COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS NOTES 11. Work ,energy and

PAPER 1 power …………………page 108
SECTION A; MECHANICS 12. Statics ………………………page 119
TOPICS: 13. Fluids at rest ………………page 130
1. Physical quantities and - Pressure
dimensions ………page 1 - Archimedes’ principle
2. Linear motion /kinematics of a - Flotation
body ……………….page 7 14. Circular motion …………page 144
3. Mechanical properties of 15. Gravitation ……………page 158
matter ……………Page 22 16. Simple Harmonic motion ………page 166
4. Fluid flow ………………page 33 SECTION C :
5. Surface tension ……………page 46 MODERN PHYSICS …………page 177
6. Vectors and scalar Nuclear physics………177
quantities ……………..page 58 Photoelectric emission ………192
7. Resultant and relative The atom ………………201
velocity …………page 65 The electron ………209
8. Projectile motion ……………page 76 Positive rays ………….224
9. Newton’s laws and X-rays ……………225
momentum……………….page 82 SECTION B: HEAT …………….page 233
10. Solid friction …………………page 105

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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

TOPIC 1: PHYSICAL QUANTITIES 1. Radius   L

AND DIMENSIONS
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES 2. Diameter   L
A physical quantity is an aspect which can be 3. Displacement   L
measured and given S.I units.
4. Area   length   width
Physical quantities are of two types;
1. Fundamental/basic quantities  L L
2. Derived quantities  L2
FUNDAMENTAL/DERIVED
QUANTITIES 5.Volume  length   width   height 
These are physical quantities which cannot be  L L L
expressed in terms of other physical
 L3
quantities. They include; mass,
length and time
6. Density  
 mass 
volume 
DERIVED QUANTITIES
M
These are physical quantities which can be  3
 ML3
expressed in terms of fundamental quantities L
of mass length and time.
7.Velocity  
 displacement 
Examples; time
- volume - power
- density - momentum L
  LT 1
- velocity - force T
- pressure - energy
8.  Acceleration  
velocity change 
- acceleration - work etc time 
DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL LT 1
  LT 2
QUANTITY T
Dimensions of a physical quantity is the way
by which the physical quantity is related to 9. Force   mass   Acceleration 
the fundamental quantities of mass, length and
 M  LT 2
time.
The dimensions of fundamental quantities are;  MLT 2
 mass   M  force 
10. Pressure  
length  L  area 
time  T MLT 2

Uses of dimensions . L2
1. They are used to show consistency of  ML1T 2
mathematical equations.
11.Work    Force    distance 
2. They are used to derive mathematical
formulae.  MLT 2  L
3. They are used to find dimensions of  ML2T 2
constants.
4. They are used to deduce S.I units of NB; Dimensions of a constant is one (1)
constants. 1
NB; Dimensions of common physical  2   1,  k   1 ,    1 etc
quantities Example

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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

k .e 
1 2
mv  iii  v 2  u 2  2as
2
 L.H .S   v 2    LT 1   L2T 2
2

1
 k .e      m  v 2   R.H .S   u 2   2 a s 
2
 1 M   LT 2 
2
  LT 1   1.LT 2 .L
2

 ML2T 4  L2T 2  L2T 2

1 . Using dimensions to check for  2 L2T 2 , since 2   1
dimensional consistency of equations.
(a) Show that the following equations are  L2 T 2
dimensionally consistent.  L.H .S    R.H .S  , then the equation is
(i ) v  u  at
dimensionally consistent.
1
(ii ) s  ut  at 2
2 1 1 1
(iv)  
2 2
(iii ) v  u  2 as f u v
1 1 1 1  1  L1
(iv )    L.H .S  
f u v f L
DATA 1  1
(i) L.H .S  v  R.H .S    
 u   v 
 L.H .S   v   LT 1 1 1
 
R.H .S  u  at L L
 R.H .S   u   a t   L1  L1
 LT 1  LT 2 .T  2 L1 ,since 2   1
 2 LT 1 , but 2   1  L1
 LT 1  Since  L.H .S    R.H .S  , then the
 Since  L.H .S    R.H .S  , then the equation is dimensionally consistent.
(b) The pressure, P at a point whose depth
equation is dimensionally consistent.
is h inside a liquid of density  is
1
(ii ) s  ut  at 2 P  h g where g is acceleration due
2
to gravity .Show that the equation is
 L.H .S   s   L dimensionally consistent.
1 Solution
 R.H .S   u t     a  t 2  P  h g
2
 LT 1.T  1.LT 2 .T 2  L.H .S    P 
 LT 0  LT 0  2L , but 2   1 
 F   m a 
L  A  A 
 Since  L.H .S    R.H .S  , then the 
M .LT 2
equation is dimensionally consistent. L2
 ML1T 2

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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

 R.H .S    h   g   L.H .S   v   LT 1

  h
 m g  1
2
  
 F A  
V    
M  E 1 2   e l  
 L..LT 2  ML1T 2    o  
L 3
 R.H .S    1   
 2   m  1 2 
 Since  L.H .S    R.H .S  , then the     
equation is dimensionally consistent.  V  
NOTE; Not every dimensionally
consistent equation is dimensionally
correct .For example
s  ut  at 2   Fl  1 2 
 o 1 
 L.H .S   s   L   Ae  2 
 
 R.H .S   u t   a  t 2  m 2 1

 1 
 LT 1T  LT 2T 2  V 2 
 2 L , but 2   1  Fl V  1 2  1

L  o
  ( MLT 2 .L.L3 ) 2

  1
 Aem  1 2 
   L 2
.L.M  2

Since  L.H .S    R.H .S  , then the equation 1

is dimensionally consistent .However, it is not 

L T 
2 2 2

 LT 1
a correct equation. 12
1

(c) The velocity v of a wave travelling  Since  L.H .S    R.H .S  , then the
through a solid of density  and
equation is dimensionally consistent.
E
Young’s modulus E is v  .Show Exercise 1.
 1. A centripetal force F acting on an
that the equation is dimensionally object of mass m moving with velocity
consistent. v round a circular path of radius r is
mv 2
DATA F .Show that the equation is
r
E
v dimensionally consistent.
 2. The acceleration , a of an object
1
1 moving with velocity v round a
 E 2 E 2
v   1 v2
  2 circular path of radius , r is a  .
r
Show that the equation is
dimensionally consistent.
3. The period, T of a satellite moving
round the earth of radius, r in a
circular orbit of radius ,R is
4 2 R3
T2  ,
gr 2

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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

where g is acceleration due to gravity. Where R is a constant .Find the

Show that the equation is dimensions and S.I units of
dimensionally consistent. constants a and b.
4. The frequency, f of oscillation of a Solution
piston of mass , m fitted and cross-  a 
section area, A fitted on a cylinder  V 2    P 
containing a gas of volume ,V and
a  P
A P  
pressure P is f  V 2 
2 mV
5. The frequency, f of a wave whose  a    P  V 2 
wavelength is  moving with a
velocity , v for a time, t is given by
F 
A v    V 2 
f   where A is a constant.  A
t 
MLT 2 .  L3 
2
Show that the equation is
dimensionally consistent. 
L2
3. Using dimensions to find dimensions   a   ML5T 2
of constants S .I unit ; kgm 5s 2
(a) The force of attraction F between
two bodies of masses , m1 and m2 b  V   L3
at distance ,r apart in the universe S .I unit ; m3
Gm1m2 EXERCISE 2.
is given by F  ,where G
r2 1. The period , T of a satellite
is the universal gravitational moving in a circular orbit of
constant radius ,r round the earth of
.Find the dimensions of G. mass , m is
Data 4 2 r 3
T2  .Show that the
GM
Step 1; make G the subject
equation is dimensionally
Fr
G consistent.
m1m2 3. Using dimensions to derive equations.
 F r  (a) Volume flow per second of liquid of
G   viscosity coefficient  flowing through
 m1 m2 
a horizontal pipe of length l and radius

 ma r  V
 m1 m2  a is given by  Ka x y p z where p
t
MLT 2 .L is the pressure gradient between the
 ends of the tube .Given that the
M .M
 L T M 1
2 2 dimensions of  are ML1T 1 ,find the
(b) The pressure P ,volume V and indices x , y and z and show that
temperature T of a real gas obeys V  a4 p

the relation t 8l
 a  data
 P  2  V  b   RT
 V  V
 Ka x y p z
t
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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

V  V  L3 P 
 L.H .S        L3T 1 But p , K
 t  t  T l 8
V a P 4
 R.H .S   Ka x y p z   .
t 8l
  K   a x   y   p 
z
(c) The period T of an oil drop
depends on the density  ,velocity
From pressure v of oil flowing through the pipe
pressure P and radius a .Use dimensions to
gradient, p   Ka
length l show that T  , where K is
v
F
 P   A F  constant.
 p    SOLUTION
l  l   Al 
T v a x y z

MLT 2
 2  ML2T 2 T  K  x v y a z ...........(i )
L .L
 L.H .S   T   T
 R.H .S  1.Lx  ML1T 1   ML2T 2 
y z

 R.H .S    K  x v y a z 
 Lx M y L yT  y M z L2 zT 2 z
  K    x   v y   a z 
 Lx  y  2 z M y  zT  y  2 y
 1.  ML3   LT 1 
x y
 L
z

Comparing L.H.S and RHS

dimensions  M x L3 x  y  zT  y
M 0 L3T 1  M y  z Lx y 2 zT  y 2 z Comparing;
Equating indices M 0 L0T 1  M x L3 x  y  zT  y
For M : 0  y  z .............(i) For M : 0  x , x0
For L : 3  x  y  2 z .........(ii) For T : 1   y , y  1
For T :  1   y  2 z ...........(iii) For L : 0  3x  y  z
From eqn (i)
y  z 0  3(0)  1  z
Substituting into eqn (iii) z 1
1  z  2 z  x  0 , y  1 , z  1
 z 1
y  1 Substituting for x ,y and z into eqn (i)
Using eqn(ii) T  K  0 v 1a1
3  x   1  2 1 Ka
T
x4 v
 x  4 , y  1 , z  1 EXERCISE 3
Substituting for x , y , z into 1. Force F acting on a spherical
V object falling through air depends on
 Ka x y p z radius ,a of the object ,density  and
t
V velocity v .Show that F  Ka 2  v 2 where
 Ka 4 1 p1 K is a constant.
t
2. A viscous force acting on a spherical
V Ka 4 p
 object falling through a viscous fluid
t  depends on the radius ,r of the
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object ,coefficient of viscosity  of the Definitions and S.I units

fluid and velocity v .Show that 1. Distance( s ):
F  6 rv ,where k  6 . This is the length of the path between two
3. The period ,T of oscillation of a simple defined points .It is a scalar quantity. S.I
pendulum depends on the mass ,m of the unit is metre (m).
bob, length , l of the pendulum and 2. Displacement( s ):
acceleration due to gravity ,g .Show that This is the distance covered in a specified
direction. It is therefore a vector quantity.
l S.I unit is metre (m).
T  2 , K  2 is a constant.
g 3. Speed( v ):
5. Mass , m of a stone moved by a flowing This is the distance in metres between two
river depends on velocity , v ,density ,  defined points per unit time in seconds
and acceleration due to gravity , g .Show taken to cover that distance.
K  v6 dis tance
that m  ,where K is a i.e speed 
g3 time
OR: Speed is the rate of change of distance .
dimensionless constant.
It is a scalar quantity. S.I unit is metre per
6 . The velocity , v of a wave moving through
a fixed string is given by v  KT x  y 
second m s 1 . 
where T is the tension in the string and μ 4. Velocity ( v )
is mass per unit length.Use dimensions to This is the rate of change of displacement .
T
It is a vector quantity. S.I unit is metre per
find x , y and show that v  K

. 
second m s 1 .
Dimensionless quantities The slope of a straight line under a
These are physical quantities which can not be displacement  time graph gives velocity.
expressed in terms of fundamental quantities
of mass, length and time .These include; S (m)
coefficient of friction ,strain ,relative
s
density ,refractive index , mechanical
advantage, velocity ratio etc.
VECTORS AND SCALAR QUANTITIES t
A vector quantity is a physical quantity 0
having both magnitude/size and direction. t (s)
Example: momentum , force ,acceleration , 0
weight , velocity , electric field intensity ,
displacement , magnetic flux density etc. s
Slope   velocity, v
A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which t
has only magnitude but no direction. ds
Examples: mass , distance , pressure , In limit as t  o, v 
dt
volume , work , density , energy , time , power In the graph above ,the velocity is said to be
etc uniform.
Definition;
TOPIC 2: LINEAR Uniform velocity refers to the constant rate of
MOTION/KINEMATICS OF A BODY. change of displacement .That is, Uniform
This refers to the motion of a body along a velocity occurs when displacement changes by
straight line. equal amounts in equal time intervals.
Motion of a body is described by velocity, NB; If a body covers different distances in
displacement , acceleration ,time ,speed and different time intervals , the displacement 
distance.
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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

time graph is not a straight line but a curve .It 4. Acceleration ( a ):This is the rate of
means that the velocity of the body is different change of velocity.
at different points on the curve and so we talk velocity change
of velocity at a particular point (instant) a
time taken
known as instantaneous velocity.
S.I unit is metre per second squared
(m s 1 ) .
Acceleration is a vector quantity.
The slope of a straight line under a
velocity-time graph is acceleration.
.

v(ms 1 )
0
v

 Velocity at points A and D is different but

t
it is zero at points B and C.
 The velocity at A and D is the slope of the 0
t (s)
tangent drawn to the curve at that point. 0
Definition:
Instantaneous velocity is the rate of change
of displacement at a given point.
NOTE;
 For a body at rest, displacement  time v
Slope   acceleration, a
graph is a line parallel to time axis. t
dv
S(m) In limit as t  o, a 
dt
The graph shows the acceleration is uniform.
Definition;
Uniform acceleration is the constant rate of
change of velocity. That is the velocity
changes by equal amounts in equal time
t (s) intervals.
NOTE;
 For an accelerating body, the -If velocity is of the body is uniform,
displacement  time graph is a curve. steady ,constant or maximum ,the acceleration
is zero. Therefore ,the velocity-time graph is
s(m) parallel to time axis.
v(ms-1)
Constant velocity or zero acceleration

t (s)

t (s)
 Linear velocity is the rate of change of
displacement along a straight line.

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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

-If velocity of a body changes differently with (iii) Calculate the deceleration and
time ,then velocity- time graph is a curve and average velocity during motion.
the velocity at a particular point is said to be data
instantaneous. Let T be total time of motion
Definition: t be time for acceleration
Instantaneous acceleration is the rate of
change of velocity at a particular point.
Linear acceleration is the rate of change of
velocity along a straight line.
Key points
1. If a body starts moving with a
velocity ,u and gains a velocity v after
a time, t covering a distance , s then
Distance covered = average velocity 
time
uv
s t
 2 
2. When velocity is increasing with time,
a body is accelerating. uv
(ii) using s   t
3. When velocity is maintained ,the  2 
acceleration is zero. During acceleration part ,
4. When velocity is decreasing with u v
time ,the body is decelerating or s1    t = 200 m
 2 
retarding.
1
5. Deceleration refers to the negative rate 200   20  v   5
of change of velocity. 2
 v  60 m s 1
Using s1  s2  600
200  s2  600
s2  600  200  400 m
During deceleration,
uv
s2   t
 2 
1
400   60  0 T  5 
2
800  60 T  5 
Examples
60T  1100
1. A body starts moving with velocity 20 ms-
1
and accelerates to a velocity v in 5 seconds T  18.33 s
covering a distance of 200m and then (ii) Acceleration
decelerates to rest .If the total distance covered
v vu 60  20
is 600 m. a  
(i) Represent the motion on a velocity- t t 5
1
time graph.  a  8m s
(ii) Find the velocity v and time taken Deceleration part
for the whole journey.

