ii) The IA group elements are called alkali metals.
(iii) The IIA group elements are called alkaline-earth metals.
(iv) The VIA group (or group 16) elements constitute chalcogenor oxygen family.
(v) The VIIA group (or group 17) elements constitute halogen family.
(vi) The elements of IB to VIIB and VIII are called transition elements as the last electron is
added in the penultimate shall.
 PERIODIC TABLE

 Characteristics of the long form of the periodic table:

(i) Metallic elements are on the left hand side and non-metallic elements on the right hand 67
side.
(ii) The number of elements in any period of the periodic table is equal to the maximum
number of electrons that can be accommodated in that shell number.
(iii) The period number of an element corresponds to the number of its outermost shell as
counted from the nucleus.
(iv) The inert or rare gases are placed on the far right (group zero or group 18).
(v) The rare earth metals, Lanthanides and Actinides have been kept outside the periodic
table to mark their peculiar properties.
(vi) The transition metals are accommodated in the middle of the table.
 PERIODIC TABLE

68

Atomic friendship: Take a modern periodic table, cut out the

complicated middle columns, and fold it once along the middle of the
group 4 elements. The groups that coincide have complementary
electron structures and will combine with each other.

2. Know your periodic table

Give students a list of elements. Ask them to locate each element in the periodic table.
Decide whether its atoms are likely to form positive or negative ions. Ask student to make a
list of them.
 PERIODIC TABLE

69
MODULE –II

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module, you will be able to
compare Mendeleev’s and modern periodic table.
learn various trends of properties like
 valency
 atomic size
 metallic and non-metallic character
 ionization energy,
 electro negativity
 electron affinity in the periodic table.

2.1 COMPARISION OFMODERN PERIODIC TABLE WITH MENDELEEV’S TABLE

(a) Anomalous pairs of elements:
With the adoption of atomic number as the basis of the elements in place of atomic
mass, the anomalies of Mendeleev’s periodic table disappear. In his periodic table, Mendeleev
used atomic mass as the basis of classification of elements. He arranged the elements in the
order of increasing atomic masses. Even then, certain pairs of elements in the periodic table
were arranged in such a way that the atomic mass of the second element was found to be less
than that of the element preceding it. But when elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number such anomalies disappear, as shown in the table below.
Pairs of elements Ar K Co Ni Te I Th Pa
Atomic Numbers 18 19 27 28 52 53 90 91
Atomic Mass 40 39 59.9 58.6 127.6 127 232 231
(b) Position of isotopes:
All the isotopes of an element have the same atomic number. Hence they can be placed
at one position in the same group of the periodic table.
 PERIODIC TABLE

 Advantages of the Modern periodic table over Mendeleev’s periodic table:

(i) The modern periodic table is based on the most fundamental property, the atomic 70
number of elements, while Mendeleev’s periodic table was based upon the atomic mass
of elements.
(ii) In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in accordance with their electronic
configuration. Elements with similar electronic configuration are placed in the same
group. Therefore elements in the given group, show similar properties. Elements with
different electronic configurations are grouped separately; hence, they show different
properties.Mendeleev’s periodic table does not provide any basis for the similarity and
the difference in properties of elements.
(iii) The modern periodic table gives a satisfactory explanation about the chemical
periodicity in the properties of elements. The periodicity in properties arises due to the
periodicity in electronic configurations of elements. Since the electronic configurations
of elements are repeated at regular intervals, the properties of elements are bound to do
so. Mendeleev’s periodic table does not assign any reason for the periodicity of
properties of elements.
(iv) In Mendeleev’s periodic table there are several anomalies.For example, the position of
isotopes, wrong order of atomic masses of some elements, etc. In the long form of the
periodic table (or) modern periodic table, these anomalies have been removed.
(v) In the modern periodic table, elements have been clearly separated as normal elements,
transition elements and noble gases. Metals and non-metals are also separated. But
Mendeleev’s periodic table there is no such separation of different types of elements.
(vi) In the modern periodic table, the subgroups A and B of Mendeleev’s periodic table are
clearly separated but the numbering of groups has been done as 1, 2, 3 up to 18.
(vii) The long form of the periodic table is comparatively easy to remember.
 PERIODIC TABLE

The bottom elements are named after famous scientists. 71

Examples: Einsteinium, Mendelevium ,Bohrium.

2.2 INTERPRETING DATA FROM THE PERIODIC TABLE

The symbol that we come across in the periodic table and the data present along with
the symbol indicates the following.

2.3 TRENDS IN THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

The position of the elements in the modern periodic table tells us about its chemical
reactivity. Actually, the position of an element in the modern periodic table tells us about its
outer electronic configuration, i.e., the number of valence electrons present in it. The physical
and chemical properties of an element mainly depend upon its outer electronic configuration.
Since the outer electronic configuration changes as we go from left to right in a period,
therefore, within the same period, elements show a gradation (variation) both in their
physical and chemical properties.
On the other hand, within a group, the elements have the same outer electronic
configuration. Therefore, they show a regular gradation as we move down the group from top
to bottom due to a corresponding increase in the number of inner filled shells. Let us now
discuss trends in some of the physical properties of the elements in the periodic table.
2.3.1 Valency:
Valency is defined as the combining capacity of an element. It depends upon the
number of valence electrons, i.e., electrons present in the outermost shell of the atom. Let us
now discussthe variation of valency in a period and in a group.
 PERIODIC TABLE

72
(a) Variation of valency in a period: On moving from left to right in a period, the number
of valence electrons increases from 1 to 8. (Though in the first period, it increases from 1
to 2). Let us explain this point by writing the electronic configuration of the elements of
the third period in the following table.
Elements of the third period

Group number 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Atomic number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Symbol Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Electronic 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8
Configuration
No. of valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Electrons
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Hydride NaH MgH 2 AlH 3 SiH 4 PH 3 H2S HCl-
formation

From the above table, the valency of an element in the third period varies. On moving
from left right in the third period, the valency of the element first increases from 1 to 4
and then decreases to zero.
(b) Variation of valency in a group: All theelements in a group have similar outer electronic
configuration i.e., they have same number of valence electrons. Therefore, the valency of all
the elements in a group is fixed or is the same. For example, in group 1, i.e.,alkali metals have
one electron in their respective valence shells. Thus, the valency of all the elements of group 1
is 1.

Only letter that does not appear in the periodic table is ‘J’.
 PERIODIC TABLE

73
2.3.2 Atomic size:
If an atom is considered to be a sphere, the atomic size is given by the radius of the
sphere and is commonly known as atomic radius. It is defined as the distance between the
centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell which contains electrons. Atomic size is
expressed either in angstrom (A°) or in pico meters (pm).
1 A o 10−8 m ;=
= 1 pm 10
=−12
m 0.01 Ao
(a) Variation of atomic radii in a period: On moving from left to right in a period, the
atomic radius decreases. The atomic radii of elements of third period are given below.
Atomic Radii of the elements of third period
Symbol Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Nuclear charge +11 +12 +13 +14 +15 +16 +17 +18
Atomic radius(pm) 186 136 125 117 116 104 99 190
Pictorial
RepresentationNa Mg Al SiP S Cl Ar

In the third period (abovetable) the atomic size regularly decreases from sodium (Na) to
chlorine (Cl) except for argon (Ar). All the inert gases have larger atomic size due to
completely filled electronic configuration.
Explanation: As we move from left to right in a period, the atomic number of each succeeding
element increases by 1. This means that the number of protons in the nucleus and the number
of electrons in the extra nuclear part increases by 1. The addition of this extra electron takes
place in the same shell. But the addition of an extra proton to the nucleus increases the
nuclear charge by 1 in each succeeding element. Due to this increased nuclear charge, the
electrons are attracted closer to the nucleus and hence the atomic size decreases.
 PERIODIC TABLE

74

Element Symbol Atomic No and type of Atomic Pictorial representation

number shells of size (pm)
electrons
Fluorine F 9 2 K,L 72 F

Chlorine Cl 17 3 K,L,M 99 Cl

Bromine Br 35 4 K,L,M,N 114 Br

Iodine I 53 5 K,L,M,N,O 113

I

(b) Variation of atomic radii in a group: On moving down a group, the atomic radii of
elements increase gradually.

Explanation:As we move down a group, a new shell of electrons is added at each succeeding
element. For example, consider the halogens, fluorine has two shells of electrons, K and L;
chlorine has three shells of electrons, K, L and M; and so on. Thus as we move down a group,
the number of shells increases. As a result, the distance between the nucleus and the last shell
(Valence shell) increases and thus the atomic size increases from top to bottom.

There are only 2 liquids in the periodic table, bromine and mercury at room
temperature.

2.3.3 Ionisation Energy:

The amount of energy required to remove the outermost electron form an isolated
gaseous atom to form a gaseous positive ion is called the ionization energy (or ionization
potential). The amount of energy to remove the first electron is called first ionisation
potential(IE 1 ).
 PERIODIC TABLE

The energy to remove the second and third electron is called the second ionisation potential 75
(IE 2 ) and third ionisation potential (IE 3 ) respectively. The first ionisation potential is the
least, i.e.,IE 1 <IE 2 <IE 3 . As each electron is removed, the effective attraction of the nucleus on
the remaining electrons is increased. Hence more energy is required to pull out successive
electrons. The value of ionisation potential is a measure of the reactivity of a metal because
metals react by losing electrons. As ionisation potential reduces, the metal becomes more
reactive.
Note: When an atom loses an electron, it forms a cation which is smaller than the parent
atom.
(a) Variation along a period: In a period from left to right, the ionization energy increases.
This is because of the increase in nuclear charge and decrease in atomic size. Basically, along a
period, the distance of the outer-most electron to the nucleus reduces; therefore the attractive
force of the nucleus increases. As a result, it is more difficult to remove the outermost
electron. Alkali metals have least ionisation energy.
(b) Variation along a group: Down a group, new shells of electrons are being added.
Therefore, the outermost electron is further away from the nucleus and is also being shielded
by the electrons in the inner shells. As a result, ionization energy decreases down the group.
For example, among alkali metals of IA group (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs), Li has the highest ionization
energy (520.3 kJ), cesium has a low value of 374 kJ. Cesium has the least ionisation energy.

3. Ionisation energy

Pick up a paper clip with a magnet. Touch that paper clip to another paper clip and
pick and pick it up. Continue pickings up paper clips this way until you have a strand of them
and no more will attach. Then, gently pull of paper clips one by one. Discuss which clip was
the easiest to remove: closer to or farther from the magnet? Relate the concepts with
ionization energy and write down your observation.
 PERIODIC TABLE

76
2.3.4Metallic and non-metallic character:
Metals are elements which combine by losing electrons. Therefore a metal loses
electrons when supplied energy. A element which gains electrons during chemical
combination is known as a non-metal. The metallic or non-metallic nature depends on the
atomic size and ionization potential of the element.
Small atoms require more energy than large atoms to remove electrons from their
outermost shells. Therefore, atoms with larger atomic radii lose electrons easily and hence
acquire metallic nature. Metallic nature is inversely proportional to ionisation energy.
Therefore, elements with low ionisation energy have metallic nature while elements with high
ionisation energy have non-metallic nature.
(a) Variation along a period: Atomic radius decreases and ionisation energy increases along
a period. Due to these two reasons, metallic nature decreases along a period and non-metallic
nature increases along period. Alkali metals exhibit greatest metallic character while halogens
exhibit greatest non-metallic character. For example, in the third period, the first three
elements Na,Mg,Al are metals, the fourth has intermediate property and is called a metalloid
Si and the next four elements P, S, Cl and Ar are non-metals.
(b) Variation along a group: As we go down a group size increases and ionisation energy
decreases. These two factors imply that metallic nature increases as we move down a group
and non-metallic nature decreases as we go down a group. For example, in the nitrogen
family, N and P are non-metals, As is a metalloid while Sb and Bi are metals.

Technetium was the 1st element to be synthesised artificially.

2.3.5 Electro negativity:

It is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself when
combined in a compound. Atoms combine by the transfer or sharing of electrons to form ionic
or covalent bonds respectively. If the shared pair of electrons is equally shared by the atoms,
it is located at the centre of the atoms and is known as a non-polar covalent bond (e.g. bond
between oxygen atoms in the oxygen atoms molecule). If the covalent bond is between
dissimilar atoms, it is not shared equally and is known as a polar covalent bond.
 PERIODIC TABLE

One of the atoms attracts the electron pair towards itself. This tendency of an atom to attract 77
the shared pair of electrons towards itself is known as electro negativity. For example, in the
covalent bond between chlorine and hydrogen, chlorine attracts the shared pair of electrons
towards itself as it is more electronegative.
(a) Variation along a period: In general small atoms attract electrons more than the large
ones. Since atomic size decreases along a period, electro negativity or non-metallic nature
increases from left to right along a period. Halogens have the highest value of electro
negativity in their respective periods. Alkali metals have the least electro negativities intheir
respective periods. Fluorine is the most electronegative element.

(b) Variation along a group: As we go down the group, atomic size increases. Therefore,
electro negativity decreases from top to bottom.
2.3.6 Electron Affinity:
The amount of energy released when an electron is added to the outermost shell of an
isolated gaseous atom is known as electron affinity. Electron affinity depends on atomic
radius, nuclear charge and electronic configuration of the element. The smaller the atom, the
more firmly it can hold an extra electron; hence greater is the electron affinity. If an atom has
stable electronic configuration, it will have zero electron affinity (e.g. noble gases). Greater the
nuclear charge, greater is the attractive force on the nucleus on the newly acquired electron.
Therefore, electron affinity increases with atomic number (nuclear charge).
(a) Variation along a period: In a period from left to right, the atomic size reduces.
Therefore, in general electron affinity increases along a period. However, due to stable
electronic configuration of noble gases, they have zero electron affinity. Alkali metals have
low electron affinity and halogens have maximum electron affinity.
(b) Variation along a group: Down a group, new shells of electrons are being added and
atomic radius is increasing. Therefore, electron affinity decreases as we move down a group.
 PERIODIC TABLE

78
2.4 SUMMARY OF TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

• Atomic size increases on going down a group, but decreases across a period.
• Electro negativity (non-metallic nature) increases as we move to the right in a period and
up a group.
• Elements become more metallic as we go down a group and to the left in a period, i.e.,
electropositive nature increases as we move left in a period and down a group.
• In the metallic groups, reactivity increases down a group.
• The most reactive metal is at the bottom of Group I.
• In a group of non-metals, the most reactive element is at the top of a group.
• The most reactive non-metal is at the top of Group VIIA.
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79
Exercise