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v vu 0  60 v u
a   a
t T t 18.33  5 t
 a  4.5 m s 2 Make v the subject.
v  u  at
 The deceleration is 4.5 m s-2
Average velocity = v  u  at ............(i)
total dis tan ce cov ered 2nd equation
total time taken If the body above covered a distance s then;
Distance covered = average velocity  time
600
  32.73 m s 1 uv
18.33 s t
EXERCISE 4  2 
1. A body starts moving with a velocity 10 Substituting for v from eqn(i) gives
ms-1 and accelerates to a velocity of 25 1
s   u  u  at  t
ms-1 in 5 seconds .The velocity is 2
maintained for another 5 seconds and 1
finally the body decelerates to rest in 10 s   2ut  at 2 
2
seconds.
2ut at 2
(i) Represent the motion on a velocity- s 
time graph. 2 2
(ii) Calculate acceleration and 1
s  ut  at 2 ............  ii 
deceleration. 2
(iii) Find the total distance covered and ALTERNATIVELY; The total distance
average velocity. covered is equal to the total area under the
2. A motorist moves with a uniform velocity  time
velocity of 17 ms-1 for 10 seconds .It then graph.
decelerates to a velocity of 5 ms-1 in 5 velocity
seconds and then accelerates to a velocity ,
v in 25 seconds and finally decelerates to v
rest in 20 seconds .If the total distance
covered is 800 m , s1
(i) Represent the motion on a velocity – u
time graph. s2
(ii) Find the value of v . 0 time
(iii) Determine the time taken for the 0
whole journey.
1 1
EQUATIONS OF LINEAR MOTION. Distance s1  bh  t v  u 
2 2
Consider a body which starts moving with
Distance s2  l  w  t  u  ut
initial velocity u and accelerates at a rate
a m s 2 to a velocity v in time t . Total distance s  s1  s2
1
a  s  t  v  u   ut
2
u t v From eqn(i), v  u  at  v  u  at
s 1
s  t  at   ut
2
1st equation 1
change in velocity  s  ut  at 2
From acceleration  2
time taken 3rd equation
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This is deduced from the first and (iv) ratio of velocity at A to the
second equations by eliminating t . velocity at D.
Case 1 data
1 Let a be acceleration ,
s   u  v  t ...........() u be velocity at A.
Using 2
v  u  at .................() a
u
vu
From eqn () t 
a 20m
B 20m C 20m
A D
4s 6s 7s
Substituting into
1  vu  1
eqn () s   u  v    (i) s  ut  at 2
Using
2  a  2
 v  u  v  u  For motion between A and B
s 1
2a 20  4u  a  42
2as  (v  u )(v  u ) 2
20  4u  8a
2as  v 2  u 2
5  u  2a .........(i )
 v 2  u 2  2as .............(iii )
For motion between A and C.
Case 2 1
v u 40  6u  a  6 2
Substituting for t  into 2nd 2
a
40  6u  18a
1
equation s  ut  at2 20  3u  9 a ..........(ii)
2
2 Solving equation (i) and (ii)
 v u  1  v u  simultaneously,
s u  a 
 a  2  a  From eqn(i) u  5  2a
uv  u 2 v 2  2uv  u 2  20  3(5  2 a)  9 a
s 
a 2a 20  15  6a  9a
2uv  2u  v  2uv  u 2
2 2
20  15  3a
s
2a 5
2 2 a  m s 2  1.67m s 2
2as  v  u 3
 v 2  u 2  2as The acceleration of the body is
APPLICATIONS OF THE 1.67 m s-2
EQUATIONS (ii) Using
1. A body moving with uniform u  5  2a
velocity covers successive distances u  5  2(1.67)
of 20 m between AB ,BC and CD u  1.66 m s 1
where A ,B ,C ,D are points in a
(iii) Velocity at D
straight line .After passing A ,the
v  u  at
body reaches B after 4 seconds .2
v  1.66  1.67(7)
seconds later it is at C and 1 second
later it is at D .Find ; v  13.35ms1
(i) the uniform acceleration. (iv) Ratio of velocity at A to
(ii) velocity at A. velocity at D.
(iii) velocity at D. VA :VD = 1.66 :13.35
=1:8
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2. A cyclist moving with uniform speed (ii) Distance

72km/h bypasses a motorist just about to x  20t
move in the same direction .If the motorist x  20  16  320 m
follows him immediately with uniform
Therefore, the motorist catches the cyclist
acceleration 2.5 ms-2.Find
320 m away.
(i) time taken by the motorist to catch the
(iii) Velocity of motorist at overtake
cyclist.
point;
(ii) distance where he catches him. v  u  at
(iii) velocity with which the motorist
overtakes the cyclist. Using v  0  2.5  16
Data v  40 m s 1
-If the motorist is just about to move ,it 2. A motorist moving with constant speed of
implies initial velocity is zero. 108 Km / h bypasses a cyclist parked at the
-Also if the cyclist moves with road side .After 5 seconds ,the cyclist
uniform/constant speed , it implies the follows the motorist with uniform
acceleration is zero since acceleration depends
acceleration of 6 m s 2 .Find;
on change of velocity/speed.
-Let the motorist catch the cyclist after (i) time taken by the cyclist to catch the
covering a distance x in time t motorist.
(ii) distance where he catches him .
a  0 m s 2 (iii)Velocity of the cyclist by then.
DATA
u  72 Kmh1 Over take point
-Let the cyclist catch the motorist after he has
cyclist covered a distance x .
x,t
-If the motorist takes a time t to cover the
motorist distance ,then the cyclist delays by 5s to start
u  o ms 1
implies the cyclist takes time (t  5)s .we
a  2.5 m s 2
subtract because the cyclist must use a shorter
72 Km 72 1000 m time to catch up.
u  72 Km / h    20 m s 1
1h 3600 s u  108 Km / h
1 a0
Using s  ut  at 2
2 motorist t
For motion of the cyclist; x
1 cyclist
x  20  t   0  t 2 (t  5)
2
x  20t ................(i ) u  0 m s 1
For motion of motorist; a  6 m s 2
1
x  0  t   2.5  t 2 For motorist;
2
2 108 1000 m
x  1.25t ...............(ii) u  30 m s 1
3600 s
(i) Equating eqn(i) and eqn(ii)
20t  1.25t 2 1
s  ut  at 2
20  1.25t 2
1
t  16 s x  30t   0  t 2
2
Thus the time taken by the motorist to catch
x  30t .........(i )
the cyclist is 16 s .
For cyclist;
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1 If P covers distance x in a time ,t then Q

x  0(t  5)   6  (t  5) 2
2 covers a distance (200+x) in the same time
2
x  3(t  5) ..........(ii ) and passes P.
1
Eqn(i) = eqn(ii) Using s  ut  at 2
2
30t  3(t  5) 2
For bus P;
t 2  20t  25  0 1
x  28t   6t 2
20  4002  4(1)(25) 2
t x  28t  3t 2 ...........(i )
2(1)
t  1.34 s or 18.66 s For motion of Q
1
 t  18.66 s (200  x )  40t   8t 2
2
The time taken by the cyclist to catch the
motorist is 18.66 – 5 = 13.66 seconds . 200  x  40t  4t 2 ...........(ii )
(ii) Distance where he catches him, Substituting (i) in(ii)
x  30t 200  28t  3t 2  40t  4t 2
x  30 18.66 t 2  12t  200  0
x  559.8 m 12  12 2  4(1)(200)
(iii)Velocity of cyclist t
v  u  at 2a
v  0  a (t  5) 12  944
t
2
v  6(13.66)
t  9.36 s
v  81.96 m s 1 (i) Distance where Q passes P.
3. Bus P is travelling at 28 ms-1 with uniform Substituting t in (i)
acceleration of 6 ms-2 and is 0.8Km from x  28t  3t 2
a Bus-Stop stage .At the same time , a
second BUS Q is 200 m behind Bus P and x  28(9.36)  3(9.36) 2
travelling at 40 ms-1 with uniform x  524.91 m
acceleration of 8 ms-2 .Find; (ii) Distance remaining for P to reach
(i) the distance Bus Q passes Bus P the stop is
before reaching the Bus-Stop. 800  x
(ii) the distance remaining for P to reach
800  524.91
the stop.
Data  275.09 m
Let x be the distance covered by Bus P before
passed by Bus Q.

u  40 m s 1 u  28 m s 1
a  8 m s 2 a  6 m s 2
STOP
x
Q 200m
P
0.8Km=800m
200+ x

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EXERCISE 5 behind A and is travelling at 44 ms-1 with a

1. A train moving with uniform uniform acceleration of 0.5 ms-2. Find
acceleration bypasses stages P ,Q ,R and (i) The distance car B passes car A
W where PQ = 40 m and QR = 60 before the finishing point.
m .The train covers PQ in 6 seconds and 4 (ii) Distance remaining for A to
seconds later ,it is at R. Time taken to reach the finishing point by then.
reach W from Q is 5 second .Find; 6. A policeman shoots a bullet with
(i) velocity at P uniform speed of 144 Km/h towards a
(ii) the uniform acceleration. robber’s car at a distance 80 m from
(iii) Velocity at R. him and driving away with speed 8 ms-
(iv) Distance RW 1
and uniform acceleration of 2 ms-
2. A motorist moving with uniform speed 1
.Find
36Km/h bypasses a cyclist just about to (i) Time taken by the bullet to hit
move in the same direction. the car.
(a) If the cyclist follows the motorist (ii) Distance covered by the car by
immediately with uniform acceleration of then.
0.8 ms-2 , BRAKING FORCE.
(b) If the cyclist follows the motorist This a force required to decelerate a moving
after 2 seconds with uniform acceleration body to rest.
of 3.6 ms-2,Find in each case (a) and (b) Example
(i) Time taken by the cyclist to catch A motorist of mass 1500 kg moving at 36
the motorist. km/h sees a tree that fell across the road at a
(ii) Distance where he catches him. distance 50 m ahead .He suddenly applies the
(iii) Velocity of the cyclist by then. brakes and comes to rest on reaching the
3. A and B are two stages which are 400 m tree .Find
apart. Taxis are to be driven from either (i) The deceleration
stage towards another stage .The one from (ii) The braking force
A is driven with uniform acceleration (iii) The time taken to reach the tree.
1.5 ms-2 towards stage B while the other DATA
from stage B is driven at uniform
acceleration of 2.5 ms-2 towards stage
B .Find
(i) time taken for the taxis to bypass each
other.
(ii) distance from stage A to the point
where they bypass.
(iii)Velocity of each taxi at that point. (i) Using v 2  u 2  2as
4. Body P starts moving from rest and 0 2  10 2  2a  50
accelerates at a m s 2 covering distance x 0  100  100a
in a time T while body Q also starts moving
a   1 m s 2
from rest and accelerates at n ms 2
Thus the deceleration is 1 ms-2
covering a distance d in a time 2T. Show (ii) Braking force
4nx F  ma
that a 
d F  1500  1
5. In a motor rally, car A is 1Km from the
finishing point and is travelling at 35 ms-1 F  1500 N
with uniform acceleration of 0.4 ms-2 .At (iii) Using v  u  at
the same instant , a second car B is 200 m

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0  10  ( 1) t Apparatus
t  10 s
 The time taken to reach the tree is 10
seconds.
EXERCISE 6.
1. A motorist of total mass 500 kg moving at
72 Km/h sees a pot-hole at a distance of
40 m ahead of him .He suddenly applies
brakes and comes to rest on reaching the
pot –hole .Find
(i) deceleration
(ii) braking force
(iii)time taken to teach the pot-hole.
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
This is motion under the influence of
acceleration due to gravity , g = 9.81 ms-2.
Acceleration due to gravity is the rate of
change of velocity of a body moving in a
gravitational field.
A Steel ball-bearing is held by magnetism of the
NB; Motion under gravity can either be free
electromagnet due to current passing through the
fall or upward motion. coil.
The height ,h of the steel ball from the metal
plate is measured and recorded.
Time ,t taken by the steel ball to fall through
height ,h is recorded when the terminal x is
disconnected so that the steel ball falls freely onto
the metal plate.
The experiment is repeated for different values of
h and corresponding values of time , t recorded.
A graph of values of h is plotted against
Free fall is the downward motion of an object values of t. The slope , S of the graph is
starting from rest and moving with an determined.
acceleration of 9.81 ms-2 . Acceleration due to gravity is thus obtained from
NB; If an object falls freely from rest through g  2S 2 .
a height , h reaches a horizontal level surface NOTE;
after time ,t . When an object of mass ,m kg is placed in the
Using; gravitational field ,it experiences a force
1 known as weight given by;
s  ut  at 2 F  mg
2
1 F
h  0  t  gt 2 g
2 m
g Unit of g ; N kg-1
h t By this unit ,g is termed as gravitational field
2 strength .
 h t Gravitational field strength is a force acting
on a 1kg mass placed in a gravitational field.
Experiment to determine acceleration due
to gravity by free fall.
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Question; Show that the units m s-2 and N kg- - At point B , the object reaches
1
for acceleration due to gravity are maximum height and its velocity is
dimensionally consistent. temporarily zero.
Velocity- time graph for free fall - Along BC (free fall) ,velocity again
increases with increase in time as the
object falls back to the point of throw.
v (ms 1 )
A - At C on the same level as A ,velocity
of the object is equal to that o
projection u.
Energy changes when an object is
B projected upwards.
O On projecting the body upwards, the
t (s) chemical energy in the throwers hands
Explanation is converted to maximum kinetic
- An object released to fall freely from energy at point A , which then
point O at a height , h above a decreases upwards and changes to
horizontal surface. maximum potential energy at
- Along OA ,velocity increases with B .During a free fall ,the potential
increase in time. energy is converted to kinetic energy
- Velocity is maximum at point A on which increases until it hits the ground
reaching the horizontal surface and its and then finally converted to heat and
value is 2gh ,where g is sound energy.
EXAMPLE.
acceleration due to gravity.
1. An object is projected vertically
- Along AB, velocity decreases very fast
upwards with a velocity 20 ms-
to zero upon heating ground. 1
.Describe its motion using a velocity-
Velocity – time graph for an object
graph.
projected vertically upwards
Data

v(ms 1 )
u A v(ms 1 )
V=0
B 20 A

0 B
B
t (s) 0
t (s)
-u u=20ms-1 C
C A C
- At point A ,the object is projected
upwards with a velocity of 20 ms-1 and
- At point A , an object is projected decelerates uniformly to point B at
upwards with initial velocity ,u . maximum height ,H.
- Along AB during upward motion , Using v 2  u 2  2 gH
velocity decreases with increase in 02  202  2  9.81 H
time due to air resistance and force of
gravity. 400
H  20.39 m
19.62
- The time taken to move from A to B,
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v  u  gt v  u  gt
0  20  9.81t 0  u  9.81 2.5
20 u  24.53 m s 1
t  2.04 s
9.81 Thus the velocity of projection is 24.53 ms-1 .
- Along BC ,the object falls freely to the (ii)Using upward motion ,
point of projection . v 2  u 2  2 gh
- Velocity of the object on reaching
point C, 02  24.532  2  9.81 h
v 2  u 2  2 gH 601.7209
h
19.62
v 2  02  2  9.81 20.39
h  30.67 m
v  400.0518 The maximum height reached is 30.67 m.
v  20 ms 1 2. An object is projected upwards with a
- Time taken to C from B ; velocity of 25 m s-1 and at the some
v  u  gt height its velocity is 15 m s-1 .Find the
20  0  9.81t height and the times when the object is
at this height.
20 DATA
t  2.04 s
9.81
- Total time taken during motion from A
to C is 2.04 + 2.04 = 4.08 s
2. An object is projected vertically upwards
and takes 5 seconds to return to the point v  15ms 1 B C
of projection. Find;
(i) velocity of projection .
(ii) maximum height reached.
u  25ms 1 A
data
V=0 Let the height be h
Using upward motion;
v 2  u 2  2 gh

t 152  252  2  9.81 h

t
h 225  625  19.62h
h  20.39 m
u
1
s  ut  gt 2
2
1 2
Total time of flight = time upwards + time Using 20.39  25t   9.81 t
2
downwards 40.78  50t  9.81t 2
T=t+t
5  2t 9.81t 2  50t  40.78  0
5
t  2.5 s
2
The time for upward motion is 2.5 s .
Using upward motion;