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The ‘law of octaves’ was enunciated by
(a) Lothar Meyer (b) Mendeleev (c) Dobereiner (d) Newlands
2. Mendeleev classified elements in order of increasing
(a) atomic number (b) chemical reactivity (c) atomic mass (d) valency
3. According to modern periodic law, the properties of elements are a periodic function of
their
(a) atomic masses (b) atomic volume (c) atomic number (d) densities
4. ‘Atomic number, not atomic mass, is the more fundamental property of an element’. This
was enunciated by
(a) Lothar Meyer (b) Moseley (c) Mendeleev (d) Bohr
5. Which of the following is the most nonmetallic element?
(a) Br (b) P (c) S (d) C
6. The elements of group 2 of the periodic table are known as
(a) normal elements (b) alkali metals
(c) alkaline earth metals (d) lanthanides
7. Which pair of elements of the following sets is likely to have similar chemical behavior?
(a) Sodium and Aluminium (b) Argon and Potassium
(c) Boron and Germanium (d) Nitrogen and Phosphorus
8. Which of the following is not an alkali metal?
(a) Rb (b) Cs (c) Ni (d) K
9. According to Modern periodic table, number of groups and number of periods are
(a) 18, 7 (b) 7, 18 (c) 9, 18 (d) 18, 9
10. From top to bottom in a group of the periodic table, the electropositive character of the
element
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) remains unchanged (d) changes
11. Sulphur has atomic number
(a) 15 (b) 16 (c) 32 (d) 14
 PERIODIC TABLE

12. The alkali metal in the third period 80

(a) Potassium (b) Sodium (c) Lithium (d) Rubidium
13. Dobereiner proposed
(a) law of octaves (b) law of triads (c) periodic table (d) none
14. The sixteenth group elements are called
(a) halogens (b) noble gas (c) alkalies (d) chalcogen
15. Which of the following could be the atomic number of a metal?
(a) 17 (b) 2 (c) 37 (d) 33
II. Fill in the blanks
1. Horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table are called _________________.
2. Vertical columns of elements in the periodic table are called _________________.
3. Elements in the same group have same number of _________________.
4. The valency of elements in group 2 is _________________.
5. The first period contains _________________ elements.
6. The elements of group 17 are known as _________________.
7. Element with atomic number 16 is _________________.
8. The alkaline earth metal with the smallest atomic number is _________________.
9. Halogens belongs to _________________.
10. The number of electrons in the valence shell of the atom of an element indicates the
_________________ to which the element belongs.
III. True or False
1. All the known elements could not be classified into triads.
2. Within a group, various elements show variation in properties.
3. The elements of group 2 are called alkali metals.
4. The nature of an element can be predicted on the basis of its position in the periodic
table.
5. Elements having atomic numbers 57 to 71 constitute the lanthanide series.
6. Silicon is a metal.
7. The law of octaves was proposed by Dobereiner.
8. Sodium is a non-metal.
 PERIODIC TABLE

9. The shortest period in the Modern periodic table is the second period. 81
10. Newlands classified elements based on musical notes.
IV. Short answer
1. What is the basis of Mendeleev’s periodic law?
2. Why is the atomic number, the basis of the modern periodic law?
3. What is the other name for zero group elements?
4. Which is the fundamental property of an atom?
5. Name a non-metal and metal in the IV group.
6. How many horizontal rows are there in the periodic table?
7. How many vertical columns are there in the periodic table?
8. Name two other elements which are in the same family as carbon (C).
9. How many elements are there in the third period?
10. Name a rare gas other than Ne, Kr, Ar.
11. What is the need for the classification of elements?
12. State Mendeleev’s periodic law.
13. State the modern periodic law.
14. Discuss two advantages of the periodic table.
15. In what respect does modern statement of the periodic law differ from that stated in
Mendeleev’s periodic law?
16. The electronic configuration of an element T is 2 , 8 , 7.
(a) What is the group number of T?
(b) What is the period number of T?
(c) What is the valency of T?
(d) Is T a metal or non-metal?
(e) How many valence electrons are there in an atom of T?
17. The question given below refers to the elements of the periodic table with atomic
number from 3 to 18. These elements are shown by letters (not the usual symbols of the
elements).

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P
 PERIODIC TABLE

Which of these (a) is a noble gas? (b) is a halogen? (c) is an element with valency 4? 82
(d) is an alkali metal?
18. An element X belongs to group IIA and another element Y belongs to group VA of the
periodic table.
(a) What is the number of valence electrons in X?
(b) What is the valency of X?
(c) What is the number of valence electrons in Y?
(d) What is the valency of Y?
19. What are lanthanides and actinides?
20. Consider the following elements: Ca, O, Ar, S, Be, He. Which of the above elements would
you expect to be.
(i) very stable? (ii) in group IIA of the periodic table?
(iii) in group VIA of the periodic table?
V. Long answer
1. What were the early attempts to classify the elements?
2. What are the characteristics of Mendeleev's periodic table?
3. What are the demerits of Mendeleev's periodic table? How are they rectified?
4. Define periodic law. Why was it necessary to change the basis of classification from
atomic mass to atomic number?
5. Give the name and symbol of the following elements which occupy each of the following
positions in periodic table?
(a) period 2 , group IIA (b) period 2 , group VIA
(c) period 1, group IA (d) period 3 , group VIIA
(e) period 4 , group zero (f) period 4 , group IIA
6. (a) What are transition elements?
(b) Which among the following are transition elements? K , Mn , Ca , Cr , Cu , Cs , Fe , Pt
(c) The elements A and B have electronic configuration (2, 8, 18, 2) and (2, 6)
respectively.
(i) To which periods do A and B belong? (ii) To which groups do A and B belong?
 PERIODIC TABLE

7. The table given below shows the mass number and number of neutrons of four elements, 83
P, Q, R and S
Elements P Q R S
Mass number 12 20 23 35
Number of neutrons 6 10 12 18
(a) Write down the atomic number of P, Q, R and S.
(b) Write down the electronic configuration of P, Q, R and S.
(c)To which group do P , Q , R and S belong?
(d)To which period do P,Q, R and S belong?
(e)Which amongst P,Q,R, S is
(i) an alkali metal (ii) a noble gas (iii) member of halogen family
8. Explain periodicity of properties of elements.
(a) down the group
(b) across the period with respect to
(i) valency (ii) atomic size (iii) metallic character.
9. What is meant by the statement, ‘properties of elements are the periodic function of
atomic numbers’?
10. Define the following:
(a) group (b) period (c) representative elements
(d) transition elements (e) lanthanides and actinides
PERIODIC TABLE

84
Chapter
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES
4 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

84
MODULE - I

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module, you will be able to
classify matter based on the chemical composition.
differentiateelements, compounds and mixtures.
identifythe types of mixtures.
differentiatemetals and non-metals.
define atomicity.

INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, we classified matter based on the physical nature i.e. solids,
liquids and gases. In this chapter, we shall confine our study to the classification of matter
on the basis of chemical composition.
All matter can be broadly classified into two major groups "Pure" and "Impure".
Common people talk aboutpure substances such as pure honey, pure milk, pure cheese etc.
But "purity" in chemistry is entirely of a different nature. For example, pure milk is made of
a number of substances like fats, proteins, carbohydrates, mineral salts, vitamins, water,
etc.Thus, milk can be called a mixture in which amount of various substances are not
present in same fixed ratio. Hence, according to the chemical composition of matter, there
are two main categories.
(i) Pure substances (ii) Mixtures
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
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85
1.2 WHAT IS A PURE SUBSTANCE?
A pure substance is a homogeneous material which cannot be separated into other
kinds of matter by any physical process and has a definite set of properties.
 Characteristics of pure substance:
(i) A pure substance is homogeneous in nature.
(ii) A pure substance has a definite set of properties.
(iii) The composition of a pure substance cannot be altered by any physical means.
1.2.1 Elements:
An element is a pure substance which cannot be split into two or
more simpler substances by any physical or chemical means. It is the
simplest form of matter.
Examples: gold, copper, iron, oxygen, nitrogen,chlorine,etc.
Hydrogen is an element because it cannot be split into two or more simpler
substances by any physical or chemical methods. Water is not an element because it can be
split into two simpler substances (hydrogen and oxygen) by passing an electric current
through it.
 Characteristics of an element:
(i) An element is a pure substance, made up of only one kind of atom.
(ii) Except during nuclear reactions, an element cannot be broken into two or more
smaller parts.
(iii) An atom is the smallest unit of an element. It shows all the properties of that element.
(iv) Elements may occur in free state or may be found in the form of their compounds.
 Classification of elements:
Elements can be classified into four categories: metals, non-metals, metalloids and
noble gases.
There are total of about 118 elements, of which
(i) 93 are metals (ii) 12 are non-metals
(iii) 7 are metalloids (iv) 6 are noble gases
 Metals and Non-Metals:
An element is said to be a metal or non-metal, if it has the following characteristics.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

Comparison of physical properties of metal and non-metals:

86
Property Metals Non – metals
Lustre Metals have lustre and can also Except Iodine, non-metals do not
be polished have lustre and cannot be polished

Hardness Metals (except sodium and Non-metals (except diamond and

potassium) are generally hard boron) are generally soft
Malleability and Metals are malleable and ductile Non-metals are brittle
Ductility
Conductivity They are good conductors of Non-metals (except graphite and
heat and electricity gas carbon) are bad conductors of
heat and electricity.
Melting point and Metals (except mercury and Non-metals (except carbon and
boiling point gallium) generally have high boron) have low melting and
melting and boiling points boiling points
Sonorous Metals are sonorous Non – metals are non – sonorous
Density Metals generally have high Non – metals generally have low
density density
Tensile strength Metals generally have high Non – metals generally have low
tensile strength and hence tensile strength and hence can be
cannot be easily broken easily broken
Physical state They are generally solid (except Non-metals (except bromine which
mercury and gallium which are is liquid) are either solids or gases
liquids) at room temperature at room temperature
 Metalloids:
Metalloids generally exhibit properties intermediate between those of metals and non-
metals.
Examples: boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium
(Te) and polonium (Po).
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

87
 Noble Gases:
Elements which do not react chemically with any known element are called noble
gases. These elements are found in air in the form of gas in very small amounts, therefore,
sometimes are called rare gases.
Examples: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn).

 Atomicity of an element:
Generally, elements exist as single atoms. However, sometimes two or more atoms
of an element combine with one another to form a compound or molecules.
Atomicity is defined as the number of atoms in one molecule of a substance.
Depending upon the number of atoms present in its molecule, the elements can be
classified as:
(i) Monoatomic elements: The molecule of a monoatomic element contains only one
atom.
Examples: copper (Cu), silver (Ag), sodium (Na), noble gases (Ne, Ar), etc.
(ii) Diatomic elements:The molecule of a diatomic element contains two atoms.
Examples: hydrogen (H 2 ), oxygen (O 2 ), nitrogen (N 2 ), etc.
(iii) Triatomic elements:The molecule of a triatomic element contains three atoms.
Example:ozone (O 3 ).
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

(iv) Polyatomic elements: The molecule of a polyatomic element contains more than
88
three atoms.
Examples: phosphorus (P 4 ), sulphur (S 8 ), boron (B 12 ), etc.

90% of our body mass is stardust, because all the elements except
hydrogen and helium are created in stars and the chemical elements in
the average human body are worth around $ 160 US.

1.2.2 Compounds:
A compound is a pure substance formed from two or more
elements combined together in definite proportion by weight.
A compound can only be decomposed by chemical action into
two or more simpler substances.
Examples: Water (H 2 O), Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), Chalk (CaCO 3 ), Hydrogen chloride (HCl),
Ammonium chloride (NH 4 Cl),etc.
 Types of compounds:
All the compounds may be divided into the following two categories:
(i) Organic compounds:
The compounds which contain at least one carbon and hydrogen bond (C-H) are
called organic compounds. These are originally obtained from animals and plants.
(ii) Inorganic compounds:
The compounds which do not contain carbon and hydrogen bond are called
inorganic compounds. These are usually obtained from minerals and rocks.
 Properties of Compounds:
1. A compound cannot be separated into its constituent elements by mechanical or
physical methods.
Example: Iron sulphide is a compound of iron and sulphur. If a magnet is brought close
to the sample, iron in the compound does not get attracted towards the magnet. Iron
has no individual identity in iron sulphide. Similarly,sulphur in iron sulphide does not
dissolve in carbon disulphide (solvent for sulphur).
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

2. The properties of a compound differ entirely from those of its constituent elements.
89
Example:Water is a liquid, whereas the constituent elements of water i.e., hydrogen
and oxygen are gases.
3. When a compound is formed, energy is usually released or absorbed (in the form of
heat or light) during the chemical reaction.
Let us take the example, iron sulphide. The constituent of it are iron and sulphur. If kept
together, they do not react on their own. But if the mixture is heated, a vigorous
reaction occurs and black iron sulphide is formed.
4. In a compound, the constituent elements are present in a definite proportion by weight.
Example: In water, H 2 and O 2 are present in a fixed ratio of 1: 8 by weight.

5. A compound has a fixed melting point, a fixed boiling point, etc.

o
Example: Ice always melts at 0 C.
6. A compound is a homogeneous substance, i.e., a compound is a substance which is the
same throughout in its properties and composition.
Since compounds are formed by the chemical combination of elements, they are also
called chemical compounds.

PG5 is the largest stable synthetic molecule. Its atomic mass is about the
sameas 200 million hydrogen atoms.

1.2.3 Mixtures:
A mixture is a material containing two or more elements
or compounds that are in close contact and mixed together in
any proportion. The components of a mixture can be separated
by simple mechanical means.
Examples:
1. Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and a small amount
of other substances.
2. Gun powder is a mixture of nitre (potassium nitrate), sulphur and coal.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

 Types of Mixtures:
90
(i) Homogeneous Mixture:
A mixture in which different constituents are mixed uniformly and have equal
composition throughout is called a homogeneous mixture.
Example: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and is a homogeneous mixture. Similarly, all
solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
(ii) Heterogeneous Mixture:
A mixture in which various constituents are not mixed uniformly and do not have
equal composition throughout is called a heterogeneous mixture.
Example:A mixture of sand, salt and sulphur is a heterogeneous mixture. Similarly, a
handful of soil is a heterogeneous mixture.
Mixture can also be categorized based on the physical states of the constituents.

S.No. Constituents of the mixture Examples

(i) Solid – Solid mixture Charcoal and salt ,alloys
(ii) Solid – Liquid mixture Sand in water, common salt in water
(iii) Liquid – Liquid Mixture Alcohol in water , oil in water
(iv) Liquid – Gas mixture Sulphur dioxide gas in water
(v) Gas – Gas mixture Air

 Some useful mixtures:

You have learnt that mixtures are not pure substances. A mixture is made of two or
more pure substances (elements or compounds). The pure substances that make a mixture
are called components or constituents of the mixture. Let us discuss some useful mixtures.
• Milk is not a pure substance. It is made of water, fat, proteins, etc.
• Ink is a mixture made of water and one or more dyes.
• Soft drinks (lemonade, soda water, etc.) that you drink are also not pure substances
but homogeneous mixtures.
• Tincture of iodine which is used as an antiseptic is a mixture of iodine and ethanol.
• Air is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapour, etc
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

• Another class of useful mixtures are alloys. An alloy is a solid solution i.e., a
91
homogeneous mixture, of a metal and other metal(s) or non metals. For example,
brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Gold has to be alloyed with silver and copper to
make it hard enough for making jewellery and ornaments.
 Properties of Mixtures:
1. A mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous:
A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition throughout its mass. There are
no visible and sharp boundaries between the various constituents of a homogeneous
mixture.
Examples: sugar solution, air, water, alcohol, etc.
A heterogeneous mixture does not have a uniform composition throughout its mass.
There are visible and sharp boundaries between the various constituents of such a mixture.
Examples:(i) A mixture of sand and common salt is heterogeneous. When viewed through
a magnifying glass, the sand and salt particles will be clearly seen and can be separated.
(ii) Mixture of water and oil.
2. The constituents of a mixture can be separated by physical methods such asfiltration,
evaporation, sublimation, magnetic separation, etc.
Example:Take a mixture of iron fillings and sulphur. When a magnet is put in the mixture,
iron particles get attracted towards the magnet, stick to it and can thus be separated from
the mixture, whereas sulphur could be separated by adding carbon disulphide to the
mixture. Sulphur dissolves in it but the iron particles remains unaffected. On filtration, iron
can be obtained as a residue.
3. In the preparation of a mixture, energy is usually neither given out nor absorbed.
4. The composition of a mixture is not fixed.
5. A mixture has no definite melting point or boiling point.
6. In the formation of a mixture, no chemical reaction occurs.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

92

1. Venn-Diagram

Venn diagram comparing elements, compounds and mixtures.