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50  502  4(9.81)(40.78) y
t
2(9.81)
50  30
t
19.62
t  1.02 s or 4.08 s a  g
The time to reach B is 1.02 s and the time to u y  0m
reach at C is 4.08 s. x
Exercise 7. h
1. A all is projected vertically upwards
time  T
with a velocity 10 m s-1 .Describe the
motion of the ball by means of velocity When an object is projected
– time graph. upwards ,there will a time when is
2. A ball is projected vertically upwards returns to same horizontal level
and it returns to the point of projection through the point of projection .At that
3 seconds later .Find point, the vertical
(i) velocity of projection . displacement , y  0m .So as it hits the
(ii) greatest height reached .
ground, the total vertical upward
3. An object is thrown upwards with a
displacement , s  y  (h  0)  h
velocity 5 m s-1 .At some height, its
velocity is 3 m s-1 .Find the height and 1
Considering s  ut  at 2
the times when the object is at this 2
height. Vertically upwards;
4. An object is projected upwards with a s  y  h, a   g , t  T , u  u
velocity of 5u m s-1 and at some height 1
during motion ,its velocity becomes 3u   h  uT  gT 2
2
m s-1 .
2h  2uT  gT 2
8u 2
(i) Show that the height is . gT 2  2uT  2h  0
g
(ii) Prove that the times when the
 2u   4  g  2h 
2
2u 2u 
object is at this height are T
g 2g
8u 2
2u  4u  8 gh
and . T
g 2g
PROJECTION FROM TOP OF CLIFF.
EXAMPLES.  2 gh 
2u  4u 2 1  2 
1.(a) An object is projected upwards with a  u 
T
velocity u from a point at height h 2g
above the horizontal. Show that it falls
back to the ground after a time 2 gh
2u  2u 1 
u 2 gh  T u2
1  1  2  2g
g u 
 2 gh 
DATA 2u  1  1  2 
u 
T 
2g

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u 2 gh  1
T  1  1  2  s  ut  at 2
g u  2
s  H max  30.39m , u  0, a   g , t  t 2
3. An object is projected upwards with a
velocity 20 m s-1 from a point at a
height of 10 m above the ground .Find
the total time of the motion. 1
30.39  0  t2   9.81 t2 2
DATA 2
30.39  2
t2 2 
9.81
y B t2  2.49s
V=0 Total time of motion,
u=0 T  t1  t 2
a  g H  2.04  2.49
t1 t2 T  4.53s
1
u  20 ms A y  0m
x Alternatively;
h  10m Considering the motion from A to B to C at
once,
C time  T
s  y  10m , a   g , t  T , u  20 m s 1
1
s  ut  at 2
Considering upward motion from A to 2
B 1
v 2  u 2  2as 10  20  T   9.81 T 2
2
02  202  2 gH 2
9.81T  40T  20  0
0  400  2(9.81) H 40  402  4(9.81)(20)
T
H  20.39 m 2(9.81)
Time taken upwards , t1 40  2384.8
T
Using 19.62
v  u  at
 T  4.53s
0  20  gt1 FURTHER EXAMPLES
0  20  9.81t1 4. Two objects P and Q are held at a
distance of 20 m apart with P on the
t1  2.04 s
ground and Q vertically above P. P is
The maximum height reached by the then projected vertically upwards and
object from the ground at the same time Q is released to fall
H max  h  H freely.Find the time they take to collide
 10  20.39 and the height from the ground to the
 30.39m point where the collision occurs.
DATA
Considering downward motion from -Let the collision occur at a height , h
B to C; above the ground.
-Time taken to reach the point of
collision is the same for both objects .

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Q u =0 -Let H be the maximum height

reached by the first object .
-Let h be the height where the objects
(20-h) collide .
20m
Point of collision -When the second object has moved a
height h upwards ,the first object has
h fallen a distance  H  h  in the same
u=10ms-1
ground
time t.
P

1 V=0
Using s  ut  at 2
2
(H-h)
For upward motion of object P:
1 Point of collision
h  10t  gt 2 H
2
u u h
1
h  10t   9.81t 2
2
1st 2nd ground
h  10t  4.905t 2 .......(i )
For free fall of object Q: Maximum height reached by the
1 object :
 20  h   0  t  gt 2
2 Using v 2  u 2  2as
1 v  0, u  u , a   g ,s  H
20  h   9.81t 2
2 02  u 2  2 gH
20  h  4.905t 2 .......(ii) u2
Substituting (i) in (ii) gives H  .......(i )
2g
20  10t  4.905t 2   4.905t 2 For upward motion of second object
20  10t  0 1
Using s  ut  at 2
t  2s 2
s  h , u  u , t  t , a  g
Thus the time taken to collide is 2
seconds. 1
h  ut  gt 2 .......()
Substituting for t in (i) for height of 2
collision For downward motion of the first
h  10(2)  4.905(2) 2 object(free fall);
h  20  19.62 1
Using s  ut  at 2
h  0.38 m 2
s  H  h ,u  0 , t  t
5. An object is projected upwards with a
velocity u and after it has reached 1
 H  h  0  t  gt 2
maximum height, a second object is 2
projected upwards with the same 1
velocity. Show that they collide after a H  h  gt 2 ........(ii )
2
u 3u 2 Substituting (i) into (ii)
time and at a height
2g 8g u2 1
 h  gt 2 ......(iii)
DATA 2g 2
Substituting for h
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u2  1  1 1
  ut  gt 2   gt 2 h  10t   9.81 t 2
2g  2  2 2
u2 h  10t  4.905t 2 .........(i )
 ut  0 For motion of the second object ,
2g
1
u h  10(t  2)   9.81 (t  2)2 ......(ii)
t 2
2g
10t  4.905t 2  10(t  2)  4.905 t  2 
2

u
Thus the time taken to collide is 10t  4.905t 2  10t  20  4.905(t 2  4t  4)
2g
Substituting for t in eqn(  ) 0  20  19.62 t  19.62
1 19.62t  39.62
h  ut  gt 2
2 t  2.02 s
2
 u  1  u 
h u  g  Thus the time taken for collision is
 2g  2  2g 
2.02 s .
u2 u2 Substituting for t in eqn(i)
h 
2g 8g h  10(2.02)  4.905(2.02) 2
3u 2 h  20.2  20.014
h
8g h  0.186 m
3u 2 EXERCISE 8
Thus the two collide at a height 1. An object is projected vertically
8g
upwards with a velocity of 40 m s-1
5.An object is projected upwards with
from a point at a height of 20 m
a velocity 10 m s-1 and after 2s , a
above the ground .find the total
second object is projected upwards
time of motion .
with the same velocity .Find the time
2. A ball is projected upwards with a
taken for them to collide and the height
velocity K from a point at a height
where they collide.
x above the ground .Show that the
DATA
ball falls back to the ground after a
-Let the collision occur at a height h
time
above the point of projection. 1
-If the first object takes a time t to  
K   2 gx  2 
reach the point of collision ,the second 1   1  2  , where g is
g  K  
object takes a time  t  2  .  
acceleration due to gravity.
Point of collision
 3. A and B are two objects with A on
the ground and B at a height h
above A. A is thrown upwards
with a velocity u and at the same
Time = t h Time = (t-2) time B is dropped to fall freely .If
the object collide ,show that they
10ms-1 collide ,show that they collide
10ms-1
h
1st 2nd after a time seconds at a height
u
1  gh 
Using s  ut  at 2 h 1  2  m .
2  2u 
For motion of first object,
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4. An object is projected upwards - Steel has all the four mechanical

with a velocity 20 ms-1 and after 2 properties of matter .
s , a second object is projected - Glass is strong and stiff but it is not
upwards with the same tough or ductile .
velocity .Find time taken for them ELASTICITY
to collide and the height where Materials can be elastic or inelastic .
they collide . An elastic material is the one whose shape
5. A ball is projected upwards with a and size change when subjected to external
velocity u and after it has reached a force (stress) .
maximum height ,another ball is An inelastic /inextensible material whose
projected upwards with velocity state (shape and size) remain constant
2u .Given that the objects irrespective of the applied stress .
collide ,show that they collide after NB; The change in the shape and size of
u 7u 2 material due to applied force is called
a time at a height distortion .
4g 16 g
Elasticity is the ability of a material to regain
6. A ball is thrown upwards with a its normal shape or size after being stretched
velocity u and after t seconds , or compressed .
another ball is thrown upwards NB; -The length of a material before being
with the same velocity .Given that subjected to stress is called Natural /original
the objects collide , show that they
length , lo
u t 
collide after a time    -The increase in length due to an applied stress
 g 2 is called extension ,e .
4u 2  g 2t 2 -The sum of original length and extension is
seconds at a height known as new /extended length , l
8g
l  lo  e
-Extension increases with increase in the stress
TOPIC 3 : MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (force) .
OF MATTER. TENSILE STRAIN;
These are concerned with the behavior of a This is the ratio of extension to original length
material when subjected to external forces; of a material .
The properties include; e
Tensile strain  (no units) .
(i) Strength lo
(ii) Stiffness TENSILE STRESS;
(iii) Ductility This is the force per 1 m2 cross-sectional area
(iv) Toughness of the material .
Definitions:
Force F
Strength is the ability of a material to Tensile stress   (units : N m-2 or
withstand forces applied to it before breaking. Area A
Stiffness is the resistance a material offers to Pa)
the forces of distortion (forces aiming at Example:
changing its shape and size) . When a force 40N is applied to a wire of
Ductility (workability) is the ability of the length 20 cm and diameter 4 mm ,the extended
material to be length is 24 cm .Find;
hammered ,pressed ,bent ,rolled ,cut or (i) Tensile strain .
stretched into useful shapes . (ii) Tensile stress
Toughness is the property of a material not DATA
being able to crack .
NOTE:
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F  40 N , -A graph of stress against strain is also

F  40 N , lo  20 cm , l  24 cm , e  ? the same as that of F against
(i)Using extension , e  l  lo  24  20  4 cm stress(N)
B D
e 4 cm
Tensile strain    0.2 A C
lo 20 cm
(ii)Cross-sectional area ,
 d 2   0.004 
2

A   1.26 105 m2
4 4 0
0 O’ strain
Tensile e
F 40 Points
stress   5
 3.175 10 6 Nm 2
A 1.26 10 A –proportional point
FATIGUE; This is the weakening of a B – elastic limit
material caused by repeatedly applied loads . C – yield point
CREEP ; This is the gradual increase in strain D – breaking stress
when a material is subjected to a stress for a DEFINITIONS:
long time.. 1. Elastic limit ; is the maximum stress
Creep occurs at high temperature when atoms applied to the material and when
of a material vibrate leading to dislocation . removed ,the material regains its
HOOKE’S LAW original state .
It states that the extension of an elastic 2. Yield point ; is the region on the
material is directly proportional to the applied material where plastic or permanent
force provided the elastic limit is not deformation starts to occur .
exceeded . 3. Breaking stress ; is the greatest stress
i.e force  extension that a material can bear .It is a measure
F e of the strength of a material .
F  Ke REGIONS :
Where K is the force constant of a material . 1. Elastic deformation region (OA);
Graph of F against e -In this region , extension increases with
increasing stress (load) and when the stress is
F(N) removed ,the material regains its original
B D
shape .
A C -Generally in the region of elastic
deformation ,the strain is directly proportional
to the stress .
2. Plastic /permanent deformation region
0 (BD) ;
0 e (m) -In this region ,there is permanent change
e in shape and size of the material due to applied
NB ; -Since strain   strain  e stress .
lo -Crystal planes of the material slip over
F each other resulting into molecular
-stress   stress  F
A dislocations .During this ,potential energy of
the molecules increases and it is felt as heat
generated.
-The material can not regain its original
state when the stress is removed .
3. Permanent plastic extension (OO’)
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-This is extension which can not be lost clamp 0cm

when the stress is removed .
-If the stress is re-applied , the new curve
becomes O’CD .
-At point D ,the ductile fractures occur and Metre
the material breaks . Spring
stand
TYPES OF MATERIALS rule
1. Ductile material : It is material to which m
when stress is applied ,its length increases pointer 100cm
in accordance to Hooke’s law, undergoes
plastic deformation due to increased With no mass suspended on the
stress and finally breaks e.g copper spring ,original position xo of the pointer is
wire ,tin ,aluminium ,mild read from the metre rule and recorded .
steel ,platinum ,plastic etc . A small mass m is then suspended on the
2. Brittle material : It is a material whose spring and the new position x of the pointer
length increases with increase in applied is read and recorded .
stress but breaks when the elastic limit is Extension is calculated as e  x  xo and
exceeded e.g glass ,ceramics ,cast iron .
recorded .
3. Perfectly- plastic material: Is a material
The experiment is repeated for more
whose length increases with increase in
increasing masses and values of m and e
the stress to the yield point but the stress
tabulated .
remains constant while the strain
A graph of m against e is potted and a straight
increases e.g rubber band ,steel
line through the origin is obtained.
cables ,springs etc .
From the graph , the extension is directly
4. Rubber : Is made up of coiled
proportional to the load ,hence Hooke’s law
molecules .When stress is applied , the
verified .
molecules unwind as length
THE YOUNG’S MODULUS (E)
increases ,undergo plastic deformation
This is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile
and breaks when all the molecules are
strain .
straight .
Tensile stress
The stress – strain graph i.e Young’s modulus , E 
Tensile strain
stress F
brittle E A
ductile e
lo
rubber Flo
E , units Nm 2 or Pa
Ae
0 Dimensions of E .
strain
0  F lo   MLT 2 .L
E 
 Ae  L2 .L
EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY HOOKE’S
LAW  E   ML1T 2
Set up EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE
YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
The length l of wire Q is measured using a
metre rule and recorded.
Diameter of a test wire Q is measured using a
micrometer screw gauge at different points

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and the average value d is calculated in

metres . W(N)
Cross – sectional area of the wire is calculated
d2 W
from A  Slope ,S =
4 e
The apparatus is then arranged as shown
below .
e (m)

Sl
Young’s modulus is calculated from E 
A
where l is the length of test wire Q .

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN DURING THE

EXPERIMENT
1. Two identical wires are used and
suspended from the same support .This
is to eliminate errors due to
temperature change and yielding of the
support .
2. Wires must be long enough ; To
ensure that any load (weight) added
produce a measurable extension .
Initially ,loads are attached to the wires P and
3. Wires must be free from kinks ; To
Q to keep them taut and free from kinks .
ensure any increase in length is
The initial reading of the vernier scale is read
accurately measured .
and recorded .
4. Diameter of the wire is measured at
A small weight W is then attached to a wire Q
different points using micrometer
and the vernier reading is read is read and
screw gauge and average value
recorded .
calculated .
The extension ,e produced in the wire is
5. Extension produced in the wire must
calculated and recorded .
be read when the weight is added on
The weight is removed and the reading is
the wire and when it is removed to
taken again to ensure that the elastic limit is
ensure that the elastic limit is not
not exceeded .
exceeded .
The experiment is repeated for more
MEASUREMENTS CARRIED OUT
increasing weights W loaded on the wire Q
DURING THE EXPERIMENT
and values of e obtained .Results are tabulated
(i) Length of the wire is measured
in a suitable table .
using a metre rule from the
A graph of W against e is plotted and the
support to the vernier .
slope S obtained.
(ii) Diameter of the wire is measured
using a micrometer screw gauge
at different points and the average
value is calculated .
(iii) Extension in the wire is measured
using a beam balance both when
the wire is load and when the load
is removed .