Place the letter for each description in its location on the Venndiagram.
A –Pure substance B –Only one type of atom
C−Two or more type of atoms D −Always homogeneous
E−Can be homogenous F − Matter
G −Can be two or moretype of atoms H −There are about 100 different ones
I −Two elements joined by chemical bonds J −Can be separatedby physical change
K −Can be chemical change

1.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Element Compound
An element is a substance which cannot be A compound can be split into two or more
split into two or more different substances different substances
An element is formed from atoms of the A compound is formed from atoms of
same kind different kinds
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

93

1.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

Mixture Compound
Nature Nature
When two or more elements or compounds When two or more elements unite
are mixed together, such that they do not chemically, a compound is formed
combine chemically, a mixture is formed

Structure Structure
Mixtures are homogeneous as well as Compounds are always homogenous
heterogeneous

Composition Composition
In case of mixtures, their constituents can be In case of compounds, the constituents are
present in any ratio, i.e., mixtures have present in a fixed ratio by weight
variable composition.

Properties Properties
The constituents of a mixture retain their The properties of a compound are entirely
individual chemical and physical properties different from the properties of its
constituents

Separation of constituents Separation of constituents

The constituents of a mixture can be The constituents of a compound cannot be
separated by physical methods like separated by physical methods. However,
solubility, filtration, evaporation, the constituents of a compound can be
distillation, use of magnet, etc. separated by chemical means

Energy changes Energy Changes

During the formation of a mixture generally During the formation of a compound, energy
no energy transfer takes place. is either absorbed or released
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94

2. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Classify each of the pictures below by placing the correct label in the blanks:
A = Element D = Mixture of compounds
B = Compound E = Mixture of elements and compounds
C = Mixture of elements
Each circle represents an atom and each different colour represents a different kind of
atom. If twoatomsare touching then they are bonded together.
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95

1.5 SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Tears have different chemical compositions dependingon the emotion

you feel.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

96
MODULE - II

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
In the previous module, you studied about mixtures and its constituents. By the
endof this module, you will be able to
understand the principle involved in the separation techniques.
explain how to separate
• solid- solid mixtures.
• solid- liquid mixtures.
• liquid-liquid mixtures.
• liquid-gas mixtures.
• gas-gas mixtures.
choose the proper method to separate the mixtures based on the
• density.
• melting point and boiling point.
• property of volatility.
• solubility.
• ability of the constituents of the mixture to sublime.
• magnetic nature.
• ability of the constituents of the mixture to diffuse.

2.1 SEPARATION OF THE COMPONENTS OF A MIXTURE

A mixture consists of two or more substances mixed together in any proportion.
These substances are called components which retain their individual identities in the
mixture. No new or different substance is produced as a result of mixing, though the
mixture may look different in texture and appearance.
Since the components retain their individual identities, it is possible to separate
them by employing various methods.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

2.1.1 Principles involved in the separation of components of a mixture:

97
The method/ methods necessary to separate the components of a mixture depend upon:
1. The physical state of the constituents of the mixture.
2. The difference in one or more physical properties of the constituents of the mixture.
2.2 SEPERATION OF SOLID - SOLID MIXTURES
(i) Hand-picking:
Bigger and visible component of a mixture can be separated by hand-picking or by
using forceps. For example, pieces of stone may be separated from rice by hand-picking.
(ii) Sieving:
In some cases, bigger components of a mixture can be easily separated by the use of
a sieve. A sieve is a mechanical device in which a mesh is attached to a frame. When the
mixture is placed on the mesh and shaken or stirred, particles smaller than the holes of the
mesh pass through but the larger ones stay on the mesh. For example,gram can be
separated from wheat by this method.
(iii)Magnetic Separation:
This method is used only when one of the components in a mixture is magnetic in
nature. i.e., it consists of iron, steel, cobalt, nickel. For example, from a mixture of iron
filings and sulphur, iron can be separated by this method.
(iv)Sublimation:
This method is used when one of the components of a mixture vaporises without
melting. On cooling, the vaporised component directly changes into solid. However, care
should be taken that the components of mixture do not react chemically on heating.
Solid – Solid Mixture Sublime substance
1. Ammonium chloride and common salt Ammonium chloride
2. Iodine and sand Iodine
3. Iodine and common salt Iodine
4. Sodium sulphate and benzoic acid Benzoic acid
5. Naphthalene and iron filling Naphthalene
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

(v) Solvent Extraction:

98
This method is suitable for such mixtures in which one of the components is soluble
in some particular solvent.

Solid – Solid mixture Solvent Soluble Insoluble

component component
Sand and sulphur Carbon disulphide Sulphur Sand

Charcoal and sulphur Carbon disulphide Sulphur Charcoal

Sand and wax Turpentine oil Wax Sand

Common salt and marble Water Common salt Marble powder

powder

Nitre and charcoal Water Nitre Charcoal

Gun powder (nitre , carbon Water Nitre Sulphur and carbon

and sulphur)
Carbon disulphide Sulphur Carbon

(vi) Fractional crystallisation:

The process of separation of two different soluble substances from their solution
by crystallisation at controlled temperature, such that one of the solid crystallises is called
fractional crystallisation.
Fractional crystallisation is based on the principle that different solids have
different solubility at a given temperature.
Solid – Solid mixture More soluble component Less soluble component
Potassium nitrate and Potassium nitrate Sodium chloride
sodium chloride
Potassium chloride and Potassium chlorate Potassium chloride
potassium chlorate
Sodium nitrate and Sodium nitrate Sodium chloride
sodium chloride
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

(vii) Gravity separation method:-

99
In this method, one of the components of mixture is either lighter than the other or
is soluble in water.
Solid – Solid mixture Heavier component Lighter component (or)
soluble component
Sand and saw dust Sand Saw dust ( lighter)
Salt and sand Sand Salt ( soluble)
Charcoal and limestone Limestone Charcoal(lighter)

2.2 SEPERATION OF SOLID –LIQUID MIXTURES

(i)Sedimentation and decantation:
If a mixture of a liquid and an insoluble solid is allowed to stand still for some time,
the solid particles settle down at the bottom. This process is called sedimentation. The
solid which settles down at the bottom is called sediment.The clear liquid above the
sediment, when a suspension is allowed to stand undisturbed is called supernatant liquid.
For example, dirt particles present in muddy water can be separated by sedimentation.
After the dirt particles settle down at the bottom, water is poured into another container.
This process of separating the supernatant liquid from the sediment by carefully pouring it
into another container is called decantation. From a mixture of two immiscible liquids,
such as a mixture of oil and water, the components can also be separated by decantation.
 Drawbacks of decantation:
• The constituents of the mixture of a solid and a liquid do not get separated
completely.
• The constituents of a solid lighter than liquid cannot be separated as they float on
the surface of liquid rather than setting down.
(ii) Centrifugation/Churning:
Centrifugation is a process used when the sedimentation of the suspended particles
in a liquid takes place very slowly. The mixture istaken in two specially designed test tubes
known as the centrifuge tubes. The centrifuge tubes are placed in two separate holders.
The holders are then rotated rapidly with the help of a handle. After some time the rotation
is stopped, and the centrifuge tubes are taken out. It is seen that the solid particles have
settled down at the bottom of the tubes. The supernatant liquid above the solid is collected
by decantation.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

(iii)Filtration:
100
Sometimes, the process of sedimentation followed by decantation fails to separate
very minute solid particles from the mixture. In such cases, complete
separation is done by filtration. Filtration is used in laboratories to separate a liquid from a
solid. The liquid is allowed to pass through a
filter paper. A circular filter paper is folded
into a semicircle and then into a quarter-
circle. This gives a conical shape to the filter
paper. The filter paper is then fitted into a
conical funnel.
The mixture is poured into the funnel slowly by the side of a glass rod. The liquid
passes through the fine pores of the filter paper and is collected in a beaker, while the solid
particles are blocked and collected on the filter paper. The filtered liquid is called the
filtrate and the solid particles collected on the filter paper are called residue. The
components of a mixture of sand and water can be separated by this method.
(iv) Evaporation:
The process of changing a liquid into a gaseous state, below its boiling point by the
supply of external heat is called evaporation. This method is used for separating a non-
volatile solid dissolved in a liquid. The solution is taken in a porcelain or glass basin and
heated slowly on water-bath. The solvent evaporates away and the solid is left behind as
residue.
Examples:
• Common salt may be recovered from its aqueous solution by evaporating water.
Common salt present in sea water is usually obtained by this method.
• Sulphur can be recovered from its solution in carbon disulphide by evaporating the
carbon disulphide.
(v) Crystallisation:
The process of evaporation mentioned above
gives only the residue which may contain some
impurities. To obtain the solid free from impurities, the
method of crystallisation is used. For this, the solution
is taken in a china dish and evaporated on a water-bath
till the solution becomes saturated.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

At the point of saturation, solid particles in a regular and definite shape begin to appear.
101
These particles are called crystals. The process by which a pure solid in the form of crystals
separatesfrom a solution is called crystallisation. For example, the salt obtained from sea
water contains many impurities. These impurities can be removed by crystallisation.
Similarly, impure samples of potash alum can be purified by this method.
2.4 SEPARATION OF LIQUID - LIQUID MIXTURES
(i) Distillation:
In distillation, a liquid is heated to boiling and the vapour produced is condensed to
get back the liquid.The process of distillation can also be used to separate the solid-liquid
mixture, where the mixture is homogenous or heterogeneous.Distillation is carried out in a
specially designed round-bottomed glass apparatus called distillation flask. The side-arm
at the neck of the flask is attached to a cooling device called Liebig condenser.

The end of the condenser is connected to a receiver. The solution is taken in the distillation
flask and heated slowly to boiling point. The vapour that comes out passes through the
condenser where it is cooled into liquid. The liquid is collected in the receiver. The solid
matter is left behind in the distillation flask.
(ii) Fractional Distillation:
This method is used to separate the components of a
mixture of two or more miscible liquids whose boiling points
o
differ by at least 15 C or little more. For example, benzene
o
(boiling point 80 C) can be separated from toluene (boiling
o
point 110 C) by this method.The mixture is heated in a
round - bottomed flask over a sand bath. The flask is
attached to a fractionating column. The fractionating column has several traps to allow the
higher boiling liquid (less volatile) to condense.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

The vapour of lower boiling liquid (more volatile) goes into the condenser where
102
itis condensed and the liquid thus obtained is then collected in the receiver. The
temperature remains fixed at the boiling point of the lower-boiling liquid. When this more
volatile liquid is completely distilled, the temperature rises to the boiling point of the next
higher boiling liquid. This liquid is collected in another receiver. In this way, all the
components of the mixture can be separated. This method is adopted to separate the
various components of petroleum.
(iii) Use of separating funnel:
A separating funnel consists of a glass bulb fitted with a stopcock in its
stem. It is used to separate the components of a mixture of two or more
immiscible liquids, i.e., the liquids which do not dissolve in each other. For
example, the components of a mixture of oil and water can be separated by using
a separating funnel.
The liquid separates out on account of difference in their densities. The
heavier liquid stays at the bottom and the lighter liquid will be on the top.
2.5 SEPARATION OF LIQUID-GAS MIXTURES
The solution of a gas in water (liquid) is called liquid - gas mixture.
The separation of gas from water is based on the principle that solubility of a gas
decreases with the rise in temperature. Following gases can be separated from a liquid-gas
mixture.
Liquid-Gas mixture Gas collected on heating
Air-water mixture Air
Carbon dioxide-water mixture Carbon dioxide
Sulphur dioxide-water mixture Sulphur dioxide

2.6 SEPARATION OF GAS-GAS MIXTURES

(i) Separation of a gas-gas mixture by diffusion:
The rate of diffusion of any gas through a porous partition is inversely proportional to the
1
square root of its vapour density (or molecular weight γ ∝ ).
ρ
Thus, if a mixture of two gases of different densities is passed through porous partitions,
then the lighter gas (having less vapour density) will diffuse out more rapidly than heavier
gas.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

Gas – Gas mixture Lighter component of gas which diffuses out

103
first
Carbon dioxide and hydrogen Hydrogen
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen Nitrogen
Carbon monoxide and carbon Carbon monoxide
dioxide
Ammonia and nitrogen Ammonia
(ii) Separation of gas - gas mixture by dissolution in suitable solvents:
The constituents of two gases can be separated if:
1. one of the constituents is soluble in some particular liquid (generally water).
2. one of the constituents reacts chemically with a liquid from which the constituent
can be recovered by chemical action.
Gas – Gas mixture Solvent used Soluble gas Insoluble gas
Nitrogen gas and carbon dioxide gas KOH solution CO 2 N2
Ammonia gas and nitrogen gas Water NH 3 N2
Chlorine gas and hydrochloric acid gas Water HCl Cl 2
Sulphur dioxide gas and oxygen gas KOH solution SO 2 O2
(iii) Separation of gas - gas mixture by preferential liquefaction:
This method is generally employed for industrial separation of a homogeneous
mixture of two gases, such that one of the components of the mixture under high pressure
liquefies, when the gases are suddenly allowed to expand. The component which escapes
on liquefaction is separated from the other component.
Mixture of gases Component which liquefies
Ammonia + nitrogen Ammonia
Sulphur dioxide + oxygen Sulphur dioxide
Chlorine + nitrogen Chlorine
Carbon dioxide + oxygen Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide + carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide
(iv) Separation by fractional evaporation of liquefied mixture of two gases:
Mixtures of gases under extremely high pressure expand and they liquefy.When
cold air under extremely very high pressure is suddenly allowed to expand, both nitrogen
and oxygen liquefy.
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When the liquid is maintained at -196oC, nitrogen starts boiling to produce nitrogen gas. It
104
is collected separately and oxygen is left behind in liquid state as it does not boil off.
Component of liquefied gas Component boils off
Hydrogen and oxygen Hydrogen
Sulphur dioxide and chlorine Sulphur dioxide

2.7 CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is actually a way of separating out a mixture of chemicals, which
are in gas or liquid form, by letting them creep slowly over another substance, which is
typically a liquid or solid.So, with the ink and paper
trick for example, we have a liquid (the ink) dissolved in
water or another solvent creeping over the surface of a
solid (the paper).
The essential thing about chromatography is
that we have some mixture in one state of matter (like a
gas or liquid) moving over the surface of something else
in another state of matter (a liquid or solid) that stays
where it is. The moving substance is called the mobile phase and the substance that stays is
the stationary phase. As the mobile phase moves, it separates out into its components on
the stationary phase.
As the liquid starts to move over the solid, some of its molecules are sucked
towards the surface of the solid and stick there temporarily before being pulled back again
into the liquid where they came from. This exchange of molecules between the surface of
the solid and the liquid is kind of adhesive or gluing effect called adsorption.The adsorbent
medium is generally magnesium oxide, alumina or filter paper. The solvent generally used
for dissolving a mixture of two or more constituents is water or alcohol. The different
constituents of a mixture get adsorbed differently on the same adsorbent material, because
they have different rates of movement. The rate of movement of each adsorbed material
depends upon:
(i) The relative solubility of the constituent of mixture in a given solvent.
(ii) The relative affinity of the constituents of mixture for the adsorbent medium.
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If a filter paper is used as an adsorbent material for the separation of various

105
constituents of a mixture, then this method of separation of mixture is called paper
chromatography. Paper chromatography is very useful in separating various constituents
of coloured solutes present in a mixture like ink, dyes, etc.
 Advantages of Paper Chromatography:
1. It can be carried out by a very small amount of material.
2. The substances under investigation do not get wasted in chromatographic separation.