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(iv) Weights to be loaded on the wire

are measures using a beam 43 cm
balance .
CALCULATIONS: Tx Ty
1. A brass wire 2.5 m long of cross – lx  ex l y  ey
sectional area 1.0 103 cm2 is
stretched 1.0mm by a load of 0.40 lx  ex  l y  e y  0.43
kg .Calculate the Young’s modulus of
brass . 0.2  ex  0.15  e y  0.43
Data ex  e y  0.08 ......(i )
lo  2.5 m , A  1.0  10 3  10 4 m 2 ,
Flo EAe
e  1.0  10 3 m 2 From E  ,F
Ae lo
F  mg  0.4  9.81 Tension , T  F
 3.924 N At equilibrium ;
Flo Tx  Ty
E
Ae
Ex Aex E y Aey
3.924  2.5 
 lx ly
1.0 10 7 1.0 10 3
E  9.81 1011 Pa 2.0 1011 1.26 105  ex
0.2
2. X and Y are two metal cords of the 1.2 10 1.26 105  ey
11

same diameter 4 mm ,length 20 cm ,15 

0.15
cm and moduli of elasticity
10ex  8e y
2.0 1011 Pa and 1.2 1011 Pa
ex  0.8e y ........(ii)
respectively .The cord are joined
together and then fixed in a horizontal Substituting (ii) into (i)
position between two point A and B 0.8ey +ey = 0.08
where AB = 43 cm . 1.8e y  0.08
Find (i)extension in each cord . e y  0.044 m
(ii)energy developed in each cord .
Data ex  0.8  0.044  0.035 m
Diameter ,d  4 103 m  0.004 m , Extension in X =0.035 m
Extension in Y =0.044 m
Cross- sectional area ,
Since tension in each cord is the same ,
 d 2   0.004 
2

A  Tx  Ty  T
4 4 So using
A  1.26 10 m2 5
E Ae
lx  20cm  0.2 m l y  15 cm  0.15 m T x x
lx
E X  2.0  1011 Pa E y  1.2  1011 Pa 1.2 1011 1.26 10 5  0.035
  4.41 105 N
Extension , ex Extension , e y 0.2
Energy stored in
1 1
Y  Ty ey   4.41 105  0.044  9702 J
2 2

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Energy stored in The extension in AB is 1.95 105 m

1 1 Tl 196.2  0.08
X  Tx ex   4.41 105  0.035  7717.5 J e2  2 2 
2 2 E2 A2 2.4 1011  9.62 10 6
3. AB and BC are elastic strings of
diameters 4 mm ,3.5 mm and lengths e2  6.80  10 6 m
20 cm ,8 cm and modulii of elasticity The extension in BC is
1.6 1011 Pa , 2.4 1011 Pa e2  6.80  10 6 m
respectively .They are fixed together to Resultant extension e  e1  e2
form one composite string .The string
is then fixed at one end at A and hangs e  1.95  10 5  6.80  10 6
in vertical position with a mass of 20 e  2.63  10 5 m
kg attached to the lower end .Find Energy stored in AB
extension in each string and energy 1
developed.  T1e1
2
Data
1
String AB String BC  196.2 1.95 105  1.913 103 J
4 3.5 2
d1   0.004 m d2   0.0035 m 1
1000 1000 Energy store in BC  T2e2
2
  0.004    0.0035 
2 2

A1  A2  1
4 4   196.2  6.80  106  6.671 104 J
4 2
2
 1.26  10 m  9.62  106 m 2
20 8 Total
l1  m  0.2 m l2  m  0.08 m
100 100 energy  1.913  10 3 J + 6.671104 J
E1  1.6  1011 Pa E2  2.4  1011 Pa
 2.58 103 J
4.

A
spring
30o 30o Steel ropes
T1
B P

T2
C
The figure above shows a muscle
hardening machine with a spring of
natural length 1.2 m and force constant
20kg
400 Nm-1.When the steel ropes are pulled
side ways by a force P ,the spring
T1  T2  20  9.81  196.2 N compresses to a length of 0.8 m .Calculate ;
E Ae (i) Force developed in the spring .
T1  1 1 1 (ii) Tension in the steel ropes.
l1
(iii) Magnitude of force P .
Tl 196.2  0.2 DATA
 e1  1 1 
E1 A1 1.6 1011 1.26 10 5 (i) Compression ,e = original
e1  1.95  10 5 m length – new length
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e  1.2  0.8  0.4 m

Using Hooke’s law ; F  ke
F  400  0.4  160 N X

Tsin60o 30o Tsin60o

T T
F
2Tcos60o 60o
P
2Tcos60o 60o

T F
T
Tsin60o
Tsin60o

(ii) At equilibrium ;
F  T sin 60o  T sin 60o Resolving vertically ;
F 160 T sin   T sin   mg
T o
T  92.38 N
2sin 60 2sin 60o 2T sin   mg .........(i)
(iii) 2T cos 60o  P Considering the right angled triangle ,
P  2  92.38  cos 60 o c 2  12  0.752
P  92.38N c  1.5625  1.25 m
5. An elastic cord of length Extension =new length – original
200cm ,diameter 2 mm and modulus of length
e  (1.25  1.25)  (1  1)
elasticity 2.0 1011 Pa is fixed in
horizontal position on a ceiling  3.5  2
between two points X and Y ,where e  0.5 m
XY = 2 m .An object of mass m is 0.75
attached to the middle of the string sin    0.6
1.25
and equilibrium occurs when m is 75
EAe
cm below the level of XY .Find the T
value of m. l
Data 2.0 1011  3.14 10 6  0.5
T
lo  200cm  2 m 2
cord T  157000 N

d  2mm  0.002m So eqn(I) becomes

  0.002 
2 2T sin   mg
A  3.14  10 6 m 2 2 157000  0.6  9.81 m
4
E  2.0  1011 Pa m  19204.893 kg
EXERCISE 9
1. A 0.50kg mass is hung from the end of
a wire 1.5 m long of diameter 0.3
mm .If the Young’s modulus of the
wire is 1.0 1011 Pa ,calculate the
extension produced .(ans:
1.03× 10−3 m)
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2. X and Y are two metal strings of the spring

same diameter 2mm , lengths 8 cm ,6 30o 30o Steel ropes
cm and Young’s modulii
1.8 1011 Pa , 1.0 1011 Pa
P P
respectively .The strings are joined and
then fixed in a horizontal position
between two point A and B which are
20 cm apart .Find ;
(i) Extension produced in each A boxer uses a machine in the figure above to
string. harden his muscles .The machine has a spring
(0.0345m, 0.0255m) of force constant 500 Nm-1 and uncompressed
(ii) Total extension in the length of 0.8 m. When the boxer pulls the
composite string . ropes side ways with a force P ,the spring is
(0.06m) compressed to a length of 0.60 m and the
(iii) Energy stored in each string . ropes make an angle of 30o with the
(2.3x103J ,3.1X103J) spring .Calculate
(iv) Total energy developed in the (i) Tension in the rope .
composite string. (ii) Force P .
(5.41x103J)
3. Two wires one of steel and another of 6. An elastic cord of length 200
bronze are each 1.5 m long and of cm ,diameter 4 mm and modulus of
diameter 0.02 cm .They are joined end elasticity is fixed in a horizontal
to end to form a composite wire .If position on a ceiling between two
Young’s modulus of steel points X and Y where XY = 2 m .An
is 2.0 1011 Pa and 1.2 1011 Pa for object of mass m is attached to the
bronze ; middle point of the string and
(i) Find the tension in the wire that equilibrium occurs when the mass is
will produce a total extension 60 cm below the level of XY .find the
of 0.064 cm . value of m .
(ii) Find extension in the steel and 7. An elastic cord of length 200 cm and
bronze . diameter 4mm is fixed in a horizontal
(iii) Calculate the total energy position on a ceiling between two
developed in the composite points A and B where AB =2 m . An
wire . object of mass 20 kg is attached to the
4. One end of copper wire of length 0.80 middle point of the cord and
m and diameter 0 .5 mm is welded to a equilibrium occurs when the object is
steel wire of length 1.6 m and diameter 75 cm below the level of AB .Find the
1.0 mm.The free end of the copper Young’s modulus of the cord .
wire is fixed to one point so that the ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED
wire hangs vertically with a mass of 10 WIRE (MATERIAL)
kg suspended from the free end of the - Let a force F act on a wire of
steel wire .Find length , l ,cross-sectional area ,A and
(i) The extension which results. Young’s modulus E producing an
(ii) Energy stored in the composite extension e in it.
wire .
(iii) Energy stored in the composite
wire .
5.

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wire e  l  lo
e  0.25  0.2  0.05 m
lo By conservation of energy ,
Energy developed in the rubber =
F
e kinetic energy of the object .
EAe 2 1 2
Energy stored = work done  mv
2lo 2
= Average force  extension

 F   e  1 Fe
0  v2 
EAe 2
2 2 mlo
From Young’s 1.4 1011  4 10 4  0.05 
2
2
Fl EAe v 
modulus , E  o , F  0.2  0.2
Ae lo
2
v  3500000  1870.83 m s 1
1 EAe EAe
Energy stored   e = 2. Calculate the volume –energy
2 lo 2lo density of a wire of length 30 cm ,
ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME OR diameter 4 mm and Young’s
VOLUME ENERGY DENSITY . modulus 2.0 1011 Pa in which an
- Volume of the wire (material) is Alo extension of 0.5 cm is produced .
- Energy stored per unit volume Data
energy stored lo  30 cm  0.3m

volume d  4 mm  0.004m
1
  0.004 
2
Fe
 2 A  1.26  10 5 m 2
Alo 4
E  2.0  1011 Pa
1 F e
      e  0.5 cm  5  10 3 m
2  A   lo 
 Energy stored EAe2
Energy stored 
1 2lo
  stress  strain
2.0  1011  1.26  105   5  103 
2
2
Examples =
1. A rubber cord of length 20 cm and 2  0.3
cross-sectional area 4 cm2 is used  105 J
to project an object of mass 200 Volume = A  l
g .Find the velocity of the object if  1.26  10 5  0.3
Young’s modulus of rubber is
 3.78  10 6 m 3
1.4 1011 Pa and stretched length of
Volume – energy density =energy
rubber is 25 cm.
Energy
DATA per unit volume=
Original length , lo  20 cm  0.2 m volume
105
Area , A  4cm2  4 104 m2  6
 2.78 107 J m3
3.78 10
Mass , m =200 g =0.2 kg EXERCISE 10
New length , l  25 cm  0.25m 1. A wire of length 20 cm ,diameter
Extension , 2mm and Young’s modulus of

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1.0 1011 Pa is stretched from a length length

of 10.8 cm. Calculate ;
l
(i) Energy developed in the wire .
(ii) Volume-energy density.
2. A body standing on a cliff of height 10 l
m projects an object of mass 80 g by lo
stretching a rubber cord of length 20 
cm to a length of 24 cm and releasing 0

it .If the cord has cross-sectional area 4 0
temperature
cm2 and Young’s modulus
1.2 1011 Pa ,find;
(i) Energy developed in the cord. - Change in length l  l  lo  e
(ii) Initial velocity of the object . - Change in temperature     0  
(iii) Maximum height attained by l
the object from the ground. Slope , S 

(iv) Time taken by the object to hit
e
the ground. S
3. Show that the energy per unit volume 
of a stretched wire is Temperature coefficient of
1 expansivity ,
 stress  strain . slope
2 
4. Show that the energy developed when oiginal length
a force F stretches a wire of length l e
e
Kx 2   
and a force constant K is ,where lo  lo
2l
Units :K -1
K  EA and x is the extension .
5. A force stretches a wire of force
e   lo
constant K from extension
e1 and e2 .Show that the energy Flo
- From E 
1 Ae
developed is K (e 2  e1 ) ,where EAe
2 F
EA lo
K . EA
l F   l o
FORCE DUE TO EXPANSION lo
/CONTRACTION OF A MATERIAL . F  EA
- Increase in temperature causes increase EXAMPLES
in length of a metal solid (expansion) 1. A wire has diameter 1
and when temperature falls , the length mm ,Young’s modulus 1.2 1011 Pa
decreases (contraction). and coefficient of linear expansion
- During expansion , a solid exerts a
1.5  103 K 1 .If its temperature is
force and when temperature is falling ,
a force is exerted during contraction as reduced from 20oc to 0oc ,find;
the solid cools . (i) Tensile strain .
(ii) Tension in the wire .
- Let length of a solid increase from lo
Data
at 0oc to l when temperature
increases to  o c as shown.

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E  1.2  1011 Pa , (ii) Strain .

(iii) Force due to expansion .
  1.5  10 3 K 1 WORK HARDENING .
  20  0  20 o c , - Work hardening is the increase in
d  1 mm  0.001 m resistance to plastic deformation when
a material is deformed by bending
e
(i) strain  , but e   lo  forces .
lo - During bending ,molecules of the
 l  material become displaced which
 strain  o causes increases in their total energy
lo
resulting into heat generation .This is
  referred to as Cold work hardening .
 1.5  10 3  20 FORCE AND POTENTIAL
 0.03 ENERGY GRAPH OF THE
MOLECULES .
(ii) Area - In a state of no distortion (original
 d 2   0.001
2
state) ,the molecules of a material are
A   7.85 10 7m 2
4 4 at equilibrium separation distance xo .
T  EA - When a material is stretched ,the
11 7
T  1.2  10  7.85  10  1.5  10  20 3 separation between molecules
increases which causes increase in
T  2826 N potential energy .
Potential energy ,V = work done =
EXERCISE 11 average force  extension
1. Rail line are made out of steel of 0  F   x
Young’s modulus 2.0 1011 Pa .The V
2
rails are fixed using clips of area
1
4  102 cm 2 .If the temperature is V  Fx
raised from 20oc to 27oc and that 2
temperature coefficient of expansion is From Hooke’s law , F  Kx
0.04 K-1 ,Find the force exerted due to 1
V   Kx  x
expansion . 2
2. The ends of a steel wire of diameter 1
0.25 mm are fixed at two rigid V  Kx 2
2
supports such that it has its original . If GRAPH OF P.E (V) WITH
the wire is cooled from 24oc to MOLECULAR SEPARATION
0oc .Find DISTANCE ( x )
(i) Strain in the wire.
(ii) Tension in the wire.
Given Young’s modulus of steel is
2.0 1011 Pa and coefficient of linear
expansion of steel is 1.1105 K 1 .
3. A wire of length 20 cm has its
temperature increased from 10oc to
20oc . If its diameter is 4 mm ,Young’s
modulus 1.0 1011 Pa and coefficient
of expansion is 4 103 K 1 ,find;
(i) Extension .
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For example engine oil, syrup, glue, etc. are

more viscous as compared to water, milk
P.E graph paraffin etc.
P.E (V)
Repulsion graph The viscosity of a liquid also affects the
V motion of a solid through it.

x Example:
x1 xo x2 Molecular If different liquids are put in different
separation measuring cylinders and a small bearing made
distance( x ) to fall through each liquid, the ball falls faster
through a liquid of lower viscosity.
Attraction
graph Explanation of viscosity
For a flowing fluid, molecular layers in
- The slope ,s at any point on the
contact with the sides of the tube are
potential energy graph is the force
practically stationary because of the attraction
between the molecules .
between the molecules of the tube and those of
V
Slope , s   the fluid. (Adhesive forces).
x
dV The successive layers towards the center must
Force , F   by taking limits as therefore slide over one another against the
dx
x  o attraction between the molecules of the
- For molecular separation x1  x0 ,the individual layers (cohesive forces).
molecules experience a force of This effect results into layers towards the
repulsion and for a separation distance center of the tube moving faster than those
x2  x0 ,the molecules experience a towards the sides of the tube.
force of attraction .
Since the velocities of the neighboring layers
RESEARCH QUESTION
are different, a frictional force occurs
1. Two wires of length l1 and l2 ,cross- between the various layers of the fluid.
sectional areas A1 and A2 and Young’s
moduli E1 and E2 respectively are Newton’s law of viscosity.
joined in series .Show that the force ,F
The frictional force is directly proportional to
causing an extension e in the
the area of the molecular layers and to the
A1 E1 A2 E2e
composite wire is F  . velocity gradient.
A1 E1l2  A2 E2l1
TOPIC 4 : FLUID FLOW N.B:Viscosity in liquids is due to molecular
A fluid is any substance which flows attraction between molecules of neighbouring
easily .Examples include ; liquids and gases . layers and therefore energy is required to drag
VISCOSITY one layer over the other.

This is the resistance within the fluids. Effect of temperature on viscosity of a

liquid.
Liquids that pour easily are more viscous than
Viscosity in liquids decreases with increase in
those that pour very fast.
temperature. This is due to the fact that the
viscosity in liquids is due to inter molecular
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forces of attraction such that as temperature  v 

increases, the inter molecular forces are (ii) Velocity gradient  
 l 
broken down, and so the molecules travel
(iii) Coefficient of viscosity ,
faster and further apart.
Effect of temperature on viscosity of a gas.
Viscosity in gases increases with increase in pipe
temperature.When temperature of a gas
increases,the kinetic energy of the molecules v1
increases and start to move more rapidly .this l
increases the number of collisions of the A v2
molecules hence increase in fluid friction to
the motion of solid through it.Hence viscosity v1
increases.
Coefficient of viscosity , and Newton’s -For two liquid layers with velocities v1 and
force of viscosity. v2 ( v2  v1 ) at a distance l -apart ,velocity
- When a liquid (such as water) flows gradient is
steadily through a uniform tube ,the
liquid layers in contact with the walls v2  v1 v

of the tube are practically at rest . l l
- The velocity of flow increases from the
tube surface towards the centre and it Definition: Velocity gradient is the ratio of the
is high along the axis as shown . difference in velocities of two layers of a
flowing liquid to their separation distance in
Pipe/tube metres .
- Now ,Newton’s force of viscosity is ;
A Axis of pipe v
FA
l
v
F  A
Represent velocities of flow l
Where  is the coefficient of viscosity
- Velocity is high along the axis of the (known as etta)
pipe and pipe and decreases with F N
 , units  Nsm 2
increase in distance towards the Av ms 1
m2
surface of the pipe. l m
- Decrease in velocity implies increase Dimensions of 
in friction force between liquid layers
 F   MLT 2 MLT 2
towards the surface .The friction    
experienced by a fluid in flow is called  v  L2  LT 1 L2T 1
 
A
Viscosity. l  L
- According to Newton ,the friction
force of viscosity between layers of a
   ML1T 1
flowing liquid in the pipe depends on
Definition :
three factors .
(i) Cross-sectional area (A) of the
pipe .