3. Paper chromatography

 Materials:-
Filter paper,watersoluble marker and beaker.
 Procedure:-
Cut a strip of filter paper. About one-third of the distance from the bottom of the
paper, make a mark on the paper using the water soluble marker. Pourwaterin the beaker
to a depth of 2 cm. Place the end of the filter paper closest to the mark in the beaker,
making sure that the mark is above the water level. When the water rises almost to the top
of the paper, remove the paper from the water.
Observe what happensand record your observations.

2.8 SEPARATION OF COMPONENTS OF SOME TYPICAL MIXTURES

(i) Separation of the components of gunpowder:
Gunpowder is a mixture of nitre (potassium
nitrate),sulphur and powdered charcoal. The
mixture is thoroughly shaken with water when nitre
goes into solution leaving behind sulphur and
charcoal undissolved. The solution is filtered out.
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The filtrate contains aqueous solution of nitre. On slow evaporation, the filtrate gives
106
crystals of nitre.Undissolved residue containing sulphur and charcoal is treated with
carbon disulphide solution. Sulphur dissolves in the solution but charcoal does not. On
filtration, charcoal is obtained as a residue. The filtrate, which contains sulphur, on
evaporation gives sulphur as the residue.
(ii) Separation of the components of a mixture of common salt and sand:
The mixture is treated with water.
Common salt dissolves in water, but sand
remains undissolved. The solution is filtered.
The filtrate is an aqueous solution of
common salt. The solution on evaporation
gives common salt as the residue.

(iii) Separation of the constituents of air:

The constituents of air can be separated by fractional distillation method.Air
contains a mixture of gases mainly of nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide and other gases
are also present is trace amounts. To separate the components, air is gradually cooled and
then heated.

Have you e
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2.9 SEPARATION METHODS – SUMMARY

107
Mixtures can be categorized into various types, depending on the physical states of
the constituents. Some of these types are discussed here along with their separation
methods.
Some common examples of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures and the
technique of separation are given in the following table.
Combination Type of Separation technique
mixture
(I) Solid + Solid :
1. Iron filings + Sulphur Heterogeneous Solvent extraction or magnetic
separation
2. Sulphur + Charcoal Heterogeneous Solvent extraction
3. Potassium Nitrate + Potassium Heterogeneous Fractional crystallization
chlorate
4. Sodium chloride + Sulphur Heterogeneous Solvent extraction
5. Potassium nitrate + Sulphur + Heterogeneous Solvent extraction
Charcoal
6. Bronze ( Copper + Zinc +Tin) Homogeneous Fractional crystallization of the
melt
7. Brass ( Copper + Zinc) Homogeneous Fractional crystallization of the
melt
8. Iodine + Sand Heterogeneous Solvent extraction or sublimation
9. Iodine + Ammonium chloride Homogeneous Solvent extraction
(II) Solid + Liquid:
1. Salt + Water Homogeneous Evaporation or distillation
2. Sand + Water Heterogeneous Evaporation or filtration
3. Chalk + Water Heterogeneous Filtration
4. Iodine + Ethanol Homogeneous Distillation
5. Sulphur + Carbon disulphide Homogeneous Distillation
6. Sugar + Water Homogeneous Distillation
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108
(III) Liquid + Liquid
1. Water + Mercury Heterogeneous Decantation or separating funnel
2. Methanol + Water Homogeneous Distillation
3. Ethanol + Water Homogeneous Distillation
4. Ethanol + Methanol Homogeneous Distillation
5. Petrol + Water Heterogeneous Separating funnel
6. Benzene + water Heterogeneous Separating funnel
(IV) Gas + Gas
1. Nitrogen + Ammonia Homogeneous Diffusion, liquefaction, etc.
2. Sulphur dioxide + Carbon Homogeneous Diffusion, liquefaction, etc.
dioxide
3. Hydrogen + Chlorine Homogeneous Diffusion
4. Sulphur dioxide + Ammonia Homogeneous Diffusion, Liquefaction etc.
5. Air ( O 2 + CO 2 + N 2 + H 2 O) Homogeneous Fractional evaporation of liquefied
gas
6. Oxygen and Hydrogen Homogeneous Diffusion
(V) Gas + Liquid:
1. Carbon dioxide + Water Homogeneous Boiling of the liquid
2. Ammonia + Water Homogeneous Boiling of the liquid
3. Water + Hydrogen chloride Homogeneous Boiling of the liquid
4. water + Sulphur dioxide Homogeneous Boiling of the liquid
5. Chlorine + Water Homogeneous Boiling of the liquid
(VI) Complex mixtures:
1. Ink Heterogeneous Chromatography
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109
Technique for the separation of solid–solid mixture:
Technique Physical property involved Example
Handpicking Bigger particles can be separated Pieces of stone from rice

Sieving Particles smaller than the mesh can be Gram from wheat
separated from bigger particles

Magnetic One of the components of the mixture is Nickel from the mixture of
separation magnetic in nature. lead and nickel.

Sublimation Both of the components are soluble in Ammonium chloride and

water, but one of them can sublime but not common salt
the other, or both the components are
insoluble in water

Solvent One of the components is soluble, but the Sulphur and sand
extraction other is insoluble in specific solvent

Fractional Both the components are soluble in water, Potassium nitrate and
crystallization but their solubilities are different, i.e., one sodium chloride
is more soluble than the other.

Gravity One of the components is heavier than Saw dust and sand.
separation water, whereas the components are lighter
or soluble in water.
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110
Technique for the separation of solid–liquid mixture:
Technique Physical property involved Example
Sedimentation and One of the components is heavier than the Muddy water
Decantation liquid and is insoluble

Churning or One of the components is lighter because of Butter from curd

centrifugation which suspension does not occur in a faster
rate

Filtration One of the components is a solid and Silver chloride

insoluble in the liquid precipitate in water

Evaporation One of the components in non-volatile. It Common salt

may or may not be soluble in water solution

Crystallization One of the components must be non-volatile CuSO 4 crystals from

CuSO 4 solution.

Techniques for the separation of liquid–liquid mixture:

Technique Physical property involved Example
Distillation The liquid components must be miscible and Methanol and water
have large boiling point differences.

Fractional The liquid components must be miscible and Ethyl alcohol and
distillation have a difference in boiling point of about water
15oC

Separating funnel The liquid components must be immiscible Oil and water
and have different densities
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111

Technique for separation of liquid–gas mixture:

Technique Physical property Involved Example

Heating The gas must be soluble in liquid CO 2 in water

Technique of separation of gas–gas mixture:

Technique Physical property involved in Examples
separation
Diffusion The rate of diffusion of less dense gas Hydrogen and carbon
(lighter gas) is more as compared to dioxide; nitrogen and
a heavier gas chlorine
Dissolution in a suitable One of the components of gas is Ammonia and
solvent soluble in a particular hydrogen;HCl gas and
solvent chlorine
Preferential liquefaction One of the gaseous components be Chlorine and oxygen;
easily liquefied as compared to other Carbon dioxide and
components hydrogen
Fractional evaporation of The component of liquefied gas Liquefied air; Liquefied
mixture of liquefied having lower boiling point nitrogen and hydrogen
gases evaporates first gas
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112
MODULE –III

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module, you will be able to
explain solutions and terms used in solutions.
classify solutions based on the solvent and the amount of solute dissolved.
list the properties of solutions.
test saturation and unsaturation.
calculate the solubility of substance.
explain factors affecting solubility.
explain true solutions, colloids and suspension.
classify colloids and explain them.
differentiate true solutions, colloids and suspensions.
calculate the concentration of solutions.

3.1 SOLUTION
A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances,
consisting of ions or molecules. For example,

(i) When sodium chloride is dissolved in water, the resulting uniform dispersion of Na+

ions and Cl-ions in water is called sodium chloride solution.

(ii) On the other hand, when sugar is dissolved in water, the molecules disperse in
water. This is also called a solution (consisting of molecules).
To describe the nature of solution, two important terms are used.
(i) Solute:The substance that is dissolved, which is usually present in lesser quantity, is
called solute. The solute particles in solution are called dispersed particles.
(ii) Solvent: The substance which is responsible for dissolving the solute, generally
present in greater quantity is called solvent. In a solution, the solvent is called the medium
of dispersion.
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113

3.2 SOLUBILITY
The amount in grams of a solute dissolved in 100 grams of a solvent to make a saturated
solution is called the solubility of the solute in the given solvent at the given temperature
and pressure of the solution.
The solubility, S of the solute is given by
ω mass of solute
S = × 100 = ×100
W mass of solvent
(a) Effect of temperature and pressure on solubility of a solid:
(i) The solubility of a solid in a liquid generally increases with the rise in
temperature. The extent of increase in solubility depends upon the nature of the solid.
(ii) Solubility does not change significantly with change in pressure.
(b) Effect of temperature and pressure on the solubility of a gas:
The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with rise in temperature, but increases
with the increase in pressure.
3.3 CONCENTRATION OR STRENGTH OF SOLUTION
The amount of solute dissolved in a unit quantity (volume or mass) of a solution is
known as the concentration or strength of the solution.
The concentration of a solution may be expressed in terms of percentage by mass
or by volume.
(a) Percentage by mass:
It is defined as the number of parts by mass of the solute dissolved per hundred
parts by mass of the solution.
Mass of solute
Percentage by mass of solute= × 100
Mass of solution
b) Percentage by volume:
It is defined as the number of parts of volume of solute dissolved in hundred parts
by volume of the solution.
Volume of solute
Percentage by volume = × 100
Volume of solution
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Example 1:
114
Calculate the concentration of a solution in volume percent made when 48g of
water is mixed with 0.24L of ethanol.
Solution:
mass
volume of water =
density

48g
= = 48cm3
1.0gcm-3
= 48mL
Volume of ethanol = 0.24L = 240mL
Volume of solution = (48+240) = 288mL

48
Concentration percent by volume = × 100 = 16.66%
288
Example 2:-
0.5g of a substance is dissolved in 25g of a solvent. Calculate the percentage
amount of the substance in the solution.
Solution:
Mass of the substance=0.5 g
Mass of the solvent=25 g
Mass of the solution= (0.5) + (25)
= 25.5 g
0.5
∴Mass percentage= × 100 = 1.96%
25.5
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115

4. Dissolving a substance in different liquids

 Materials:
Water, Vegetable oil, Isopropylalcohol 70 %, Sugar, Food colouring, Zip lock plastic
bag, 3 clear plastic cups and 3 stirrers.

 Procedure:
Place 1 tablespoon of sugar in a zip lock plastic bag. Add1 drop of food colouring to
sugar in the bag. Usepermanent marker to label 3 clear plastic cups: water, alcohol and oil.
Add 1 table spoon of each liquid in its labelled cup. Add 1 teaspoon of coloured sugar to
each of the labelled cups. Stir each with a clean stirrer.
Does coloured sugar dissolve equally well in water, oil and alcohol?
Observe what happens and record your observations.
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116

3.4 TYPES OF SOLUTION

3.4. 1 Based on the nature of solvent and solute:
Solute Solvent Physical state of Examples
solution
Gas Gas Gas A mixture of O 2 and N 2 gases, air
Liquid Gas Gas Water vapour in air (humidity), mist, chloroform
vapour mixed with nitrogen gas

Solid Gas Gas Camphor vapours in air, dust particles in air,

smoke
Gas Liquid Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water, aerated drinks
Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water, benzene in toluene, gasoline
Solid Liquid Liquid Sugar in water, salt in water
Gas Solid Solid Adsorption of gases by metals, e.g., hydrogen by
palladium of platinum
Liquid Solid Solid Amalgams of gases by metals, e.g., hydrogen by
palladium of platinum
Solid Solid Solid Alloys, e.g., Zinc in copper (brass)

3.4.2 Based on the amounts of solute dissolved:

(a) Unsaturated solution:
An unsaturated solution is one in which more solute can
be dissolved at a given temperature. For example, a solution of
sugar in water in which more sugar can be dissolved at a given
temperature is an unsaturated solution.
(b) Saturated solution:
A solution in which the maximum possible amount of a
solute is dissolved at a given temperature is known as a saturated solution.
(i) There is a maximum limit to the amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given
quantity of a solvent at a specified temperature.
(ii) With an increase in temperature, the maximum limit to the amount of a solute that can
be dissolved in a given quantity of a solvent increases. That is, a solution which is saturated
at a lower temperature becomes unsaturated at a higher temperature.
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117
(c) Supersaturated solution:
Sometimes it is possible to prepare a solution with an amount of solute higher than
that required to prepare a saturated solution. This kind of solution is called a
supersaturated solution. They are very unstable. The excess solute in the solution may
quickly crystalline to make the solution saturated. Stirring, scratching the side of the
container or adding a small piece of the solute from outside is sufficient to cause
precipitation of the excess solute.
 Test for saturation and unsaturation:
To test whether a solution is saturated or unsaturated, we add more solute to the
solution and stir it thoroughly. If the solute dissolves, the solution is unsaturated. If the
solution remains undissolved, then the solution is saturated.
3.4.3 Based on the type of solvent used, the solutions are classified into:
(a) Aqueous solution:
A solution produced by dissolving a substance in water is known as an aqueous
solution.
(b) Non aqueous solution:
There are some substances which can form solutions by dissolving in liquids other
than water such as alcohol, acetone, carbon tetrachloride and carbondisulphide. Such
solutions are called non aqueous solutions.
3.4.4 Based on the solute particle size in solution:
(a) True solution:
If the mixture of the substances in a solution is truly homogeneous, the particles
cannot be distinguished from one another, even under a microscope. In such a solution, the
solute particles disappear into the space between the particles of the solvent. Such
solutions are known as true solutions.
 Properties of true solutions:
1. It is clear and transparent.
2. The solute in a solution does not settle down even after the solution is kept
undisturbed.
3. In a true solution, solute particles cannot be distinguished from the solvent particles
even under a microscope.
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118
4. It is homogeneous, so the components cannot be separated by filtration.
-8
5. The diameter of the solute particles in a solution is of the order of 10 cm.
(b) Suspension:
Some substances do not dissolve in liquids. However, small particles of such
substances remain suspended in the liquid, solid particles may remain suspended even in a
gas. These mixtures are called suspensions. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in
which small particles of a solid remain suspended throughout the mass of the liquid or gas.
Examples: muddy water, paints, etc.
 Properties of suspension:
1. It is a heterogeneous mixture.
2. The particles in a suspension are large enough to be visible either to the naked eye or
under an ordinary microscope.
3. The particles are too large, so if a suspension is allowed to stand, the suspended
particles may settle down at the bottom.
4. The particles in a suspension can be separated from the liquid by filtration.