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Coefficient of viscosity is the friction force per

P2 l P1
1 m2 area of a fluid when flowing in a region
of nit velocity gradient .
Alternatively;
Coefficient of viscosity can be defined as the a
tangential stress which layer of a fluid exerts
on another layer in contact with it when the
Liquid in a pipe
velocity gradient between the layers is 1s-1 .
Question: A flat plate of area 0.4 m2 is
placed on a flat surface and it is separated ( P2  P1 ) P
from the surface and it is separated from the Pressure gradient , p  
l l
surface by a film of oil 2 103 m thick whose
coefficient of viscosity is 2.58 N .Calculate the Derivation of Poiseuille’s formula using
force required to cause the plate slide along dimensions .
the surface at a constant speed of 2 mms-1. z
V P
TYPES OF FLUID FLOW Volume per second ,   xa y  
t l 
There are two types of fluid flow ,namely;
Where x, y, z to be found .
- Streamline/laminar fluid flow.
z
- Turbulent fluid flow V P
 K x a y   ......()
1. Steady /uniform/laminar/streamline t l 
fluid flow .
V   L3T 1
This is a type of fluid flow where all layers of  L.H .S  
a flowing fluid are same distance from the t 
axis of flow, have the same velocity and flow  P z 
parallel to each other in the same direction .  R.H .S    K    a  z
x y

l 
POISEUILLE’S FORMULA FOR
( ML1T 2 ) z
STREAMLINE FLUID FLOW  1.  M .L1T 1  .Ly .
x

Lz
- Due to this type of  M x  z .L x  y  2 z .T  x  2 z
flow ,POISEUILLE deduced that
volume per second of a liquid coming
Equating [L.H.S] and [R.H.S]
out of a horizontal pipe depends on
three factors; M 0 L3T 1  M x  z .L x  y 2 z .T  x 2 z
(i) Coefficient of viscosity ,
(ii) Radius of the pipe , a For M: 0  x  z ..........(i)
 P For L : 3   x  y  2 z ......(ii)
(iii) Pressure gradient  
l  For T : 1   x  2 z ........(iii)
between the ends of the pipe Eqn(i) +eqn(iii)
where 1   z
P= pressure difference between  z 1
the ends of the pipe
Substituting into eqn(i)
l =length of the pipe .
x 1  0
 x  1
Substituting into eqn(ii)
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(1)  y  2(1)  3 diameter 0.225m and the other is 7.0

y4 cm .If the pressure difference across
the ends is 4 cm of water , find the
 x  1 , y  4 , z  1 pressure difference across each
So eqn(  ) becomes tube .(density of water = 1000 kgm-3)
3. Poiseuille’s formula is

V P
1
V  r 4P
 K 1a 4   
t l  t 8l

V P For uniform flow of a liquid through a

 Ka 4 horizontal pipe of radius r and length l
t l
in a time t for pressure difference P
 across the ends of the tube.
But mathematical analysis shows that K  (i) Show that the equation is
8
dimensionally consistent .
(ii) Describe how you would apply
V  a4 P
  , is Poiseuille’s formula. the equation to measure the
t 8 l coefficient of viscosity , of
This formula applies only if fluid flow is water at room temperature .
streamline . DETERMINATION OF
COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY
However ,during the flow ,as pressure OF A LIQUID USING
between the ends of the tube is increased , a POISEUILLE’S FORMULA
critical velocity of flow is exceeded and the Set
flow becomes turbulent . up
TAP Constant pressure head
TURBULENT/NON-UNIFORM FLUID
FLOW . tank
H
This is the type of fluid flow where all layers liquid
of the flowing fluid whose distance is the same h l
from the axis of flow ,have different velocities H
and flow in different directions .
X T Y
For example water in a flowing river .
EXERCISE 12 Waste pipe

1. A liquid flows steadily through two

pipes A and B which are joined Beaker
Collected liquid
together end to end whose internal
radii are r and 2r .B is 8 times longer
than A .If the pressure difference A liquid at room temperature is poured in a
across the composite pipe is 9000 Nm- constant pressure head tank having tube T of
2
,find the pressure difference across length l as shown in figure above .
the pipe .
Atmospheric pressure H acts on the liquid
2. Water flows through a horizontal tube
surface in the tank and at end Y of the tube .
consisting of two parts joined end to
end .One part has a length 21 cm and

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For a measured height ,h of the liquid surface one of its side wall .Water flows
above end X of tube T , Pressure at end X is through the tube from the vessel at a
PX  H  h g ,where  is the density of the rate of 1.5 cm3s-1 .Assuming the flow
liquid . is steady ,calculate the coefficient of
viscosity of the water .
Pressure at the end Y of the tube is PY  H

Pressure difference between end X and end Y

of the tube is P  PX  PY  h g
2.
V a P 4
Poiseuille’s formula  becomes
t 8 l
oil 1.2m
V  a 4 h g
 mm
t 8l

V  a4  g 0.10m
( )h
t 8 l
In the figure above ,oil flows from a tank
Height h of the liquid above X and volume V through a tube as shown. If the diameter of the
of the liquid flowing out of tube T and tube is 4.0 mm ,density of oil is
collected in a beaker in a time t is measured 9.2 102 kg m3 and coefficient of viscosity is
and recorded . 8.4 102 Nsm2 ,calculate ;

V (i) Volume of oil collected from the

The values of volume flow rate are tank in one minute .
t
(ii) The rate of mass flow of oil .
calculated for each volume collected .
Experiment to demonstrate
V laminar flow and turbulent flow
The graph of against h is plotted and the SET UP
t
slope S is obtained .
Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid is
 a4  g
calculated from   where  is the
8lS
density of the liquid and a is radius of the
tube determined using a travelling microscope .
NOTE; Assumption for the above experiment
is that the liquid must be at room temperature .
See UNEB 2018 description of experiment .
End X of tube T is connected to a tubing
QUESTION running from a reservoir R containing a
1. A vessel which is open at the top has a coloured liquid .
horizontal capillary tube of length 20 Downward flow of the coloured liquid from
m and radius 1.0 mm protruding from the reservoir is controlled by the tap while
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the flow of liquid through the tube T Derivation of Stoke’s law using dimensions
controlled by another tap 2.
GROUP ACTIVITY :
At low velocities of flow ,a stream of coloured
liquid is seen flowing along the axis of the Force acting on steel object of radius r falling
tube T .This indicates laminar flow where all through a viscous fluid of coefficient of
the liquid layers equidistant from the axis of viscosity  is F  Kv x r y z .find the values of
flow are parallel to each other and have the x , y , z and write the expression for force if
same velocity . K  6 .

Terminal velocity

AXIS An object falling through a viscous fluid

originally accelerates for some time and
finally attains a constant velocity known as
terminal velocity ,when the sum of upthrust
Tube T and viscous force balances the weight .

U F
When the rate of flow of coloured liquid is
increased by adjusting tap 1 ,the critical
velocity of flow is exceeded .The liquid
spreads and covers the whole tube which Terminal
indicates that turbulence has begun . Spherical object
velocity , v0

During turbulent flow ,whirl pools ,ripple and

eddies are formed .All layers of the liquid W
equidistant from the axis of flow have
different velocities and flow in different  Where U-is up thrust; upward force
directions . on a body falliing in a viscous fluid.
 F-is viscous drag; A force which
opposes motion of a body falling in
viscous fluid.Also called fluid friction.
 W-is weight of the body; A force of
gravity exerted on a body.
STOKE’S LAW
Expression for terminal velocity
It states that a spherical object of radius r
At terminal velocity ,
falling through a viscous fluid with velocity v
experiences a viscous force which is directly U+F = W
proportional to the velocity .
- Volume of the sphere ,
F v 4 r 3
Thus F  K v , but K  6 r V
3
F  6 rv - Density of sphere , 
- Weight of sphere , W  Vg
Where  coefficient of viscosity of the fluid
4 r 3  g
r radius of the object. W
3
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- Density of fluid ,  EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE

4 r 
3 COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF A
- Mass of fluid displaced  LIQUID USING STOKE’S LAW
3
- Upthrust , U = mass of fluid displaced
U F
g
4 r 3 g
U=
3 A W
- Viscous force on the object is
F  6 rv0
- Substituting in U  F  W B
4 r 3 g 4 r 3  g Viscous liquid
 6 rv0 
3 3 C
4 r  g  18 rv0  4 r 3  g
3

2r 2 g  9 v0  2r 2  g Tall glass tube

2r 2 g (    )
v0 
9 A tall tube about 1m is marked with labels
A ,B and C using cellotape such that distance
AB = BC.
SEE UNEB 2018 QN 4
The tube is then filled with a viscous liquid
Explanation of how a body attains terminal whose coefficient of viscosity is required.
velocity in viscous fluid.
A steel object of radius a is dropped gently
 A body is falling in a viscous on the surface of the liquid so that it falls
fluid,initially weight is greater than the through the liquid along the axis of the glass
sum 0f upward forces[i.e tube .
W>(U+F)].There is a resultant force
Time t of fall between AB and BC is
which makes it accelerate downwards.
determined and recorded.
 As it accelerates deeper into the
The velocity of the object between AB and
fluid,the viscous drag gradually
BC is calculated from
increases until a point is reached when
upward forces become equal to the AB BC
v and v  .
weight[i.e U+F=W].The resultant force t t
is now zero implying there is no more
The value of velocity obtained is the same
acceleration,which means velocity is
implying terminal velocity .
constant.
Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid is
 The body therefore moves the
remaining distance with a constant 2a 2 g(    )
calculated from   where  is
velocity,called terminal velocity (vo) 9v
the density of the spherical object ,  is the
 Terminal velocity is therefore defined density of the liquid .
as maximum constant velocity attained
by a body falling in a viscous fluid. EXERCISE 11
1. A spherical object of radius 2 cm and
mass 100 g falls vertically through air
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of density 1.2 kg m-3 at a place where - Let a liquid enter at end X of cross-
acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m s- section area A1 with velocity v1 and
2
.If it attains a steady velocity of 30 comes out at end Y of cross-section
ms-1 ,calculate density of the object
area A2 with velocity v2 as shown
and coefficient of viscosity of air .
2. A Spherical object of radius 30 mm
and mass 1.0kg falls vertically through
air of density 1.2 kg m-3 and attains a
velocity of 11.0 ms-1 .If it experiences
a viscous force F  Ka  v 2 ,find the
value of K.
3. Force acting on steel object of radius r
falling through a viscous fluid of
coefficient of viscosity  is
F  Kv x r y z .find the values of
x , y , z and write the expression for
- Volume of the liquid passing between
force if K  6 . QR is equal to the volume between ST
4. In an experiment to determine in the same time t.
coefficient of viscosity of motor oil, - Volume between QR is V1  A1l1
the following measurements were
obtained . V1  V2
- But
- Mass of glass spherical object A1l1  A2l2 .......(i)
 1.2 104 kg - Velocity of flow at end X is
- Diameter of object  4 102 m l
v1  1
- Velocity of object  5.4 102 m s 1 t
l
- Density of oil  860kg m3 - Velocity at end Y is v2  2
Calculate the coefficient of viscosity of t
oil . - From equation (i) ,dividing both sides
FLUIDS IN by t gives
MOTION ,STREAMLINES AND A1l1 A2l2

VELOCITY . t t
- When water flows through a wide  A1v1  A2 v2
pipe(tube) ,its velocity is lower than This is called continuity equation .
when it flows through a narrow v A
opening/constriction .This is because Also 1  2
v2 A1
water is an incompressible liquid .
- An incompressible liquid is a liquid in This shows that velocity of flow is
which changes in pressure produce inversely proportional to cross-
practically no change in density of sectional area (radius of the tube).
various parts . - Velocity is high at the narrow section
- When liquid is water is under (constriction) due to closeness of the
streamline flow ,all lines of flow are streamlines of flow .
parallel to the axis of the tube and the QUESTION:
volume of the liquid which enters at Water flows through a horizontal pipe of
end X is equal to that coming out at cross-sectional area 4.8 m2 which has a
end Y . constriction of cross-section 1.2 m2 at one

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part .If the velocity at the constriction is 2.4 - Likewise ,work done by pressure per
ms-1 ,find the velocity at the wide section . unit volume at end Y = P2
- Net work done by pressure per unit
PRESSURE ,VELOCITY AND volume  (P1  P2 )
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
- Bernoulli obtained a relationship - Mass of liquid occupying length l1 of
between pressure and velocity for a the tube m1    A1l1   A1l1
non-viscous fluid undergoing - Kinetic energy of liquid at end X
streamline flow . 1 1
- He found out that the work done by  m1v12   A1l1v12
pressure difference per unit volume on 2 2
a liquid flowing through a tube is equal - Kinetic energy per unit volume at end
to the gain in kinetic energy per unit kinetic energy

volume plus the gain in potential volume
energy per unit volume . X 1
 A1l1v12 1
- Let a liquid of density  flow through
 2   v12
a tube of non-uniform cross-section A1l1 2
whose two parts are at heights h1 and - Likewise ,kinetic energy per unit
h2 above the reference level as 1
volume at end Y   v12
shown . 2
- The gain in kinetic energy between X
1 1
and Y   v2 2   v12
2 2
- Potential energy of mass m1 of the
liquid at end X  m1 gh1   A1l1 g h1
- Potential energy per unit
potential energy

volume
volume
 A1l1 gh1
   gh1
A1l1
- Likewise ,the potential energy per unit
volume at end Y   gh2
- Gain in potential energy per unit
- Force at end X due to pressure there is volume between X and Y
F1  P1 A1 =  gh2   gh1
- Work done by pressure at end X  work done by   gain in   gain in 
= force  distance      
 pressure per    k .e per    p .e per 
 F1  l1  unit volume   unit volume   unit volume 
     
 P1 A1l1
- Volume of liquid occupied by length l1 1 1
P1  P2   v2 2   v12 +  gh2   gh1
of the tube  A1l1 2 2
- Work done by pressure per unit 1 1
P1   v12   gh1  P2   v2 2   gh2
work done P1 A1l1 2 2
volume    P1 Thus ;
volume A1l1

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1 2 But since the tube is horizontal is horizontal,

P  v   gh  constant ℎ1= ℎ2
2
This is Bernoulli’s principle . 1 1
P1  v1 2  P2  v2 2
STATEMENT OF BERNOULLI’S 2 2
PRINCIPLE
For streamline flow of a non-viscous 1 1
1000000 + 2×1000×82 =10000+ 2×1000×v22
incompressible fluid ,the sum of the pressure
at any point plus kinetic energy per unit ∴ v2=45.2 ms−1
volume plus potential energy per unit volume
is always constant . NOTE:
NOTE; For a liquid flowing through a According to Bernoulli’s principle ,pressure
horizontal tube ,height above a reference level and velocity of flow are inversely
for each part of the tube is the same .  1
proportional  P   .Pressure is high when
 V
velocity of flow is low and it is low for high
velocity of flow