5. In a suspension, the size (diameter) of the particles is of the order of 10-5 cm or larger.
(c) Colloids [Colloidal solutions]:
A colloid has properties that are intermediate between those of a true solution and a
suspension. Colloids have particles that are larger than the particles of a true solution but
smaller than those of a suspension.
Examples: blood, milk, ink, toothpaste.
 Classification of colloids:
(i) Based on the physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium:
The term ‘Colloid’ does not represent a particular substance. Actually, a colloid consists of a
dispersed phase surrounded by a dispersion medium. Colloids are classified according to
the state of the dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
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119
The following table lists a few examples.
Name Dispersed Dispersion Examples
phase medium
 Sol Solid Liquid Milk magnesia (MgOH dispersed in
water), paint, ink, colloidal gold
 Emulsion Liquid Liquid Milk, hair cream
 Gel Liquid Solid Butter, cheese
 Aerosol Solid Gas Smoke
Liquid Gas Fog, cloud
 Foam Gas Liquid Smoke
 Solid sol Solid Gas Alloys

(ii)Based on the nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion

medium:
(a) Lyophilic colloids:
In this type of colloidal sols, the dispersed phase has great attraction for the
dispersion medium. The dispersed phase does not precipitate easily and the sols are quite
stable.
Examples: Sols of gum, gelatine, starch, proteins, etc.
(b) Lyophobic colloids:
In this type of colloidal sols, the dispersed phase has little affinity for the dispersion
medium. These colloids are easily predicted on addition of small amounts of electrolytes,
by heating, or by shaking, and therefore not stable.
Examples:Sols of metals and their insoluble compounds such sulphides and oxides.
 Properties of colloidal solution:
The following are the properties of a colloidal solution.
(i) Heterogeneous nature: A colloidal solution particles are visible under a powerful
microscope.
(ii) Filtration: The particles in a colloid can pass through a filter paper.
(iii) Stability: They are quite stable. They do not settle down at the bottom when the
colloid is left undisturbed.
-7 -5
(iv) Size of particles: The colloidal particles have sizes ranging from 10 cm to10 cm.
 ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

(v) Brownian movement: Colloidal particles are in a state of constant and rapid zigzag
120
motion, called Brownian movement, which arises due to the collisions of colloidal
particles with the particles of the solvent.
(vi) Tyndall effect:
Many colloids scatter light, which means that a beam of
light passing through such a colloid can be seen. If a beam of light
is passed through a colloid kept in a dark room, the path of light
through it can be seen due to the scattering of light by the
colloidal particles. This effect can also be observed when a beam
of light passes through mist or dusty air. This scattering of light
by colloidal particles is known as Tyndall effect. True solutions do
not scatter light, so the path of light cannot be seen (i.e, Tyndall
effect does not take place). The path of sunlight into a dust filled room can be seen and is
due to Tyndall
effect. Unburnt carbon particles rising into the air above a coal flame are visible due to the
same reason and is known as smoke.
(vii) Electrophoresis:
Many colloidal particles are electrically charged. So when an electric field is set up in
a colloidal solution, the charged colloidal particles move towards the oppositely charged
electrodes and are precipitated. This movement of charged colloidal particles is known as
electrophoresis. This property is used to study mixtures of proteins, enzymes and to
determine the protein content of body fluids.

Aerogel, also known as frozen smoke, is the world's lowest density solid,
clocking in at 96 % air. If you hold a small piece in your hand, it is practically
impossible to either see or feel, but it can withstand a direct blast from two
pounds of dynamite.
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121

A comparison of true solutions, colloid and suspensions

True solution Colloidal solution Suspension
Composition is Composition is heterogeneous Composition is heterogeneous
homogeneous
Passes through filter Passes through filter paper The suspended particles settle
paper down.
Particles cannot be seen Particles can be seen through Particles can be seen with
a powerful microscope unaided eyes or through a
simple microscope
Diameter of the particle is Particle diameter lies Particle diameter is of the
of the order of 10-8 cm. between 10-7 cm and 10-5 cm. order of 10-5 cm.
Shows no Brownian Shows Brownian movement Shows no Brownian
movement movement
Does not scatter light, Shows Tyndall effect as Shows no Tyndall effect.
(i.e.) no Tyndall effect. colloidal particles scatter light
Does not show Many colloids show Does not show
electrophoresis electrophoresis electrophoresis.
Transparent Translucent or opaque Translucent

Solute particles do not Colloidal particles do not Solute particles settle down
settle down on standing settle down on standing on standing.
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122
Exercise
I. Choose the best answer
1. Which of the following represents a compound?
(a) bronze (b) arsenic (c) diamond (d) ink
2. Which of the following is an element?
(a) water (b) brass (c) steel (d) kalium
3. Which of the following is a compound?
(a) steel (b) brass (c) iron sulphide (d) iodine
4. Which of the following is expected to show Tyndall effect?
(a) sugar solution (b) starch solution (c) milk (d) muddy water
5. The dispersed phase in Gel is
(a) solid (b) liquid (c) gas (d) both (a) and (b)
6. An example for aerosol
(a) butter (b) cloud (c) milk (d) paint
7. A solution of any type is
(a) a single substance
(b) Mixture of two substances
(c) a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
(d) a heterogeneous mixture of two substances
8. Brine is a solution which belongs to the classification
(a) liquid in liquid (b) solid in liquid (c) gas in liquid (d) solid in solid
9. Carbon tetrachloride in water is a
(a) homogeneous solution (b) heterogeneous solution
(c) true solution (d) colloidal solution
10. Gold particles dispersed in water is an example of a
(a) hydrophilic colloid (b) hydrophobic colloid
(c) aerosol (d) gel
11. The process to separate the iron from a mixture of iron fillings and sand
(a) sedimentation (b) filtration
(c) magnetic separation (d) chromatography
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12. Dry ice is

123
(a) a compound (b) an element (c) a mixture (d) an allotrope
13. Honey is
(a) a compound (b) a mixture (c) an element (d) none of these
14. An example for a mixture
(a) sugar (b) wax (c) water (d) oxygen
15. A mixture of carbon tetrachloride and water can be separated using
(a) Chromatography (b) separating funnel
(c) decantation (d) Crystallization
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable answer
1. The important components of soft drinks are ___________________ and _________________.
2. The nature of sugar molecules in its solution is ____________________.
3. Gold used for jewellery is alloyed with _________________.
4. ________________ in water increases the concentration of hydroxide ion.
5. Ammonium chloride and sand can be separated using ________________.
6. Rock salt is obtained by ________________ process.
7. Alloy is a ________________.
8. ________________ is an element undergoes sublimation.
9. ________________ is an example of gas in gas.
10. ________________ water is a pure substance.
III. True or false
1. The property which characterizes a colloidal particle is its ability to scatter light.
2. Silicon is a metalloid.
3. The scattering of light by colloidal particles is known as Brownian effect.
4. The components of a true solution can be separated by filtration.
5. Components have a definite composition.
6. The components of ink can be separated using chromatography technique.
7. Mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride can be separated by evaporation.
8. Mercury and alcohol can be separated using separating funnel.
9. Natrium is an element.
10. Pure water is the best conductor of electricity.
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124

IV. Short answer questions

1. Explain: when ammonium chloride in a heated in a test tube, a white deposit appears
at the top of tube.
2. Name a common substance which exists in all the three states of matter.
3. Name the process used to separate the constituents of the liquefied air.
4. How can you obtain copper filling from a mixture of copper filings and iron filings.
5. Give an example for sublimation process.
6. How will you separate lead chloride from a mixture of lead chloride and silver
chloride.
7. What is meant by atomicity?
8. State how you will remove carbon dioxide from a mixture of carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide.
9. How do you obtain iodine from a mixture of iodine and ammonium chloride?
10. Name the gas formed in each case, when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to.
(i) a mixture of iron and sulphur
(ii) a compound of iron and sulphur
V. Long answer questions
1. Compare the properties of a mixture and a compound.
2. How will you separate solid-solid mixture?
3. (a) Describe briefly how will you obtain pure iodine from a sample of impure iodine.
(b) Describe briefly how you will (i) remove grease spots from clothes. (ii) obtain
pure water from sea water.
4. How would you separate?
(a) zinc carbonate from a mixture of zinc carbonate and sodium carbonate.
(b) oxygen from a mixture of oxygen and ammonia.
(c) benzene (b.p 80o C ) from toluene ( b.p 111oC ) with which it is miscible.
5. Name the techniques and explain the method of separation of the following mixtures.
(a) Constituents of colouring matter in ink.
(b) Hydrated copper (II) sulphate from it aqueous solution
(c) Unused zinc after the reaction of excess zinc with dilute H 2 SO 4 .
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6. Define the following:

125
(a) sublimation (b) distillation (c) evaporation
(d) crystallisation (e) fractional distillation
7. Briefly describe how will you separate the constituents of the following mixtures?
(a)gunpowder (b) dyes
8. (a) What is pure substance?
(b) State three characteristics of a pure substance.
9. (a) Sodium metal is a pure substance and so is sodium chloride, inspite of the fact
sodium chloride contain two different elements. Give reason explain your answer.
(b) Name two metals which offer very large resistance to the passage of electric
current.
10. (a) State five characteristics of a mixture.
(b) You are provided with a tall cylinder, a long strip of filter paper, a glass rod, a
dropper, blue black ink and supply of water. Describe how you will carry out an
experiment so as to obtain a chromatogram of the constituents of ink. Show the
appearance of various constituents on chromatogram.
 1

1. MATTER

CROSS WORD

Across: Down:

1. It can be conserved(6) 2. Atmosphere makeup (3)

4. Talcum powder;glass(9) 3. Extremely angry; steaming (7)

7. Type of TV screen (6) 5. Spread; disappear (9)

10. A measure of the gravitational force 6. Rearrange “open aviator” to get a surface
exerted on an object (6) phenomena(11)
12. One thing that is common about grape 8. Process “talent” which means hidden (6)
juice,oxygen,oil,SO 2 (5)
13. Subject of three laws of Newton (6) 9. Product of direct vaporization of a solid (9)

114. Bees to flower; ants to sugar (10) 11. Wetness of the air (8)
 2

WORKSHEET – I

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. A solid has
(a) definite volume and no definite shape (b) no definite volume and no definite shape
(c) definite shape and volume (d) definite shape but no definite volume
2. A liquid has
(a) definite volume and no definite shape (b) no definite volume and no definite shape
(c) definite shape and volume (d) definite shape but no definite volume
3. A gas has
(a) definite volume and no definite shape (b) no definite volume and no definite shape
(c) definite shape and volume (d) definite shape but no definite volume
4. Which of the following is not a property of particles of matter?
(a) the particles of matter are extremely small
(b) the particles of matter have spaces between them
(c) the particles of matter are in stationary state
(d) the particles of matter attract each other
5. Which of the following has minimum spaces among the particles?
(a) solid (b) liquid (c) gas (d) none of these
6. Rate of diffusion depends on
(a) temperature (b) surface area
(c) both temperature & surface area (d) none
7. Thermal conduction takes place in
(a) solids only (b) liquids only
(c) gases only (d) solids, liquids & gases
8. Solids that have organized, regular repeating structure are
(a) amorphous solids (b) crystalline solids
(c) colloidal particles (d) suspended particles
9. The quantity of matter present in an object is called its
(a) weight (b) gram (c) mass (d) density
10. Which of the following is not a fluid?
(a) water (b) air (c) sand (d) juice
 3
11. Which of the following cannot be considered as matter?
(a) mixture (b) affection (c) gas (d) liquid
12. The force that binds the particles of matter together is known as
(a) intermolecular space (b) bond (c) intermolecular force (d) nuclear force
13. When a teaspoon of sugar is dissolved in a glass of water, what phase or phases are present
after mixing?
(a) solid only (b) still solid and liquid (c) liquid only (d) none
14. Rate of diffusion is faster in
(a) solids (b) liquids (c) gases (d) none
15. Solids have ______________ motion.
(a) oscillatory (b) translatory (c) both (a) & (b) (d) none
II. Fill in the blanks
1. A substance is a form of matter that has _____________ composition.
2. Matter is made up of very small _____________.
3. The matter in our surroundings exists in three states _____________, _____________ and
_____________.
4. Intermolecular forces of attraction are _____________ in solids, _____________ in liquids and
_____________ in gases.
5. Density is measured in _____________.
III. True or false
1. The molecules of gas are in constant motion.
2. It is just easy to compress a liquid, as it is easy to compress a gas.
3. The smell of perfume gradually spreads across room due to evaporation.
4. The volume of a gas expands on heating.
5. Two gases cannot diffuse into each other.
6. The intermolecular forces in the liquid state of a substance are stronger than those in its
solid state.
7. All the material substances contain small particles.
 4

ASSIGNMENT – I

Answer the following

1. A drop of dettol gets evenly distributed in water. Why?

2. Why do solids not diffuse?

3. Explain why a gas fills a vessel completely?

4. Why do gases exert more pressure on the walls of the container than solids?

5. When a jar of coffee is kept opened, people in all parts of the room smell it, explain why?

6. What is the state of water at 100oC , 0oC and 4o C ?

7. Explain why ice has lower density than water?

8. Which property of gas is used in oxygen cylinders?

9. What are the differences between crystalline and amorphous solids?

 5
10. State the differences between solid, liquid and gas on the following parameters.

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Packing of molecules
Intermolecular space
Intermolecular force
Molecular movement
kinetic energy

11. Explain compressibility in gases with an example.

12. Which state of matter is not easily compressible? Why?

13. Why does diffusion becomes faster at higher temperature?

14. Arrange the following in the increasing order of density:

Air, Exhaust from chimneys, Honey, Water, Chalk , Cotton and Iron.

15. What are the ways in which a gas can be liquefied?

16. Is smell of garlic or perfume a matter? Why?

17. What are the unique properties of liquids and gases?

 6
18. Can you find an experiment to justify the statement?
"Gases do not have shape"

19. What property of butane is utilized when it is supplied as LPG?

20. Three materials A, B and C melt at 10o C , 45o C and −10o C respectively. Their boiling points
are 100o C , 500o C and 20o C respectively. State the physical nature of X, Y and Z at room
temperature.

21. What happens to the distance between the molecules of CNG when the cylinder of CNG is
slowly used up?

22. Our own body contain examples of all 3 states of matter. Can you identify them?

23. Why light is not considered as a matter?

24. Why does ice float in water?

25. Why is sponge a solid though compressible?

26. How is pressure developed in a container full of gas?

 7
27. Fill in the box.

28. Why the smell of hot sizzling food, reaches you at a distance, but to get the smell of cold
food you have to go near it?

29. Can air be compressed? Mention any activity to justify your answer.

30. Which will have more impact on kinetic energy doubling of mass or doubling of velocity?
 8

WORKSHEET – II

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Higher the pressure, __________________ the boiling point
(a) higher (b) lower (c) remains constant (d) none
2. Evaporation always causes
(a) thermal expansion (b) liquefaction (c) cooling effect (d) all of these
3. The state of matter which consist of super energetic particles in the form of ionized gases is
called
(a) gaseous state (b) liquid state (c) BEC (d) plasma
4. The boiling point of alcohol is 78o C . What is this temperature in Kelvin scale?
(a) 373 K (b) 351 K (c) 375 K (d) 78 K
5. Choose the correct temperature-time graph when steam is slowly cooled.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

6. Condensation is the process which involves conversion of

(a) solid to liquid (b) liquid to vapour
(c) vapour to liquid (d) liquid to solid
7. Which of the following can exist as vapour?
(a) O 2 (b) N 2 (c) HCl (d) H 2
8. The liquid which has the highest rate of evaporation is
(a) petrol (b) nail-polish remover
(c) water (d) alcohol
9. The melting point of a solid state of a substance is 40o C . The freezing point of the liquid
state of the same substance is
(a) 35oC (b) 40oC (c) 45oC (d) can't predict
10. The boiling point _____________ and melting point _____________ when impurities are present in
a substance.
(a) increases, decreases (b) decreases, increases
(c) increases, increases (d) decreases, decreases
11. The size of naphthalene balls decreases due to
(a) sublimation (b) condensation (c) melting (d) evaporation
 9
12. The rate of evaporation decreases with
(a) increase in humidity (b) increase of temperature
(c) increase in wind speed (d) increase of surface area
13. Which of these choices will not change the state of matter?
(a) temperature (b) hammering (c) pressure (d) all of the above
14. Select the one that when used would be considered as the best condition for liquefaction of
a gas.
(a) increasing the temperature
(b) decreasing the pressure
(c) increasing the pressure and decreasing the temperature
(d) decreasing the pressure and increasing the temperature
15. Which one is a sublime substance?
(a) table salt (b) sugar (c) Iodine (d) potassium iodide
II. Fill in the blanks
1. When solid is heated, the intermolecular forces in solid _____________.
2. When solid is heated, the kinetic energy of molecule in the solid _____________.
3. Kinetic energy _____________ with decreases in temperature.
4. Evaporation takes place from the _____________ of the liquid, while boiling takes place from
the _____________ of the liquid.
5. Rapid evaporation depends on the _____________ area exposed to the atmosphere.
III. True or False
1. The conversion of a gas directly into solid is called condensation.
2. A system that changes from a solid state to liquid state gains energy.
3. If we pour liquid nitrogen (N 2 ) into glass, it will change its state to a solid.
4. Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to change 1 kg of a liquid to a gas at
atmospheric pressure at its melting point.
5. When pressure is lowered, boiling point of the liquid is lowered.
6. Water at room temperature is a liquid.
7. Plasmas are all made of the same ions. They have different colours due to different amounts
of electricity.
 10

ASSIGNMENT – II

Answer the following

1. How gases can be liquefied?

2. What produces more severe burns: boiling water or steam?

3. How can the boiling point of a liquid be raised, without adding impurity?

4. Liquid nitrogen is used as a commercial refrigerant to freeze foods. Nitrogen boils at

−196 C . What is the temperature on Kelvin scale?

5. Explain why?
(a) Camphor disappears without leaving any residue.

(b) Water stored in earthen vessel becomes cool.

6. Which phenomenon occurs during the following changes?

(a) Size of naphthalene ball decreases -
(b) Wax melts in the sun -
(c) Drying of wet clothes -
(d) Formation of clouds -
 11
7. Explain why the temperature do not rise during the process of melting and boiling, though
heat energy is constantly supplied?

8. Why does a summer rainstorm lower the temperature?

9. If water is boiling and the flame supplying the heat is turned up, does the water become
hotter? What happens?

10. Why do we close the bottle of nail polish remover immediately after using it?

11. Why does a stone remain on land?

12. Ethyl chloride boils at 13oC when it is sprayed on the skin, it freezes part of the skin and
thus serves as a local anaesthetic. How it cools the skin?

13. Why is ice at 273 K more effective in cooling than water at the same temperature?
 12
14. Why do the doctor's advice to put strips of wet cloth on the forehead of a person having
high temperature?

15. How vapour is different from gases?

16. Coal on heating at high temperature and high pressure gets converted to graphite. Graphite
on heating further at high temperature and high pressure gets converted to diamond. What
change of state has taken place?

17. Why does iodine gets converted to gas on heating?

18. What is the reason for rise of water through the roots?

19. What happens to the melting point of ice when

(i) high pressure is applied?
(ii) it contains impurities?

20. What happens to the molecules when solid melts to liquid?

21. Why does melting point varies from one metal to another?
 13
22. How do you account for appearance of water droplets on the outer–surface of ice–cold
water bottle?

23. Both boiling and evaporation convert a liquid into vapour. What are the difference between
boiling and evaporation?

24. What factors affect the rate of evaporation?

25. Coconut oil freezes in winter but mustard oil does not do so at atmospheric pressure. What
could be the state of these liquids at reduced pressure?

26. Why is boiling point of rainwater less than that of water?

27. Can water be made to boil in paper cup without the paper being burnt? Explain.

28. What happens in idly batter? What kind of transformation happens?

29. Why is solid CaCl 2 spread on roads in cold countries, during winter season?

30. When glass of water is freezed, formation of ice starts from the top layer but melting of ice
starts from the bottom. Justify.
 14

2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Word search

Identify 13 hidden words from the box given below.

C A T H O D E D R T H I K I O

S E T I G H J U X C H A R G E

T Y N F T Q J O R B I T A L N

E F U R O U H K R C S L I B Y

R L C O V A L E N T T E T I H

G U L W G N W E F G A C E S F

H O E A A T G S Q H B S G O G

I R O P X U F H E J I V B T H

P E N O B M B P L K L A R O Y

F S E G I D N O X D I L A N D

B C C R H I H Q A A T E Q E G

Y E N E U T R O N L Y N O S J

O N Q D F H O P W T H C P Q E

F C W B L J E F G O Q E D S S

D E U T E R I U M N G A M O T
 15

WORKSHEET – I

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Who among the following named atoms as "atomos"?
(a) Maharishi Kanad (b) Democritus (c) Dalton (d) J.J.Thomson
2. When a gas at reduced pressure is subjected to an electric discharge, the rays originating
from the negative electrode are
(a) anode rays (b) cathode rays (c) X-rays (d) radioactive rays
3. In Rutherford's gold foil experiment, most of the α-particles pass through the gold foil
without any deviation from their paths. This indicates that
(a) the atom is spherical
(b) there is a positively charged nucleus at the centre of the atom
(c) the entire mass of the atom is concentrated at the nucleus of the atom
(d) most of them is an empty space
4. The masses of the fundamental particles decrease in the order
(a) e> p > n (b) e > n > p (c) p > n > e (d) n > p > e
5. The charge on an electron is
(a) 1.6 × 10−6 C (b) 1.6 × 10−20 C (c) 1.6 × 10−19 C (d) 1.6 × 10−16 C
6. The fluorescence on the walls of the discharge tube is due to
(a) cathode rays (b) anode rays (c) canal rays (d) none of the above
7. Protons were discovered by
(a) Chadwick (b) Bohr (c) Rutherford (d) Goldstein
8. Which of the following is not a basic particle of an element?
(a) an atom (b) a molecule (c) an ion (d) none
9. Plum pudding model was given by
(a) Chadwick (b) Goldstein (c) Thomson (d) Rutherford
10. The (e/m) ratio of cathode rays is independent of
(a) nature of the gas (b) nature of cathode
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
 16
11. Which of the following statements is incorrect for cathode rays?
(a) they move in a straight line
(b) their nature depends upon the nature of the gas present in the discharge tube
(c) They cast shadow of solid objects placed in their path
(d) They get deflected towards positive charge
12. Planetary model of atom was given by
(a) J.J.Thomson (b) Dalton (c) Rutherford (d) Bohr
13. Which of the following represents neutron?
(a) no charge, mass equal to that of electron
(b) no charge, mass equal to that of proton
(c) positive charge, mass equal to 2 amu
(d) negative charge, mass equal to proton
14. Which of the following statement of Dalton is proved wrong?
(a) All atoms are tiny indivisible particles
(b) Atoms of same element are identical
(c) Atoms combine to form compounds
(d) Atoms of one element can never be changed into atoms of another element
15. The particles present in the nucleus of an atom are
(a) the proton and the electron (b) the electron and the neutron
(c) the proton and the neutron (d) none of these
II. Fill in the blanks
1. Electrons are ________________ charged particles.
2. The mass of a proton is _____________ amu.
3. α-particles are _______________ charged.
4. ________________ metal was used by Rutherford in α-scattering experiment.
5. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as ______________.
6. According to Maharishi Kanad, the tiniest particle of a pure substance is
called________________.
1
7. The mass of an electron is times less than the mass of one atom of _____________.
1837
8. Almost all the mass of an atom is concentrated in a region of space called the _____________.
9. An atom is the smallest unit of an element which takes part in a _____________.
10. Neutrons are produced by bombarding α-particles with ____________.
 17

III. True or false

1. Thomson proposed that the nucleus of an atom contain protons and neutrons.
2. An electron has a mass that is much less than that of a proton.
3. There is no particle of matter smaller than an atom.
4. α-particles are same thing as helium atoms.
5. Atoms of an element may have more or less neutrons or electrons than other atoms of the
same element.
 18

ASSIGNMENT – I

1. Use Dalton's atomic theory to describe how atoms interact during a chemical reaction.

2. What experimental evidence did Thomson have for each statement?

(a) Electrons have a negative charge.

(b) Atoms of all elements contain electrons.

3. Would you expecttwo electrons to repel or attract each other? Why?

4. How do you compare the charge and mass of a neutron to the charge and mass of a proton?

5. Describe the location of the electrons in Thomson's "plumpudding" model of the atom.

6. How did the results of Rutherford's gold foil experiment differ from his expectations?

7. What is the charge-positive or negative, of the nucleus of every atom?

 19
8. According to Dalton'stheory, is it possible to convertatoms of one element into atoms of
another? Explain.

9. What experimental evidence led Rutherford to conclude that an atom is mostly empty
space?

10. Why is an atom electrically neutral?

11. Why are atoms considered the basic building blocks of matter even though smaller
particles such as protons, electrons and neutrons exist?

12. Which part of Dalton's atomic theory no longer agrees with the current picture of the atom?

13. How are the nucleons held together?

 20
14. The diagram below shows gold atoms being bombarded with fast-
moving alpha particles.
(i) The large spheres represent gold atoms. What do the small dots
represent?
(ii) List at least two characteristics of the small dots?
(iii) Which subatomic particle cannot be found in the area represented by the small
dots?

15. What experiment led to the discovery of neutrons? Explain how they were discovered?
 21

WORKSHEET – II

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in third shell (n = 3) is
(a) 2 (b) 8 (c) 18 (d) 10
2. In an atom, the constituent electrons
(a) do not move
(b) are uniformly distributed
(c) move around the nucleus in fixed energy levels
(d) move around the nucleus in a random way
3. Which of the following statements is not correct for Bohr's model of an atom?
(a) the nucleus of an atom is situated at the centre
(b) the electrons more in circular orbits
(c) electronsjump from one orbit to another
(d) an electron neither loses nor gains energy it jumps from one orbit to another
4. The atomic number of an element is 11 and its mass number is 23. The correct order for
representingthe number of electrons, protons and neutrons respectively in this atom is
(a) 11, 11, 12 (b) 11,12, 11 (c) 12,11, 11 (d) 23,11, 23
5. Which of the following pairs are isotopes?
(a) oxygen and ozone (b) ice and steam
(c) nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (d) hydrogen and deuterium
6. Which of the following have equal number of neutrons and protons?
(a) Hydrogen (b) Deuterium (c) Fluorine (d) Chlorine
7. The number of electrons in an element with atomic number X and atomic mass Y will be
(a) (X-Y) (b) (Y-X) (c) (X+Y) (d) X
8. The relative atomic masses of many elements are not whole numbers because
(a) they cannot be determined accurately
(b) the atoms ionise during the determination of their masses
(c) existence of isotopes
(d) presence of impurities
 22
9. Which of the following describes an isotope with a mass number of 99 that contains 56
neutrons in its nucleus?
(a) 99
56 Ba (b) 43
56 Ba 43 Tc
(c) 99 (d) 56
43 Tc

10. The orbital diagram in which both the Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule are
violated
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
11. The four quantum numbers that could identify the third electron in sulphur are

(a) n =
3, l =
0, m = +1
+1, s = (b) n =
2, l =
2, m = +1
−1, s =
2 2

(c) n =
3, l =
2, m = −1
+1, s = (d) n =
3, l =
1, m = +1
−1, s =
2 2
12. Which of the following orbitalis more close to the nucleus?
(a) 5f (b) 6d (c) 7s (d) 7p
13. Which of the following orbital diagram violates the Pauli's exclusion principle?
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

14. Members of which of the following have similar chemical properties?

(a) isotopes (b) isobars (c) isotones (d) both (a) and (b)
15. Which one of the following statement is not true?
(a) Most of the space in atom is empty
(b) The total number of neutrons and protons is always equal in a neutral atom
(c) The total number of electrons and protons in an atom is always equal in a neutral
atom
(d) The total number of electrons in any energy level can be calculated by the formula
2n2
II. Fill in the blanks
1. The K-shell of any atom cannot have more than ______________ electrons.
2. Isotopes are the atoms of ______________ element, having same atomic number but different
mass numbers.
3. An atom of an element has 11 protons, 11 electrons and 12 neutrons;theatomic mass of the
atom is ______________.
 23
4. The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom can be calculated by ______________ the
atomic number from its mass number.
5. ______________ and ______________ more or less make up the mass of an atom.
6. When n = 5 and l = 2 it represents ______________ orbital.
7. In the 4d orbital, n= ______________ and l = ______________.
8. d-orbital has ______________ energy when compared to p-orbital.
9. The volume of an atom is the volume of the ______________ surrounding it
10. The electrons get filled up in the 4p orbital and then they are filled in ______________ orbital.
III. Complete the following
(i) Draw five protons in the nucleus of the atom. Label them with their charge.
(ii) Draw six neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
(iii) Distribute five electrons in the energy shells.
(iv) Which element is represented by the diagram?
(v) Write the atomic number, mass number and number of subatomic particles.
IV.Use your knowledge of atomic calculations to complete the chart

Element Atomic Atomic Protons Neutrons Electrons

number mass
Li 3 7
P 15 31
Cl 35 17
Ni 28 31
K 39 19
Ag 47 61
H 1 1
Si 14 14
W 74 110
Ne 10 10
 24

ASSIGNMENT – II

1. What did Bohr assume about the motion of electrons?

2. What is the significance of the boundary of an electronic cloud?

3. How many sublevels are contained in each of these principle energy levels?
(a) n=1 (b) n=2 (c) n=3 (d) n=4

4. What is meant by 3p3?

5. Arrange the following sublevels in order of increasing energy:

(a) 3d , 2s , 4s , 3p , 4d , 5s (b) 4s , 3d , 4p , 2s (c) 1s , 2p , 3p , 4s

6. What are the three rules that govern the filling of the atomic orbitals by electrons?

7. What is the maximum number of electrons that can be found in any orbital of an atom?
 25
8. Orbital diagram for the ground states of two elements are shown below. Each diagram
shows something which is incorrect. Identify the error in the diagramand then draw the
correct diagram.