. Applications of Bernoulli’s principle

(a) A suction effect is experienced by a
person standing close to the platform at
a station when fast train passes .The
fast moving air between the person
h1  h2  h and train produces a decrease in
pressure and the excess air pressure on
  gh1   gh2   gh the outer side pushes the person
So Bernoulli equation towards the train .
1 1 (b) Aerofoil lift
becomes P1   v12   gh  P2   v2 2   gh
2 2
1 1 Lift force
P1  v1 2  P2  v2 2
2 2
High
1 2 Air
 P   v  constant velocity ,low
2 flow
For horizontal pipe (tube)
aerofoil
Examples
1. A fluid of density 1000 kg m-3 flows in
a horizontal tube. If the pressure Low velocity ,high pressure
between the ends of the tube (i.e. at
entry and exit) is 106pa and 104 pa EXPLANATION
respectively, and given that the The curved shape of an aerofoil creates a
velocity of the fluid at entry is 8m s−1 faster flow of air above its top surface than the
calculate the velocity of the liquid at lower one .This is shown by the closeness of
exit. the flow lines above the aerofoil compared
DATA with those below.
From Bernoulli’s principle, From Bernoulli’s principle ,the pressure of
1 1 the air below is greater than that above and
P1   v12   gh1  P2   v2 2   gh2 this produces the lift force on the aerofoil.
2 2
ALTERNATIVELY;
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The orientation of aero foil relative to the flow

direction cause the flow lines to crowd
together above the aero foil corresponding to
increased flow velocity. And according to
Bernoulli’s principle , the pressure above h1
reduces. Below the aero foil, the flow velocity h2
is lower and hence the pressure is higher,
hence there is a resultant thrust upwards
leading V1 V2
to the lift.
(c) Jets and nozzles A2, P2
Bernoulli’s equation suggests that for fluid A1, P1
flow where potential energy change is very h h
small or zero as in a horizontal pipe, the
pressure falls when the velocity rises. The
velocity increases at constriction.
The greater the change in cross-sectional area,
the greater is the increase of velocity and
so the greater is the pressure drop. - If  is the density of the liquid ,the
Several devices with jets and nozzles use this pressure at the wide section is
effect e.g Bunsen burner, filter pump and P1  H   gh1
paint spray.
- Pressure at the narrow section is
(d ) VENTURI METER P2  H   gh2
- This meter measures the volume of gas Where h1 , h2 are the rise of the liquid
or liquid per second flowing through in the manometer tubes.
gas or oil pipes . - From the continuity equation ,
- This is a horizontal tube /pipe with a
A1v1  A2v2
constriction at one part .
- The wide section has cross-sectional - For horizontal tube ,
area A1 pressure head h1 and 1
P   v 2  constant
2
velocity of flow v1 .
1 1
- The constriction ( narrow section) has P1   v1 2  P2   v2 2
2 2
cross-sectional area A2 ,pressure head
Substituting for P1 and P2 we obtain
h2 and the velocity of flow is v2 .
1 1
gh1  v12  gh1  v2 2
2 2
2 2
v1  v2  2 gh2  2 gh1
v12  v2 2  2 g (h2  h1 )......()
- If v1 is required ,then we substitute for
Av
v2  1 1 into equation (  )
A2

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 Av 
2
Measurement of fluid velocity using pitot-
2
v   1 1   2g (h2  h1 )
1 static tube
 A2  The velocity at a point in a fluid flowing
2  A12  through a horizontal tube can be measured by
v  1  2   2 g (h2  h1 )
1 application of Bernoulli’s equation.
 A2  In this case , h= 0 for horizontal tube ,so
2 g (h2  h1 ) 1
v12  P   v 2  constant where P is the static
A2 2  A12 2
A2 2 pressure at a point in a fluid ,that is ,the
pressure unaffected by its velocity .
2g  h2  h1  A2 2
v1  1
A2 2  A12 The pressure P   v 2 is the total or dynamic
2
2 g ( h2  h1 ) pressure .Dynamic pressure is the pressure
 v1  A2 which the fluid would exert if it were brought
A2 2  A12
to rest by striking a surface placed normally
to the velocity at the point concerned .
Example PITOT-TUBE

Total pressure
Q
hole
30cm x
20 cm Fluid velocity
P
Static pressure
v holes S

The above diagram represents a venturi-meter,

if the cross sectional area of the main Description;
pipe is 5.81 x 10-3m2 and that of the The inner tube T is the pitot- tube, named after
constriction is 2.58 x 10-3m2, find the velocity the inventor. It has an opening X at one end
v. normal to the fluid velocity .A manometer is
data connected to T measures the total pressure
A1  5.81 10 m 2 , A 2  2.58  10 3 m 2 ,
3
1
P   v 2 ,where  is the density of fluid in
h1  30  10 4 m , h2  20  10 4 m , 2
tube .
g  9.81 m s 2 The outer or static tube has holes Q in its side
Using which are parallel to the fluid velocity . A
2 g ( h2  h1 ) manometer connected to S measures the static
v1  A2 pressure P .
A2 2  A12
The two sides of a single manometer joined
2  9.81(0.002  0.003) respectively to T and S give a pressure
v1  2.58  103 
 2.58 10    5.8110 
3 2 3 2 difference = h   g ,where   is the density
of mercury ,h is height of mercury in
manometer .
v1  6.9 m s-1 Pressure difference = total/dynamic pressure –
static pressure
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1 2. At a certain section of the horizontal

h  g = P   v 2  P water pipe, the static pressure is
2
1.96x 105Pa, the total pressure is 2.04
1 2 x 105Pa and area of cross section
h  g = v is 20cm2, if the density of water is
2
103kg m-3, find the volume flow rate in
2h  g the pipe.
Thus the fluid velocity v 
 Data
1 2
 v  total pressure - static pressure
Examples ; 2
1. Water flows steadily along a horizontal 2
v 2   total pressure  static pressure 
pipe at a volume rate 8  103 m3 s 1 .If 
the area of cross-section of the pipe is
2
3 
40 cm2 , v 2.04  103  1.96  105 
(i) Calculate the flow velocity of 10
the water . v  4 m s 1
(ii) Find the total pressure in the
 Flow rate = A  v  20 104  4
pipe if the static pressure in the
horizontal pipe is = 8  104 m3 s 1
3.0 104 Pa ,assuming the
Exercise 13
water is incompressible ,non-
1. (a) Distinguish between static
viscous and its density is 1000
pressure and dynamic pressure as
kg m-3 .
applied to streamline (laminar) fluid
(iii) What is the new velocity if the
flow .
total pressure is 3.6 104 Pa . 2. Describe with the aid of a labeled
Data diagram ,the pitot –tube and explain
(i) Velocity of water = how it may be used to determine to
volume per sec ond determine the flow velocity of an
area incompressible , non-viscous fluid .
8 103 3. The static pressure in a horizontal
 4
 2 m s 1 pipeline is 4.3 104 Pa ,the total
40 10
(ii) Total pressure = static pressure pressure is 4.7 104 Pa and area of
1 cross –section is 20 cm2 .The fluid
 v2 may be considered to be
2
Total pressure = incompressible and non-viscous and
1 has a density of 1000 kg m-3 .
3.0 104  1000  22 Calculate;
2 (i) The flow velocity of the
4
 3.2 10 Pa pipeline.
1 2 (ii) The volume flow rate in the
(iii)  v  total pressure - static
2 pipeline .
pressure 4. Water flows steadily along a uniform
1 flow tube of cross-section 30 cm2 .The
 1000v 2  3.6  104  3.0  104
2 static pressure is 1.20  105 Pa and
total pressure is
0.6  104
v  3.5 m s 1 1.28 105 Pa .Calculate the flow
500 velocity and mass of water per second

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flowing past a section of the of an imaginary line drawn in the

tube .(density of water = 1000 kg m-3). liquid surface .
5. Water flows along a horizontal pipe of OR: Surface tension is the work done
cross-sectional area 48 cm2 which has to enlarge the surface of a liquid by 1
a constriction of cross –section area 12 m2 under isothermal conditions .
cm2 at one place. If the speed of water The force due to surface tension
at the constriction is 4 m s-1 ,calculate makes the liquid surface behave like an
the speed in the wider section . elastic skin under tension .
The pressure in the wider section is A number of theories explain the
1.0  105 Pa .calculate the pressure at existence of surface tension .
the constriction .(density of water = 1. Some insects (pond skater) wall on
1000 kg m-3). water surface due to surface
1 tension.
6. (i) Show that the term  v 2 which 2. A steel needle is made to float on
2
enters in the Bernoulli equation has the water due to surface tension
same dimensions as pressure , P . although steel is many times denser
(ii)A fluid flows through a horizontal than water .This is possible since
pipe of varying cross- weight is counter balanced by
section .Assuming the flow is surface tensional forces .
streamline and applying the Bernoulli
1
equation P   v 2  constant ,show
2
F F
that the pressure in the pipe is greatest
where the cross-sectional area is
greatest .

WATER

TOPIC 5: SURFACE TENSION W

Common experiences due to surface tension
1. A drop of water, on closing a tap 3. Rain falls in form of spherical
remained dinging on the tap, as if the droplets due to surface tension .
water was QN; Explain why rain drops hit
held in a bag. the ground with the ground with
2. A thin needle can be made to float less force .
on the surface though it is denser than water. Data
3. Mercury gathers in small spherical - Rain drops start falling from rest and
drops when poured on a smooth surface their velocity increases during falls .
4. When a capillary tube is dipped in - During the motion ,a drop experiences
water, water is seen rising up in a tube. three forces ;its weight (W)
5. Insects can walk on the water surface downwards ,Up thrust (U)
All the above observations show that a liquid upwards ,and viscous drag/force (F)
surface behaves as if it was or it is in a state upwards .
of tension. The phenomenon is called
surface tension.

Surface tension is the force per metre

length acting at right angles to one side
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making it experience a net resultant

U F force down inside the liquid .
- All molecules in the liquid surface
experience a net downward force
resultant force making the liquid
motion behave like an elastic skin under
tension .
W Factors affecting surface tension
1. Temperature:
When temperature of a liquid
- Since viscous drag F  6 rv acts increases ,the average kinetic energy of
upwards, the resultant force W – (U+F) molecules increases .The separation
on the drop decreases making it hit the between molecules increases and
ground with less force . forces of attraction between the
4. Water clings on the mouth of a top molecules are weakened hence
in spherical droplets before decrease in surface tension .
breaking off due to surface .
MOLECULAR THEORY OF SURFACE Surface
TENSION .
- Molecules in the liquid surface are at tension
large separation distance .
- The separation between the molecules
decreases with increases in depth
inside the liquid bulk.
temperature
- Potential energy is greater for
molecules in the surface than for
molecules in the bulk .
s 2. Presence of impurities:
Impurities lower the boiling point of a
vapour liquid .Any change in temperature
Liquid surface causes increase in mean kinetic energy
A of molecules ,intermolecular forces
become weakened and surface tension
decreases .
B C QN; Explain why surface tension forces
always make liquids form spherical surfaces .
Data
Surface tensional forces always make liquids
- Liquid molecules have forces of form spherical surfaces ,because given any
attraction . volume, a sphere is a shape with minimum
- Molecules such as B and C in the surface area which causes maximum surface
liquid bulk are surrounded by an equal energy and therefore most stable .
number of molecules on all sides ,thus RISE AND FALL OF LIQUIDS IN
they experience zero resultant force of CAPILLARY TUBES .
attraction . Capillarity is the rise or fall of a liquid in a
- For molecules such as A in the liquid capillary tube .
surface ,the resultant force in the Cases where capillarity occurs .
horizontal is zero .There are very few (i) Sucking a liquid using a straw .
molecules above A in the vapour (ii) Upward movement of water in a
space than below it in the liquid plant stem from the soil .
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Capillary rise or fall in the tube is also QN; Explain why it is possible to
influenced by cohesion and adhesion forces . support a soap film in a vertical
Cohesion forces are forces of attraction plane but it is not possible for a water
between molecules of the same substance film .
(same kind). Data
Adhesion forces are forces of attraction - Soap reduces the surface tension of
between molecules of different substances water .If a rectangular wire fame is
(different kind). dipped in a soap solution and then
(i) WATER RISES IN CAPILLRY raised upwards ,the space bounded by
TUBE. the bars becomes covered by the
- Adhesive forces(between water and film .The soap drains downwards
tube molecules) are greater than leaving the top bar of the frame with
cohesive forces(between water low soap concentration and high
molecules). surface tension ,with the lower bar
- The narrower the tube ,the greater the having high soap concentration and
capillary rise . low surface tension .
- The resultant force due to surface
tension between the upper bar and
Capillary lower bar supports the soap film in a
tube vertical plane .
- For the case of water ,the concentration
is the same at both bars and the
resultant force to support the weight of
a water film is zero , hence a water
Water film can not be supported in a vertical
plane .
(ii) MERCURY IS DEPRESSED IN
ANGLE OF CONTACT  
A CAPILLARY TUBE
- The forces of cohesion(between This is the angle between the tangent
molecules of mercury) are greater than to the liquid surface (meniscus) and
the forces of adhesion(between the solid surface with which the liquid
mercury and tube molecules) . makes contact and it is measured
inside the liquid.


mercury

The wider the tube ,the greater the 

depression .
3. Addition of detergents .
Explanation; When detergent is added water
mercury
to a liquid ,the surface area of contact
between the liquid molecules and a Key points ;
substance is increased which causes a (i) If   90o (acute),a liquid wets
decrease in surface tension due to in glass surface . (water)
angle of contact .
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(ii) If   900 (obtuse) ,the liquid Dimensions;

does not wet glass  F  MLT 2
     MT 2
surface. (mercury) l  L
QN; Explain why soapy water washes better Definition:
than pure water . Surface tension is the force acting per metre
Data length normally on one side of an imaginary
Soap reduces surface tension of water by line drawn in the liquid surface .
reducing the angle of contact which increases SURFACE TENSION OF A LIQUID BY
the surface area of contact making soapy water CAPILLARY RISE .
wash better than pure water .
HOW TO MEASURE THE ANGLE OF Let a liquid of density  rise through height
CONTACT OF LIQUID h in a capillary tube of radius ,r
A microscope slide is placed to stand
vertically in a liquid .
The slide is then gently tilted until one of the
liquid surfaces in contact with the slide is
horizontal . Atmospheric
pressure
h
Microscope slide


180o-  Water

The surface tension forces acts upwards all

liquid
round the circular line of the liquid surface .
The angle  between the slide and the
horizontal surface of the liquid is measured F (resultant force)
and recorded.
The angle of contact is calculated from
1800   .
COEFFICIENT OF SURFACE TENSION r
Circular line of
 
liquid surface
When a line is drawn in the liquid surface,
surface tensional forces act normally along its
length but on one side . Length of the circular line = circumference
l l  2 r
F
From    F   l
l
F  2 r
F(resultant surface Volume of liquid column in the tube ;
tensional force) V  Ah , A   r 2
V   r 2h
Force F Mass of liquid column ;
Surface tension ,    m   V
length l
S.I unit is N m1 m     r 2h
Weight of liquid column;
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W  mg
A capillary tube is clamped
W   r 2 hg
vertically in a liquid whose surface
Surface tension force = weight of liquid tension is required .
column The liquid rises in the tube due to
2 r   r 2hg atmospheric pressure acting on its
2   rhg surface in the container .
 rhg A pin bent at right angles at two
 , for zero angle of contact points is attached to the capillary tube
2 using rubber band and adjusted until its
For angle of contact ,  ; tip just touches the liquid surface in
 rhg the container .

2 cos  The liquid meniscus in the capillary
Therefore surface tension of a liquid in a tube is focused using a travelling
capillary tube depends on ; microscope and the reading T1 read
- Density of the liquid from the scale is recorded .
- Radius of the capillary tube The container is then gently
- Capillary rise (height) removed and the tip of the pin is
- Angle of contact focused using a travelling microscope.
Questions The reading T2 is recorded.
1. A liquid of density 1000 kg m-3 rises Capillary rise of the liquid in the
through a height of 10 cm in a narrow tube is calculated from h  T1  T2 .
capillary tube of radius 4 m .Find its
surface tension when The radius of the tube is
(i) Angle of contact is zero . determined by focusing the distance
(ii) Angle of contact is 15o. along its diameter ,d using a travelling
2. Find capillary rise in a tube of radius d
microscope and calculated from r  .
2mm for a liquid of density 1000 kgm- 2
3
and surface tension 4.7 102 Nm1 Surface tension of the liquid is
for zero angle of contact .  rhg
calculated from   where 
EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE 2 cos 
SURFACE OF A LIQUID BY is the density of the liquid and  is
CAPILLARY RISE . measured angle of contact .
Set up. DETERMINING SURFACE
TENSION OF A LIQUID USING
Capillary tube A MICROSCOPE SLIDE
Travelling
microscope

T1
stand h Rubber band
Pin
T2
container
liquid

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Microscope
slide
P1 P2 r

a
b Scale pan

F mg

0 - The bubble exists provided P2  P1

thus inside pressure exceeds outside
liquid pressure by  P2  P1  .
A microscope slide of length a and
width b is suspended at one end of a
balance and made to touch the surface
of a liquid whose surface tension is
required . P1  F
Surface tensional forces act along the P2
entire length of the slide downwards
inside the liquid .
Known masses are loaded on the scale
pan to obtain balance.
At balance ,the surface tension force is
equal to weight of the masses . - If the bubble is cut by half, a circular
F  mg ………..(i) line section is found on which surface
tensional forces act.
Total length on which forces act is - Length of line section = circumference
l  abab l  2 r
l  2(a  b ) - Surface tension force F   l
Surface tension force; F  2 r
F  l
- Area of cut section is A   r 2
F   (2a  2b ) - Force due to inside pressure is
F  2 (a  b)............(ii) F2  P2 A
From (i) and (ii) F2   r 2 P2
mg - Force due to outside pressure is
 .From this
2(a  b) F1  P1 A
expression ,surface tension of the F1   r 2 P1
liquid can be found .
- Resultant force due to pressure = force
EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE AN
due to surface tension .
AIR BUBBLE .
- Let an air bubble of radius r be formed F2  F1  F
with pressure P2 inside and pressure P1  r 2 P2   r 2 P1  2 r
outside .
r  P2  P1   2
2
P2  P1 
r
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2
- Excess pressure = ,inside the air
r
bubble.
Note ;Excess pressure is inversely
proportional to radius of the bubble .
Example  F
Calculate the pressure inside an air P1 P2
bubble of radius 2mm at a depth of 4
cm inside a liquid of density 8000 kg
m-3 and surface tension
2.0 102 N m1 ,atmospheric pressure
= 1.01105 Pa .