Nitrogen

Magnesium

9. Why do electrons occupy equal energy orbitals singly before beginning to pair up?

10. How do neon–20 and neon–21 differ from each other.

11. From amongst K,L, M and N shells, which is associated with lowest energy and which one is
associated with highest energy?
 26

17 Cl ,17 Cl
12. Chlorine consists of isotopes 35 37
. Their relativeabundance of number of atoms is

754:256. Find out the relativeatomic mass of natural chlorine.

13. The relative atomic mass of boron is 10.8. Calculatethe percentage of its isotopes 10
5 B and
11
5 B occurring in nature.

14. Calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons and then draw the Bohr diagram
for each element.
(a) 78 Li (b) 20
10 Ne 24
(c) 12 Mg (d) 35
17 Cl (e) 24 He (f) 28
14 Si

15. Name the element and the symbol which has the following number of particles.
(a) 26 electrons, 29 neutrons, 26 protons

(b) 16 protons, 16 neutrons, 16 electrons

(c) 2 electrons (neutral atom)

(d) 20 electrons

(e) 0 neutron
 27

WORKSHEET – III

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. In an atom, the valence electrons are present in
(a) outermost orbital (b) next to outermost orbit
(c) first orbit (d) any one of its orbit
2. What is the number of valence electrons of Al?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
3. Which of the following arrangements of electrons represent magnesium (Mg)?
(a)2,8,1 (b) 2,8,2 (c) 2,8,3 (d) 2,8,4
4. Which would be the electrical charge on a sulphur atom containing 18 electrons?
(a) 2- (b) 1- (c) 0 (d)2+
5. The diagram given below representsan atom of

(a) Chlorine (b) Magnesium (c) Calcium (d) Helium

6. Which of the following electronic configuration is forbidden?
(a) 1s22s2 2p4 3s13p6 (b) 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d1
(c) 1s22s22p6 3s23p5 (d) 1s22s2
7. When an atom loses electrons, they become
(a) electropositive ion (b) electronegative ion
(c) cation (d) both (a) and (b)
8. An element contains 7 valence electron, then it is a
(a) metal (b) non-metal (c) metalloid (d) noblegas
9. HCl is a ______________ bond compound
(a) covalent (b) ionic (c) electrovalent (d) hydrogen
10. Transfer of electrons from one element to another forms ____________ bond
(a) covalent (b) ionic (c) hydrogen (d) none of these
 28

II. Fill in the blanks

1. The electrons present in the ______________ shell of an atom are called valence electrons.
2. The nature of element is ______________, if it has one to three ______________ electrons.
3. The element is a ______________ , if it has ______________ valence electrons.
4. The element ______________ has one electron in K – shell, but is a non-metal.
5. The element ______________ has two electrons in K – shell but is a noblegas.
III. Write the electronic configuration based on orbits and orbitals

1. 21 Sc 45 2. 26 Fe56 3. 18 Ar 40 4. 24 Cr 52 5. 9 F 19
 29

ASSIGNMENT – III

1. How many unpaired electrons are there in the following?

(a) Cu2+ (b) Ag+ (c) Zn2+ (d) O (e) Si (f) K

2. Give the atomic number of the elements with the following electronic configuration in their
outermost shell.
(a) 3s23p6 (b) 3d54S2

3. Write the electronic configuration of neutral atoms of

(a) 27
13 X (b) 35
17 Y

4. Give the electronic configuration of the following ions:

(a) N 3− (b) S 2− (c) Cu2+ (d) Cr 3+ (e) Fe2+

5. A neutral atom of an element has 2K,8 L and 5 M electrons. Find out the following from the
data.
(a) Atomic number
(b) Total number of s electrons
(c) Total number of p electrons
(d) Total number of protons and
(e) Valency of the element
 30
6. What are single, double and triple covalent bonds? Explain with one example each.

7. Give the symbol and name of the elements that correspond to these configurations of an
atom.
(a) 1s22s22p6 3s1
(b) 1s22s22p3
(c) 1s22s22p6 3s23p2
(d) 1s2 2s2 2p4
(e) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
(f) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d24s2
8. Atoms of which elements tend to gain electrons? Atoms of which tend to lose electrons?

9. How many valence electrons are present in each atom?

(a) potassium
(b) oxygen
(c) magnesium
(d) carbon

10. How many electrons are gained or lost in forming each ion?
(a) Ba2+
(b) As3-
(c) Cu2+

11. Compare the number of valence electrons of metals and non metals. Which has more
valence electrons?
 31
12. Show the different steps in the formation of the following
(a) potassium fluoride
(b) calcium oxide

13. Compare ionic and covalent bond.

14. Explain the formation of the following covalent molecules.

(a) H 2 S

(b) PCl 3

(c) SiH 4

(d) COCl 2

(e) NCl 3

15. Explain the octet and duplet rule.

 32

3. PERIODIC TABLE

CROSS WORD

Across: Down:

4. 10 on a table (4) 1. Most electronegative element(8)

7. Day & night, classroom bell, heartbeat(11) 2. Slightly altered atoms; 6 C 1 3 , 2 7 Co 6 0 , 1 H 2 (8)

8. Elements on the left side of the periodic 3. Father of Periodic table (9)
table(6)
10. Fundamental property mistaken by 5. Increases in Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr (6,4)
Mendeleev (4,6)
6. sa re ga ma pa dha nee saa(6)

9. Put together(5)
 33

WORKSHEET – I

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Lavoisier classified elements into
(a) triads (b) octave (c) metal and non-metals (d) none
2. Find the odd triad out
(a) Ca, S, Ba (b)Li, Na, K (c) Cl, Br, I (d) C, N, O
3. The relationship between properties of elements and molecular masses was first given by
(a) Lavoisier (b) Dobereiner (c) Newlands (d) Mendeleev
4. What is the periodicity of elements in the classification given by Newlands
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
5. ‘The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses”. This law was
given by
(a)Dobereiner (b) Mendeleev (c) Moseley (d) Newlands
6. The element present below Be according to the classification of Newlands is
(a)Na (b)Mg (c)Al (d)Si
7. Short period is the
(a)2nd period (b)3rd period (c)5th period (d)6th period
8. In the long form of periodic table, metallic element are placed at
(a) left of the periodic table (b)right of the periodic table
(c) at the center of the periodic table (d) At the bottom
9. Which of the following statement, is not true about Mendeleev’s periodic table
(a)Hydrogen did not have a fixed position.
(b)no anomalous pairs where found
(c) isotopes had no positions
(d)did not have proper place for lanthanides and actinides
10. Si belongs to
(a)2nd period (b)1st period (c)3rd period (d)none
11. Longest period is
(a) 1st period (b) 3rd period (c) 4th period (d) 2nd period
12. Modern periodic table has
(a)6 periods, 18 groups (b) 7 periods, 18 groups
(c) 7 periods, 17 groups (d) 6 periods, 8 groups
 34
13. ’Atomic number, not atomic mass, is a more fundamental property of an element’. This was
enunciated by
(a)Lother Meyer (b) Moseley (c)Mendeleev (d)Bohr
15. He, Ne, Ar belong to
(a) 9th group (b) 12th group (c) 12th group (d) 18th group
II. Fill in the blanks
1. The repetition of physical and chemical properties at regular internals or periods is known
as __________________.
2. The properties of elements are periodic functions of their __________________.
3. __________________was called as eka-aluminium by Mendeleev
4. Longest period consists of __________________ elements
5. Vertical column in the periodic table is called as __________________ and horizontal column
in the periodic table is called as __________________.
III. Match the following
1. Newlands (a) Triad
2. Dobereiner (b) Modern periodic table
3. Carbon (c) 2nd period 1st group
4. Moseley (d) Law of octave
5. Lithium (e) 2nd period 14th group
 35

ASSIGNMENT – I

Answer the following

1. Look up the word ‘periodic’ in the dictionary and propose the reason for naming periodic
table.

2. Why did Mendeleev leave spaces in his periodic table?

3. What effect did the discovery of gallium have on the acceptance of Mendeleev’s table?

4. What pattern is revealed when the elements are arranged in a periodic table in the order of
increasing atomic number?

5. How did Mendeleev’s periodic table help scientists predict the existence of undiscovered
elements?

6. The bar graph shows how many elements were discovered before 1750 and in each
50-year (period between 1750 to 2000)
(a) In which 50 years period were the most elements discovered?

(b) What percent of elements where discovered by 1900?

 36

7. Why did chemists begin the process of organizing elements?

8. What property did Mendeleev use to organise his periodic table?

9. What was the need for modern periodic table?

10. Explain in detail all the main features of Mendeleev’s periodic table?

11. What is the achievement of Dobereiner’s law of triads?

12. P,Q and R all three elements in a Dobereiner’s triad. If the atomic weight of P is 35.5 and R
is 127, calculate the atomic weight of Q.

13. State Newland’s law of octave and support your answer with an example.

14. Define periodicity.

15. State Mendeleev’s Periodic law.

 37

WORKSHEET – II

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Among the following elements which element has the largest atomic size
(a)Ca (b) Li (c) Cs (d) H
2. Write the ascending order of electro negativity among the following elements
O, Li, Be, N
(a)O< Li< Be< N (b) N< Be< Li< O (c) Li< Be< N< O (d) Be< Li< O< N
3. The element A has an electronic configuration of 2, 8, 18, 2. Which period will the element
belong to?
(a) 2nd period (b)3rd period (c)4th period (d)5th period
4. Element A has electronic configuration of 2, 8, 1 and element B has electronic configuration
of 2, 8, 8, 1. Which property will be same in A and B?
(a) ionization energy (b) electro negativity (c) valency (d) none
5. Metallic and non-metallic character down the group
(a)increases and increases (b) decreases and increases
(c) decreases and decreases (d) increases and decreases
6. Element present in the 3rd period and 15th group is
(a)phosphorous (b) oxygen (c) gallium (d) sulphur
7. Ionization energy increases as the atomic radius
(a)decreases (b)increases (c)remains constant (d)none
8. The tendency to pull shared pair of electrum towards itself is called as
(a)electron affinity (b)electro negativity (c) electro positivity (d)none
9. Arrange the following elements in decreasing order of their valency F, N, O, C
(a)N > O> F > C (b)F> O > N > C (c)C > N >O > F (d)O > N > C > F
10. The element which has highest electro negativity from the following
(a)P (b)S (c)Na (d)Cc
11. The energy required to add an extra electron in the outer most shell of the atom is called as
(a)electron affinity (b)electro negativity (c)ionization energy (d)none
12. Identify the wrong statement.
(a)Atomic size is inversely proportional to ionization energy
(b)With increase in atomic size,electro negativity increases
(c) With increase in atomic size, electron affinity decreases
(d) With increase in Ionization energy, electronegativity increases
 38
13. Write the increasing order of ionization energy for the following.
(a) O22− < O2− < O2 (b) O2− < O22− < O2

(c) O2 < O2− < O22− (d) O2 < O22− < O2−

14. In the following representation the boxed number indicates

(a) number of elections
(b) number of electrons and protons
(c) number of proton and neutrons
(d)number of neutrons
15. 17th group elements are called as
(a)inert gases (b) halogens (c) alkali metals (d) none
II. Fill in the blanks
1. Ionization energy across the group___________________.
2. Most electronegative element present in the periodic table is _______________.
3. Valency of carbon is __________________.
4. Cesium has the largest ________________.
5. IIA group elements are called _______________.
III. Identify the following elements into metals, non-metals and metalloids
Li Ca Ga Ge Br
F B Si Be He
Ne N K Mg Sr
Na Al Cl P Fr
 39

ASSIGNMENT – II

Answer the following

1. Cs is more metallic when compared with Li. Why?

2. In the periodic table what happens to the pattern of properties within the period when you
move from one period to the next?

3. Write the symbol of the element or elements that fit each description
(a) anon-metal in group IVA
(b) all the non-metal for which the atomic number is a multiple of fine
(c) A metal in group VA

4. In each pair, which ion is larger?

(a) Ca27 , Mg27 (b) Cl − , P 3− (c) Cu+ , Cu2+

5. Explain why there should be a connection between an elements election configuration and
its location on the periodic table?

6. Atoms and ions with the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic. Is it possible for
a cation to be isoelectronic with an anion from the same period? Explain.

7. Plot atomic radius versus ionization energy and deduce a relationship between atomic
radius and ionization energy.

8. Plot atomic radius versus electro negativity and deduce the relationship between them.
 40
9. Plot ionization energy and electro negativity and deduce the relationship between them.

10. Differentiate between electro negativity and electron affinity.

11. Define ionization energy and also write its variation down the group and across the period.

12. Element A and B belong to the 2nd period. Valency of A being 4, B has 2 electrons more than
A. Identify the groups that A and B belong to and also identify elements A and B.

13. Electro negativity increases down the group.Explain.

14. Write down the differences between Mendeleev’s periodic table and modern periodic table

15. Explain the relationship between atomic size and metallic character.
 41

4. ELEMENTS.COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Word search

Identify 13 hidden words from the box given below:

H O M O G E N E O U S A E H I

D I S P E R S I O N L W I B Y

E O U N S A T U R A T E D I A

C H R O M A T O G R A P H Y W

A L I B Y J O S P H I N E K G

N C H A R I B R O W N I A N Z

T O O S R I Q V O L A T I L E

A J H L A I S H U R I A J O K

T Q J V L V A S U I W Q V R L

I G I A S O C I A B P U G G H

O S O L U B I L I T Y E N A P

N F A L T H U D A D I O I N E

B E D H K O T V S R A U R I Q

M E T A L L O I D S V S K C O

C R Y S T A L L I S A T I O N
 42

WORKSHEET-1

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Air is regarded as a mixture because
(a) its pressure may vary (b) its temperature may change
(c) its volume changes under different conditions (d) its composition may vary
2. Which of the following is a compound?
(a) stainless steel (b) bronze (c) graphite (d) hydrogen sulphide
3. In which of the following, the constituents are present in any ratio?
(a) mixture (b) compound (c) solution (d) colloid
4. Two substances A and B when brought together form a substance C with the evolution of
heat. The properties of C are entirely different from those of A and B. The substance C is a
(a) compound (b) mixture (c) element (d) none of these
5. Which one of the following will result in the formation of a mixture?
(a) crushing of a marble tile into small particles (b) breaking of ice into small pieces
(c) adding sodium metal to water (d) adding milk in water
6. Purity of a solid substance can be checked by its
(a) boiling point (b) melting point (c) both (a) & (b) (d) none of these
7. A sample contains two substances and has the uniform properties of the substances. The
sample is
(a) a compound (b) a heterogeneous mixture
(c) an element (d) a homogenous mixture
8. Which of the following is considered to be a pure substance?
(a) granite (b)sodium chloride (c) muddy water (d) milk of magnesia
9. Physical properties of a mixture
(a) vary with the amount of substance
(b) depend on the volume of the substance
(c) depend on the organisation of the substance
(d) vary depending upon its components
10. Compounds
(a) are the same as mixtures
(b) can be separated by their physical properties
(c) contain only type of element
(d) are different kinds of atoms chemically combined with each other
 43
11. White gold contains two elements, gold and palladium. A jeweller has two different samples
that are both identical in appearance and have a uniform composition throughout. What
can be said about the samples?
(a) they are homogeneous mixtures and be classified as metallic alloys
(b) the materials are heterogeneous mixtures and can be classified by their components
(c) the samples have variable compositions and are classified as metallic solutions
(d) the samples are heterogeneous mixtures that can be separated by magnetic
separation
12. Which of the following is an example of mixture?
(a) bottled water (b) table salt (c) pieces of copper (d) candle
13. Which of the following is an element?
(a) hydrogen (b) ammonia (c) water (d) glucose
14. Which is not a mixture?
(a) rock (b) sea water (c) common salt (d) milk
15. An example of homogenous mixture is
(a) copper sulphate solution (b) salt and sulphur
(c) sulphur powder and iron filings (d) oil and water
16. Which of the following is an alloy?
(a) sugar (b) brass (c) gold (d) NO 2
17. Which of the following statement is incorrect?
(a) A pure substance must contain only one type of atoms
(b) A mixture containing two compounds must be heterogeneous
(c) A homogenous mixture must be uniform
(d) The components of the mixture can be separated by physical separation methods.
18. Which of the following is a metalloid?
(a) gold (b) germanium (c) carbon (d) hydrogen
19. Which one of the following is a liquid metal?
(a) sodium (b) magnesium (c) lithium (d) mercury
20. Which one of the following is a hard non-metal?
(a) carbon (b) diamond (c) nitrogen (d) chlorine
 44

II. Fill in the blanks

1. Common salt is a _____________.
2. A mixture contains more than ______________ substance mixed in _____________ proportion.
3. Properties of a _______________ are different from its constituent elements, where as a
_______________ shows the properties of its constituent elements.
4. A pure substance has a fixed ________________ and ________________ at constant temperature.
5. An element is made up of only one kind of ______________.
6. Alloy is a _______________.
7. Metals are in the ______________ state.
8. The component of mixture retain their _______________.
9. Air is ____________________ of several gases and dust particles.
10. _________________ are lustrous and sonorous.
11. Non metals are ________________ conductor of heat and electricity.
12. Bronze is an ______________.
13. A chemical reaction occurs in the formation of _______________.
14. ________________ have both the properties of metals and non-metals.
15. Silicon and Germanium are _________________.

III. Match the following

1. Steel - Homogeneous Mixture
2. Air - Element
3. Water - Alloy
4. Diamond - Heterogeneous mixture
5. Soil - Compound
 45

ASSIGNMENT – I

1. Classify the matter based on chemical composition.

2. State the differences between an element and compound

3. State the differences between a mixture and compound.

4. Classify elements and explain them.

5. Explain the types of mixture with an example.

6. Give one example each for

(i) Solid – Liquid mixture-
(ii) Liquid – Gas mixture-
(iii) Solid – Solid mixture-

7. Classify the following into elements, compounds and mixture

(a) Sodium (b) Soil (c) Sugar solution
(d) Silver (e) Tin (f) Calcium carbonate
 46

8. Classify each of the following as homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture.

(a) Soda water (b) wood (c) air
(d) Soil (e) Vinegar

9. Can an element be distinguished from its compound by examination of its physical

properties only? Explain.

10. Explain why water is a compound and not a mixture?

11. Why does ice float on water? Is ice water homogenous or heterogeneous matter? Pure
substance or a mixture?

12. Classify each of the following as a pure substance or a mixture; if a mixture, indicate
whether it is homogeneous or heterogeneous.
(a) rice pudding (b) sea water (c) magnesium (d) gasoline

13. A solid white substance A is heated strongly in the absence of air. It decomposes to form a
new white substance B and gas C. The gas has exactly the same properties as the product
obtained when carbon is burnt in excess of oxygen. Can we determine whether solids A and
B and the gas C are elements or compounds? Explain
 47

14. Which of the following mixtures is homogeneous and why?

(a) Ethyl alcohol and water (b) Oil and water

15. When two substances A and B were made to combine, they form a third substance C. The
following observations were recorded for this:
(i) During formation of C from combination of A and B, a large amount of heat was evolved.
(ii) The properties of C were different from those of A and B. Predict the nature of C.

16. Is fresh air free of dust particles and impurities of all other kind, a pure substance?

17. Why is compound considered as pure substance but mixture is not considered as pure
substance?

18. Why alloy is called a mixture and not compound?

 48

WORKSHEET-II

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The process used to separate oil and water is
(a) distillation (b) sublimation
(c) separating funnel (d) chromatography
2. A mixture of common salt, sulphur, sand and iron fillings is shaken with carbon disulphide
filtered and then evaporated. What will be left out after evaporation?
(a) sand (b) sulphur (c) iron filings (d) common salt
3. Camphor can be purified by
(a) distillation (b) filtration (c) sedimentation (d) sublimation
4. A mixture of ethanol and water can be separated by
(a) filtration (b) decantation
(c) fractional distillation (d) sublimation
5. Salt can be obtained from sea water by
(a) filtration (b) decantation (c) evaporation (d) sublimation
6. Mixture of sand and sulphur may be best separated by
(a) fractional crystallisation (b) magnetic method
(c) fractional distillation (d) dissolving in carbon sulphide and filtering
7. Filtration can be used to separate
(a) solids from solids (b) liquids from solids
(c) liquids from liquids (d) liquids from gases
8. One common method to separate dyes is
(a) filtration (b) distillation (c) chromatography (d) condensation
9. Distillation is a good separation technique for
(a) Solids (b) liquids (c) solid alloys (d) gases
10. Magnetic separation is most beneficial for separating
(a) gases and non-metallic liquids
(b) magnetic solids and solids such as sulphur
(c) non-metallic solids and solids such as sulphur
(d) non-magnetic solids from non-magnetic liquids
 49
11. Separation of the components is required
(a) to remove the undesirable component or harmful component
(b) to obtain a pure sample of a substance
(c) to obtain a useful component
(d) all the above
12. Iodine is obtained from a mixture of iodine and salt by
(a) distillation (b) sieving (c) loading (d) sublimation
13. Two miscible liquids can be separated by
(a) distillation (b) sieving (c) filtration (d) sublimation
14. Which is not a sublime substance?
(a) iodine (b) benzene (c) camphor (d) ammonium chloride
15. Insoluble particles are removed by
(a) centrifugation (b) crystallisation (c) filtration (d) sublimation
16. Separating funnel is used to separate
(a) two miscible liquids (b) immiscible liquids
(c) insoluble solid particles in a liquid (d) solid particles dissolved in a liquid
17. The correct order of steps to separate different components of a mixture containing iron
filings, sand and ammonium chloride is
(a) solution, filtration and magnetic separation
(b) solution, distillation, sublimation
(c) crystallisation, sublimation
(d) solution, distillation and magnetic separation
18. Chromatography is used to separate
(a) colour in a dye (b) pigments from nature
(c) drugs from blood (d) all the above
19. Cream is obtained from milk by
(a) filtration (b) centrifugation
(c) chromatography (d) distillation
20. Which of the following mixtures can be separated using a separating funnel?
(a) water + sodium chloride (b) carbon tetrachloride + water
(c) alcohol + water (d) ammonia + water
 50

II. Fill in the blanks

1. Two or more immiscible liquids are separated by _______________.

2. Two liquids having a difference of more than 25o C are separated from their mixture by
_______________ process.
3. ______________ is separated from waste by magnetic separation.
4. Insoluble heavy particles from water are separated by ________________.
5. A mixture of salt and ammonium chloride is separated by _______________.
6. Insoluble solids of various sizes are separated from liquid by _______________.
7. Common salt from sea water is obtained by _________________
8. Camphor is a _____________ substance.
9. Pure liquid from a solution is obtained by __________________.
10. Separating funnel is used to separate two or more ______________ liquids.
11. A mixture of water and alcohol is separated by ___________________.
12. We can remove salts from a solution by using the process of _____________.
13. The mixture of water and oil is separated by _______________.
14. To get the purest form of a substance, _______________ has to be done.
15. To separate sulphur and carbon components in a mixture ______________ solvent has to be
used.

III. Match the following

1. Husk from wheat - Evaporation
2. Salt and Ammonium chloride - Separating funnel
3. Common salt from sea water - Filtration
4. Impurities from pond water - Magnetic separation
5. Oil from water - Winnowing
6. Iron scrap from waste - Distillation
7. Tea leaves from water - Sublimation
8. Water from salt water - Decantation
9. Pure salt from salt water - Fractional Distillation
10. Benzene and water - Crystallisation
 51

ASSIGNMENT – II

1. What difference in the property of two miscible liquids enables their separation by
fractional distillation?

2. Why is solution not heated to dryness to get crystals?

3. Name the apparatus by which mixture of oil and water can be separated.

4. A mixture consisting of two miscible liquids ‘A ‘and ‘B’ whose boiling points differ by 5oC
can be separated by which process ?

5. Which separation technique is employed to separate complex mixture of organic

compounds like carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins, hormones, etc.?

6. In fractional crystallisation two organic compounds gets differentiated on the basis of

which property?

7. Which method can be used to separate mixture of iron filings and common salt?
 52
8. Which method can be used to separate a mixture of naphthalene and common salt?

9. How do you separate the following mixture and write the principle of the separation
technique.
(i) Sulphur + Carbon disulphide-
(ii) Iron + Sulphur-
(iii) Pigments of flowers-
(iv) Petrol + water-
(v) Sand + water-

10. What are the advantages of chromatography as a method of separation of components of a

mixture?

11. Suggest a scheme for the separation of constituents of the following mixture:
Sulphur + Sand + Sugar + Iron filings

12. Which method of distillation is employed for the concentration of raw juice in sugar
factory? Explain in detail.
 53
13. From the following techniques,
distillation, filtration, fractional distillation, chromatography, crystallisation, sublimation,
evaporation, decantation, sedimentation.
Select the method you will use to separate:
(a) the constituents of the colouring matter of ink-
(b) hydrated CuSO 4 from its aqueous solution-
(c) Sand and water-
(d) Common salt from sea water
(e) Petrol from crude oil

14. Discuss the function of fractionating column in fractional distillation.

15. Mixture can be separated into their components by taking advantage of difference in the
chemical properties of the components, why might this separation method be less
convenient than taking advantage of differences in the physical properties of the
components?

16. Many dry cereals are fortified with iron, which is added to the cereal in the form of small
iron particles. How might these particles to be separated from the cereal?
 54
17. Name a solvent
(a) to remove paint stains-
(b) to remove verdigris( green solid deposited [CuSO 3 . Cu (OH) 2 ]) from an old brass
tap-
(c) to remove sulphur from a mixture of sulphur and carbon-

18. A pupil decides to separate powdered calcium carbonate from powdered calcium chloride
by shaking the mixture with water and filtering. Would this procedure succeed? Explain.

19. How do you separate

(a) a precipitate of lead sulphate on adding sulphuric acid to a solution of lead nitrate.
(b) Iodine from a mixture of iodine and ammonium chloride.

20. Explain the principle of

(a) Solvent extraction

(b) Chromatography

(c) Crystallisation
 55

WORKSHEET-III

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is a colloid?
(a) sugar solution (b) urea solution (c) silicic acid (d) NaCl solution
2. Smoke is an example of
(a) gas dispersed in liquid (b) gas dispersed in solid
(c) solid dispersed in gas (d) solid dispersed in solid
3. When the dispersed phase is liquid and dispersion medium is gas then the colloidal system
is
(a) smoke (b) cloud (c) jellies (d) emulsion
4. When a colloidal solution is observed under an ultra microscope we can see
(a) light scattered by colloidal particles (b) size of the particle
(c) shape of the particle (d) relative size
5. Tyndall effect of the colloidal solutions is due to
(a) scattering of light (b) reflection of light
(c) absorption of light (d) presence of electrically charged particles
6. In colloidal state, particle size ranges from
(a) 1 to 10 A o (b) 20 to 50 A o
(c) 10 to 1000 A o (d) 1 to 280 A o
7. Cloud or fog is an example of colloidal system of
(a) liquid dispersed in gas (b) gas dispersed in gas
(c) solid dispersed in gas (d) solid dispersed in liquid
8. Which of the following forms a colloidal solution in water?
(a) NaCl (b) glucose (c) starch (d) barium nitrate
9. Tyndall effect will be observed in
(a) solution (b) precipitate (c) sol (d) vapour
10. Small liquid droplets dispersed in another liquid is called
(a) gel (b) suspension (c) emulsion (d) true solution
11. Butter is a colloid formed when
(a) water is dispersed in fat (b) milk is dispersed in fat
(c) fat is dispersed in water (d) milk is dispersed in water
 56
12. Suspensions are
(a) visible to naked eye (b) not visible by any means
(c) invisible under electron microscope (d) none of these
13. The solubility of solid in liquid __________________ with rise in temperature.
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) remains constant (d) remains zero
14. When there is no maximum limit to the amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given
quantity of solvent, then solution is known as ____________ solution.
(a) saturated (b) unsaturated (c) supersaturated (d) both (a) & (c)
15. What is the physical state of the solution when gas is used as the solute and liquid is used as
the solvent?
(a) solid (b) liquid (c) Gas (d) colloids

II. Fill in the blanks

1. A solution with solute equal to its solubility is called ______________ solution.
2. ______________ the size of the particles greater is the solubility.
3. Particles of ____________ solution cannot be seen even under powerful microscope.
4. Suspension particles should have size larger than _______________
5. A solution is a ________________ mixture of two more substances. The major component of a
solution is called the ________________ and the major component is called the _______________.

III. Match the following

1. Foam - (p) whipped cream
2. Emulsion - (q) Jellies
3. Smoke - (r) particulates in smog
4. Gel - (s) Milk
 57

ASSIGNMENT – III

1. Define the solubility of a solute and how does it vary with temperature?

2. If the path of light becomes visible on being passed through a solution, what type of
solution it is?

3. Name the dispersed phase and dispersion medium in case of an emulsion.

4. Do suspension show the property of Tyndall effect?

5. What will happen if a saturated solution is (a) heated (b) Cooled?

6. If we mix mustard oil with water, what type of colloidal solution is formed?

7. Classify solution based on the solvent and the amount of solute. Explain them.

8. Explain Brownian movement

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9. Explain lyophilic and lyophobic colloids.

10. A solution is prepared by dissolving 2 g of solute in 100 g H 2 O. What is the percentage by

mass concentration of solute?

11. A solution contains 40 g of common salt dissolved in 320 mL of water. Calculate the mass
concentration of the solution.

12. 9.72 g of KCldissolve in 30 g of water at 70oC. Calculate the solubility of KCl at that
temperature.

13. Identify the solutions among the following mixtures:

(a) Soil (b) sea water (c) air (d) coal (e) soda water

14. How are true solution, colloids and suspension different from each other?

15. A solution contains 40 ml of ethanol mixed with 100 L of water. Calculate the concentration
in terms of volume by volume percentage of the solution.