- Total length on which surface tension

forces act is
l  2  2 r , 2 r is circumference
l  4 r
- Surface tension force is F   l
2 F    4 r
Total pressure = PA   hg 
r F  4 r
2
2  2.0 10 - Force due to inside pressure is
P  1.0 105  800  0.04  9.81 
0.002 F2   r 2 P2
P  101333.92 Pa - Force due to pressure due to inside
pressure is
Trial questions 13 F1   r 2 P1
1. Calculate the excess pressure
 F2  F1  F
inside an air bubble of radius 4 mm
formed by a liquid surface  r 2 P2   r 2 P1  4 r
2.5 102 Nm1 . 4
2. Calculate the total pressure inside  P2  P1 
r
an air bubble of diameter 4 mm
formed at a depth of 5 cm in water QUESTION
if atmospheric pressure is
1.01105 Pa . tap
EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A
SOAP BUBBLE
- A soap bubble has two surfaces and
when cut into half ,surface tension act
on the two circular lines formed . r1
r2

In the diagram above ,soap bubbles of

radius r1 , r2 (  r2  r1  are formed at the
ends of a pipe with a tap in the

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middle .Explain what happens when Data

the tap is opened .
Data
- Excess pressure inside a bubble of Common interface
4 of radius ,r
radius r1 is and inside bubble
r1
4 P1
radius r2 is ,where  is the H P2 H
r2
surface tension of soap .
4 4 r1
- Since r2  r1 ,then  r2
r1 r2 (i)
- When the tap is opened , air flows
from the bubble of radius r1 into the Let P2 =Pressure inside a bubble of
radius r1
bubble of radius r2 which makes its
P1 =Pressure inside a bubble of radius
size increase as the size small bubble r2
decreases. H = Atmospheric pressure .
- Air stops flowing when the small Excess pressure inside a bubble of
bubble has become a new surface of 4
radius r equal to the radius of the new radius r1 is P2  H 
r1
bubble formed on the big bubble ,since
excess pressure at both ends will be 4
P2   H .......(i)
4 r1
r Excess pressure inside a bubble of
Example 4
radius r2 is P1  H 
r2
Common interface 4
of radius ,r P1   H .......(ii )
r2
r1 Excess pressure of a common interface
r2 formed
4
P2  P1  ......(iii )
r
Substituting for P1 and P2 into (iii)
In the figure above ,two soap bubbles  4   4  4
of radii r1 , r2 ( r2  r1 ) are made to   H   H
 r1   r2  r
coalesce forming a new surface of
1 1 1
radius r .  
rr r1 r2 r
(i) Show that r  1 2 .
r2  r1 1 r2  r1

(ii) If r1  3 mm , r2  5mm ,find the r r1r2
excess pressure if surface rr
r  1 2
tension of soap is r2  r1
2.5 102 Nm1 . (ii)
(iii) If they form a new bubble ,find
the excess pressure .
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r1  3mm  0.003m - Let a liquid of density  rise through

r2  5mm  0.005m a height h in a capillary tube of radius
r.
r1r2
r
r2  r1 H
0.003  0.005
r  0.0075 m
0.005  0.003 X
Excess pressure on the new  Y
4
surface  H
h
H
r
4  2.5 102
  13.33Pa
0.0075
(iii) If the bubbles coalesce and form a
new bubble of radius , r then WATER
 area of   area of 
 area of     
    bubble of    bubble of 
 newbubble     
 radius r1   radius r2 
area of sphere = 4 r 2
For soap ,there are two surfaces ,thus - Pressure at X = Atmospheric pressure
PX  H .

area = 2 4 r 2  - Pressure at Y is
8 r 2  8 r12  8 r2 2 PY  H  h g
r 2  r12  r2 2 2
- Excess pressure =
r  r12  r2 2 r
So; 2
 32  52 PX  PY 
r
 34  5.83 mm 2
H   H  hg  
 0.00583 m r
2
4 4  2.5  10 
2
 hg 
Excess pressure = r  0.00583 r
 hgr
 17.153 Pa 
2
EXERCISE 15
For zero angle of contact.
Two soap bubbles of radii 2 cm and 4 cm
If the angle of contact  ,
coalesce under isothermal conditions to
form a new bubble .Calculate the excess
pressure inside the new bubble formed if
 hgr

surface tension of soap is 2 cos 
2.5 102 N m1 .
2. Capillary fall
SURFACE TENSION FROM
CAPILLARY RISE AND FALL
USING EXCESS PRESSURE
1. Capillary rise:

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r2 Y
H H H r1
X
h Y
Y
h X

X h1

mercury
Mercury

Pressure at Y = Atmospheric pressure - For the narrow limb of radius

PY  H r1  0.001m
PX  H  h g Pressure at X: PX  H  h g
Pressure X =
Pressure at Y: PY  H
Excess pressure: Excess pressure:
2 cos 
2 cos  PX  PY 
PX  PY  r1
r
2 cos 
2 cos  H  h1 g  H 
H   hg  H  r1
r
2 cos  2 cos 
 hg  h1  .........(i)
r  gr1
 hgr - For the wide limb of radius

2 cos  r2  0.007 m
Example: Pressure at X: PX  H    h  h1  g
1. Mercury is poured in a U-glass tube
with vertical limbs of diameter 2mm Pressure at Y: PY  H
and 14 mm respectively .If the angle of Excess pressure :
contact between mercury and glass is 2 cos 
PX  PY 
140o and surface tension of mercury is r2
0.52 Nm-1. 2 cos 
(i) Draw a diagram of the U-tube H   h  h1   g  H 
showing the mercury the r2
mercury levels . 2 cos 
 hg   h1 g  ........(ii )
(ii) Calculate the difference in the r2
levels of mercury .(density of
Substituting for h1 from (i) into (ii)
mercury ,   13600 kg m3 )
Data
Let h = difference between mercury levels
d 2
r1  1   1mm  0.001m
2 2
d 14
r2  2   7 mm  0.007 m
2 2
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2 cos  2 cos  Pressure outside the bubble is H  h g ,

 hg   g  
 gr1 r2 where h is the depth of the tube inside the
liquid in the beaker ,  is the density of
1 1
 hg  2 cos     specimen liquid .
 r2 r1  2
Excess pressure inside the a bubble  .
2 cos   1 1  r
h   
 g  r2 r1  2
 H  h1 g    H  h  g  
2  0.52 cos140o  1 1  r
h    2
13600  9.81  0.007 0.001  g  h1   h  
r
h  5.97  106   8.57  102  rg
   h1   h 
h  5.12  103 m 2
Therefore from this expression ,surface
EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE tension is calculated where h1 , h are
SURFACE TENSION OF A LIQUID measured and r is radius of the tube .
USING JAEGGER’S METHOD. SURFACE TENSION AND SURFACE
Set up ENERGY
- Let a liquid film of surface tension 
be formed using a wire frame PQRS
tap looped by a rod BC of length l as
shown .

funnel

H
H H M h1

h
B mercury
W - Originally ,the film occupies area
BQRC .
water - When a force F is applied on the rod
BC ,the liquid film stretches through a
small distance  x using constant
Bubbles liquid tube temperature (isothermal condition).
Water from a tap is run into a vessel W using - Increase in area of the liquid film is
a funnel . BBCC  given by l   x  l x .
As the water runs into the vessel ,air is formed - Surface tension force  surface
and flows through an tube to the liquid whose tension  length .
surface tension is required in beaker B. But the liquid film has two layers thus
Air bubbles are formed and break away from surface tension acts on a total length
the tube when the radius is equal to that of the l  l  2l
tube tip. F    2l
Pressure inside a bubble is H  h1 g F  2 l
measured on the manometer ,M where  is
density of mercury.
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 energy developed   work done  d 4 mm

    Radius =   2mm  0.002m
2 2
 when stretching    to stretch the 
 the liquid film   liquid film  Area of a soap bubble = area of sphere
   
E  F  x
 
 2 4 r 2 since soap makes two
layers .
E  2 l   x For n –bubbles ; total area =
E    2l x   n  8 r 2  8n r 2
2l x  A , total area of the two film A  8  5  0.002 
2

layers .
A  5.027  10 4 m 2
So energy
E  A
Work done ,W    A
E
  W  3.0  10 2  5.0  10 4
A
 1.51 10 5 J
E 
So ,surface energy     = EXERCISE 16
A  1. A water drop of radius 0.5 cm is
Surface tension    . broken up into other drops of water up
- Now we can define surface tension in into other drops of water each of radius
terms of surface energy . 1 mm .Assuming isothermal
Surface tension is the work done in conditions ,find the work done to break
increasing the area of a surface by 1 m2 up the water drop .(surface tension of
under isothermal conditions . water = 7.0 102 N m1 )
Example 2. Calculate the work done to break an air
1. Find the work done to break a mercury bubble of radius 2 mm formed in water
bubble of radius 4 mm if surface
of surface tension 7.0 102 N m1 .
tension of mercury is 0.52 Nm-1 .
Data 3. A drop of mercury of radius 2 cm is
Mercury bubble =sphere broken into other mercury drops each
of radius 0.2 mm .Calculate the work
Area , A  4 r 2
done if surface tension of mercury is
A  4  0.004   2.01 104 m 2
2
0.52 N m-1 .
Surface energy   = surface Note ;
energy
tension    From surface energy  ,
area
work done  energy  Surface energy is inversely

area  A  proportional to area .
QN: Explain why large mercury drops tend to
Work done   A
flatten and small ones assume a spherical
W  0.52  2.01 10 4 shape .
W  1.05  10 4 J Explanation
2. Find the work done to blow soap - Surface energy is inversely
bubbles each of diameter 4 mm if proportional to area .Large mercury
surface tension of soap is drops have low surface
energy .Gravitational potential energy
3.0 102 N m1 .
exceeds the surface energy and thus
Data the force of gravity distorts their
Number of bubbles , n= 5 spherical shape due to big mass .

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- However ,small mercury drops have Examples include; acceleration, velocity,

high surface energy greater than the displacement, pressure, weight etc
gravitational potential energy ,and thus Scalar quantities are physical quantities with
the gravitational force can not distort only magnitude but no direction.
their spherical shape due to small Examples include; speed, distance, time, mass
mass . etc
Definition : A drop is a liquid meniscus
surrounded by free air surfaces . RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
Example ;
Due to the factor of direction ,a vector can be
Calculate the work done to beak a water
expressed in two parts known as components .
drop of radius 0.4 cm into drops each of
radius 2 mm if surface tension of water is Definition: A component of a vector is that
0.07 Nm-1 . part of a vector acting either in the horizontal
Data or vertical and has magnitude .
For a drop of radius ,R=0.4 cm =0.004 m
Radius of drops ,r = 2mm =0.002 m -consider a force F acting while inclined at an
 number drop  volume of original drop angle  to the positive horizontal as shown .
 
 formed  volume of one small drop F can be expressed into horizontal and vertical
4 components .
 R3
n 3
4 3
r
3
R 3  0.004 
3

n 3 
 0.002 
2
r
n  8 drops

Area of original drop

 4 R 2  4  0.004 
2

= 2.011104 m2 Fx
Total area of small drops = cos    Fx  F cos 
F
n  4 r 2   8  4  0.002   4.021104 m2
2
Fy
sin    Fy  F sin 
F
Change of area
 4.021104  2.011104 These two are the components of force F and
A  2.01 104 m 2 are represented as shown .
Work done    A
 0.07  2.011104
F sin  F
 1.407 105 J

TOPIC 6:VECTOR & SCALAR

QUANTITIES

Vector quantities are physical quantities with
F sin 
both magnitude and direction .

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- We use positive sign and negative 4N

sign to show direction of components
depending on the quadrant in which
trigonometric ratio of the the angle is
Fx  4 cos 90o  0 N
found . Fy  4sin 90o  4 N
- Let c  cos  , s  sin  and
considering the four quadrants of a
circle
4.
90o
8N
+S +S
-C +C
S A 150o
180 o
0 ,360
o o
30o
T C
-S -S
-C +C
Fx  8cos 30 o  4 3N
270o Fy  8sin 30 0  4 N
OR;
Consider the following cases Fx  8cos150 o  4 3N
1.
Fy  8sin150 0  4 N
2N 5.

240o
Fx  2 cos 0  2 N
Fy  2sin 0  0 N 60o
OR;
Fx  2 cos 360o  2 N
Fy  2sin 3600  0 N 10N
2.
Fx  10 cos 60 o  5N
6N
Fy  10sin 60 o  5 3N
OR;
60o Fx  10 cos 240 o  5N
Fy  10sin 240 0  5 3N
Fx  6 cos 60o  3N 6.
Fy  6sin 60o  3 3N
3.

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4N 10N
Fx  2 cos 270o  0 N
Fy  2sin 2700  2 N 30o 60o

2N

7.
30o 60o
12N 6N
300o
60o
RESULTANT FORCE
This is a single force with the same effect of
two or more forces acting on a body .
12N
- If Fx and Fy are the total components
in the horizontal and vertical
o
Fx  12 cos 60  6 N directions , then F is the resultant
force .
Fy  12sin 60 0  6 3N
OR Fy
Fx  12 cos 300o  6 N
F
0
Fy  12 sin 300  6 3 N Fy
EXERCISE 17
QN: Write the components of the following 
forces acting as shown .
Fx

F  Fx  Fy
4N 2N
Direction of the resultant force ,
30o 60o Fy
tan  
Fx
F 
  tan 1  y 
 Fx 
30o 60o NB: Resultant force is a vector quantity
6N and therefore when determining resultant
force ,its direction must also be
10N included ,whether told or not told in the
question .
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Forces act on an object of mass 4 kg as
shown in the figure below .

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 The magnitude of resultant force is 20.37 N

in a direction 70.72o above the negative
horizontal .
(ii) Acceleration
F  ma
20.37  14a
a  1.455 m s 2

Find;(i) resultant force EXAMPLE

(ii)acceleration 2. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of
Data the resultant force in the diagram below .
210o
(b) calculate the acceleration if the forces
8N 20N act on a mass of 5 kg .
180o
120o
(d) If the object is moved from rest ,find
the velocity and distance covered after 4 s .
60o
4N 30o 0o 8N
4N
10N
30o
Fx  20cos 60  8cos120 
o o
120o

4cos180  10cos 210

o o

Fx  6.6 N 6N

Fy  20sin 60o  8sin120o 

Data
4sin180o  10sin 210o
Fy  19.25 N 6N
8N
150o 4N

Fy  19.25 N 30o
F 60o 0o
2N


Fx  6.66 N
Fx  2 cos 0o  4 cos 60o  6 cos 90o  8cos150o
Fx  2.93N
Fy  2sin 0o  4sin 60o  6sin 90o  8sin150o
(i) Resultant force ,
Fy  13.46 N
F  Fx  Fy

 6.66   19.25
2 2
F
F  20.37 N
 19.25 
Direction ,   tan 1    70.72
o

 6.66 

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Fy  13.46 N
F


Fx  2.93N

If the resultant of the forces in the

F  Fx  Fy figure above is 15N and acts
(a) Resultant force ,
upwards ,find the values of  , F and
 2.93  13.46 
2 2
F
 .
F  13.78 N
 13.46  Data
Direction ,   tan 1    77.72
o

 2.93 
 The magnitude of resultant force is 13.78
N in a direction 77.72o above the negative
horizontal .
(b) Acceleration
F  ma
13.78  5a
a  2.76 m s 2
(c) Using
v  u  at
 0  2.76  4
v  11.04m s 1
1
Distance ; s  ut  at 2  cos 90 o   cos  30 o    
2 15  o 
F 
 sin  30    
 sin 90   o 
1
s  0  4   2.76  4 2
2  cos120 o   cos 210 o   cos 240 o 
s  22.08 m 6  o 
 4
  
o 
 12  
o 
 sin120   sin 210   sin 240 
OR:
 0   F cos  30      12.46 
o
v 2  u 2  2as
   
11.042  02  2  2.76  s  15   F sin  30o      7.20 
s  22.08 m
 F cos  30o      12.46 
NB: A force is resolved in the direction to   
which it is acting not from which its acting .  F sin  30o      22.20 
 
3.

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F sin  30o    22.20


F cos  30   
o
12.46
10N
tan  30o     1.782
30o    tan 1 1.782  60o
12N
  60.7 o  30o
  30.7 o 30o

F cos  30o     12.46

4N
12.46
Using F 
cos  30o  30.7o 
2. Forces acting in the figure below have
F  25.46 N a resultant force of 6N acting
  90o  30o    downwards .Find values of
 , F and  .
  90o  60.7 o
  29.3o
EXERCISE 14
1. In each of the figures below ,forces act
on an object of mass 4 kg .Find ;
(i) Magnitude of resultant force
and direction .
(ii) Velocity and distance covered
by the object if it is moved
from rest for 2 seconds .
EQUILIBRIUM OF BODY UNDER
12N ACTION OF FORCES
6N Equilibrium refers to the state of rest of a
body .
60o A body is said to be in equilibrium if the sum
2N of forces in any one direction is equal to the
sum of forces in the opposite direction , that is
the resultant force in any direction is zero .
8N Fx  0 , Fy  0
Examples
CASE 1:
1.

20N

150o

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Find the values of forces P and Q if the forces

are in equilibrium .
Data T cos 60o
60o T
T
P
Q T sin 60o

30N
60o
20N
150o 30o

Q Resolving vertically ,
T cos 60o  30
Fx  P cos 60o  20 cos180o  Q cos 330o T  60 N
P  3 Resolving horizontally ,
0  20  Q  
2 T sin 60o  P
 2 
P  40  Q 3 .............(i) P  60 sin 60o  51.96 N
(b)
Fy  P sin 60o  20sin180o  Q sin 330o
3P Q
0 0 50o T
2 2
Q  P 3 ................(ii)
5kg P
Substituting (ii) into (i) ,
P  40  P 3  3
P  10 N SOLUTION
Q  10 3 N
CASE 2:
2. Find tension T and force P if the 50o T
T cos50o
system is in equilibrium . T
(a) P
T sin 50o

5g N
60o T
T Resolving forces vertically ;
P
T cos 50o  5 g
5  9.81
30N
T  76.31N
cos 50o
Resolving forces horizontally ,
Data T sin 50o  P
P  76.31sin 50o  58.46 N
(c)

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60o T P 30o T
T 20o T
30N

50N P

Data (b)

Psin20o 60o T
Tcos60
T o
60o 60o P P
T 4kg
20o
Tsin60o
Pcos20o

50N (c)
Resolving horizontally ;
T sin 60o  P cos 20o
40o T
0.866
P T T P
0.940
P  0.9213T .........(i)
Resolving vertically ;
100N
T cos 60o  P sin 20o  50
0.5T  0.342 P  50.........(ii)
Substituting (i) into (ii) , (d)
0.5T  0.342(0.9213T )  50
0.8150846T  50
T  61.34 N
P  0.9213T
P  0.9213  61.34
P  56.51 N
T
Exercise 17
To
20
1. Find the tension T and force P if the P
systems below are in equilibrium .
(a)
20N

(e)

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R= normal reaction due to contact of

P
object with the wall .
70 T
o

T 40o
Tsin40o

40N T

40o Tcos40o

2. An object of mass 4kg is suspended R wall

on a string fixed at one point .A
horizontal force of 20N is applied to
the object until the string becomes
inclined at an angle  to the 8g
downward vertical .Find ;
Resolving horizontally ,
(i) The value of  .
(ii) Tension in the string . T sin 40o  8 g
3. An object of mass m is suspended on a 8g 8  9.81
T 
string fixed at one point .A horizontal sin 40 o
sin 40o
force of 10 N is applied to the object T  122.09 N
until the string is inclined at an angle
Resolving horizontally ,
of 30o to the downward vertical .Find ;
(i) The value of m . R  T cos 40o
(ii) Tension in the string . R  122.09 cos 40o
4. A weight of 40 N hangs on a vertical R  93.53 N
fixed string .A force P inclined at an (ii)
angle 20o to the horizontal to the
weight until the string makes an angle
of 60o with the downward
vertical .Find P and tension in the
string .
CASE 3 :
Calculate the reaction on the object and
tension in the string in the diagrams below for
equilibrium .

(i)

pulley string

40o The string supports a spherical object of mass

wall 4 kg and radius 5 cm .If the length of the
8kg string is 7cm ,find tension in the string and
reaction of the wall on the object .
Data
Data
Let T= tension in the string

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pulley string

60o
wall
4kg

2. A spherical object of radius5cm and 6

kg is suspended on a string of length 8
cm and hangs in equilibrium while
resting on a smooth vertical as shown .
Considering the triangle ,
h  122  52
h  144  25
h  119
5
cos  
12
119
sin  
12
Resolving vertically ,
T sin   4 g
119
T  4  9.81
12 Find tension in the string and reaction on the
4  9.8112 object by the wall .
T
119 3. Calculate tensions T1 and T2 for
T  43.17 N equilibrium in the figure below if the
Resolving horizontally , beam AB has mass 8 kg .
R  T cos 
5
R  43.17   17.99 N
12 T1 T2
EXERCISE 15 145o 120o
1. Find tension in the string and reaction
A B
on the object if the system is in
equilibrium .
4. Find the tensions in the strings if the
systems below are in equilibrium .
(i)

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Resultant
  
v  v A  vB
  8cos 0   2 cos 0 
v   
 8sin 0   2sin 0 
velocity ,
60o 40o  8   2   10 
      
 0  0  0 

v  10 2  0 2  10m s 1
20N
2. Bodies A and B are moving in
(ii) opposite directions with velocities
8 m s-1 and 2 m s-1.Find their
70o 50o resultant velocity .

Data

5kg
5. An object of mass 40kg is suspended   0o
vB  2ms 1 v A  8ms 1
by means of two strings fixed on the
ceiling at points P and Q .The object
hangs in equilibrium with the strings
inclined at angles 60o and 40o
respectively to the downward vertical Resultant velocity ,
at points P and Q .Find the tension in   
each string . v  v A  vB
  8cos 0   2 cos180 
o

v     
o 
TOPIC 7: RESULTANT AND  8sin 0   2sin180 
RELATIVE VELOCITY .  8   2   6 
Resultant velocity is a vector sum of     
two or more velocities which are a rate 0  0  0
of change of displacement . 
v  62  02  6m s 1
Examples
1. A and B are bodies moving due
east with velocities 8 m s-1 and 2m 3. Plane A is flying at 200 m s-1 in a
s-1 .Find their resultant velocity . direction N45oE while plane B is
Data flying at 400 m s-1 in a direction N
60oE .Find their resultant velocity
and direction .
 Data
vB  2ms 1

v A  8ms 1

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2. Motorist A is driving at 40km/h in the

Plane A Plane B direction S60oE while motorist B is
N driving at 50 km/h in the direction N
200 ms-1 45oE .Find their resultant speed and
400ms-1 direction .
45o
60o
45 o
30o CROSSING A RIVER .
E - If the water is still( not moving ) ,a
boatman crosses a river directly from
Using resolving , one point to another on the other bank .
  200 cos 45   141.1
o

v A   
o   B
 200 sin 45   141.1
  400 cos 30   346.4 
o

vB   
o   vb ,velocity of
river
 400 sin 30   200 
   boatman
Resultant velocity , v  vA  vB
  141.4   346.4  A
v   
 141.4   200 
 487.8  - If the water is flowing ,the boatman is
  taken down stream to point C with a
 241.4  resultant velocity , v .

v   487.8    341.4 
2 2

Magnitude ,
B

v  595.40 m s 1
Direction ,  vw
+341.4ms-1
v b v
 
v

A
 
vw -velocity of water.
+487.8 ms -1

vb - velocity of boatman

341.4 v -resultant velocity .
tan   Resultant velocity ,
487.8
v 2  vb 2  vw 2
 341.4 
  tan 1    34.99
o

 487.8  v  vb 2  vw 2
Direction = N (90  34.99)o E  N 55.01o E v 
Direction ;   tan 1  w 
EXERCISE 18  vb 
1. Plane A is flying at 100 m s-1 in
EXAMPLES ;
direction N60oE while plane B is
1. A boatman with a velocity 10 m s-1
flying at 200 m s-1 in direction N
in still water wishes to cross a river
45oE .Find their resultant velocity and
direction .
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which is 50m wide and flowing at BC

tan 38.66o 
8 m s-1.Find 50
(i)actual velocity of the boatman .
BC  50 tan 38.66o
(ii) time taken to cross the river .
(iii)distance downstream to the BC  40 m
point where he lands . 2. A boatman with a velocity 18 ms-1
Data wishes to cross river 40 m wide to
a point 15 m upstream whose water
is flowing with velocity 12 ms-
1
.Find
(i) Direction in which the boat
must be steered to the river
bank .
(ii) Actual velocity of the
boatman .
Data
Let v =actual velocity of boatman
 =angle at which the boat must be steered .
vb = 18 ms-1 (for boatman)
8m s-1 vw =12 m s-1 (for water)

10m s-1

 v
15m

(i) 12ms-1
z y x
Resultant velocity ,
v  102  82 v 40m
18ms-1
v  12.81 m s 1 

 8 
Direction ,   tan 1    38.66 o
 10 
50
cos 38.66 o  15
AC tan  
40
50
AC   64.03m  15 
cos 38.66 o   tan 1    20.56o
(ii) Time taken along AC  40 
dis tan ce AC x    900  180o
t
v x  180o  20.56o  90o
64.03 x  69.44o
t  5s
12.81 x  y  180 o
(iii) Distance downstream BC
69.44 o  y  180 o
y  110.56 o
Velocity diagram

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12ms-1
u12  u22  2
1
z x  u12  u2 2  2
sec 
110.56o
3. A boatman with a velocity of 20 m s-1
in still water wishes to cross a river
12 18 v
  30m wide to a point 12 m upstream
sin  sin110.56 o
whose water is flowing with velocity
12sin110.56 o 14 m s-1 . Find ;
sin   (i) The direction in which the boat
Using sine rule , 18 must be steered .
sin   0.6242
(ii) Resultant velocity of the
(i)  sin 1  0.6242
 Direction    38.62 o boatman .
      90o 4. A boatman crosses a river 3 km wide
  38.62o  20.56o  90o flowing at 4 m s-1 to a point on the
opposite bank 5km upstream .If speed
  90o  59.18o of the boat is 12 m s-1 in still
  30.82o water ,find ;
(ii) Actual velocity (i) The direction in which the boat
v 12 must be headed .
 (ii) Actual velocity of the boat .
sin z sin 
RELATIVE VELOCITY .
v 12 Relative velocity is the velocity with which a
o

sin 30.82 sin 38.62o body appears to move as seen by an observer
12sin 30.82o on another moving body assumed to be at rest .
v - If body A is moving with velocity vA
sin 38.62o
v  9.85 m s 1 relative to body B whose velocity is
EXERCISE 17 vB ,then the relative velocity of A to B
  
1. A boatman with a velocity 5 m s-1 is given by A vB  vA  vB i.e the
wants to cross a river 40m wide velocity of the relative is taken to be
flowing with a velocity 20 m s-1 .find negative .
(i) Resultant velocity of the
boatman .   
v  vA  vB
A B
(ii) Time he takes to cross the river .
(iii) Distance down stream to the
Note ;
point he reaches the opposite
1. Velocity of body A relative to body
bank .   
2. A river which is x metres wide has its B ,We write A vB  vA  vB .
water flowing at a speed u1 m s-1 .A 2. Velocity of body B relative to body A ,
  
we write B vA  vB  vA .This means ,to
boatman whose speed is u 2 m s-1 is
body A moving with velocity
still water wishes to cross the river . 
(i) Show that actual velocity of vA ,body B appears to be moving

the boatman is with a velocity vB .
(ii) If  is the direction of the EXAMPLE
resultant motion , show that he 1. Body A is at 10 ms-1 while body
crosses the river after a time B is moving at 8 m s-1
(i) In the same direction.
(ii) In opposite direction .
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Find the velocity of A relative to B Magnitude ,

in each case .  2 2 1
A vB  18  0  18m s
Data
(i) In same direction 2. Motorist P and Q are moving away
from the junction of two roads
crossing at right angles with speeds
 40 km/h and 30km/h .find the
A v A  10ms 1 relative speed of P to Q and
direction .
Data
B 
vB  8ms 1
40km/h
  
A B v  v A  vB Motorist P
 10  8
 2 m s 1 30km/h
OR; by resolving ;
   Motorist Q
A vB  v A  vB

 cos 0   cos 0 
 10    8 
 sin 0   sin 0    cos 900   0 
vP  40  
 10   8   2   sin 900   40 
          
 0   0  0
  cos 0   30 
Magnitude , vQ  30   
  sin 0   0 
A vB  22  02  2m s 1
  0   30   30 

(ii) P vQ       
 40   0   40 
Magnitude

 30    40 
2 2
P vQ 

   50km / h
vB   8ms 1 v A  10ms 1

40km/h v
P Q

  
A B v  v A  vB

 10   8
30km/h
 18m s 1
40
tan  
OR; by resolving ; 30
  
A vB  v A  vB  40 
  tan 1    53.130
 cos 0   cos180   30 
o

 10   8
  
o 
 sin 0   sin180  Thus the relative speed of P to Q is
50km/h in a direction 53.13o above
 10    8   18  the negative horizontal .
      
0   0 0  QUESTION : Explain why objects
outside a moving car appears to
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move in the opposite direction to

that of the car . Body B
225o
Data W
- Practically ,the objects are at rest with
a velocity of 0 m s-1 .If the car is
moving with a velocity v m s-1 ,the 40o
velocity of objects relative to the car is
   1
o vc  vo  vc  0  v   v m s 60 m s-2
- The velocity of objects outside the S
moving car is equal but opposite to that
 cos120o   20 
of the car ,thus the objects appear to be v A  40    40
 sin120o   0.866 
moving in opposite direction to the    
passengers in the car .
QUESTION : Explain why objects    20 
vA   
faraway from a moving bus appear to  o.866 
be moving at low speed compared to   cos 225o   42.42 
those nearby as seen by passengers in vB  60  
 sin 225o   42.42 
the bus .    
Data Relative velocity velocity of A to B

- Objects which are far away from the A vB  v A  vB
moving bus have a small portion of the
 20   42.42 
field of view compared to those   
nearby .  34.64   42.42 
- Far objects appear to be moving at  22.42 
low speed than nearby objects and the  
variation is due to change in speed of  77.06 
images in the retina of the eye. Magnitude
Examples: 
 22.42    77.06 
2 2
A vB 
1. Body A is moving in a direction
N30oW with a velocity 40 m s-1  80.26 m s 1
while body B is moving in a
direction S45oW with a velocity of
60 m s-1 .Find the relative velocity 77.06
of A to B . 77.06

N Body A
40m s-1 
120o 22.42
30o
W
 77.06 
Direction ;   tan 1    73.78
o

 22.42 
Therefore ,relative velocity of A to B
is 80.26 m s-1 in a direction 73.78o
above the positive horizontal .
EXERCISE 19
1. Motorist P is driving at 36 km/h while
motorist Q is driving at 24km/h in
(i) Same direction
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  
(ii) Opposite direction B v A  vB  v A
Find the relative speed of P to Q in
 692.82   0 
each case .   
2. Cyclist A and B are moving on the  400   600 
road towards a junction of two  692.82 
perpendicular roads .If A has a velocity  
40m s-1 and B a velocity of 30 m s-  200 
1
,find the velocity of B relative to A
and direction .
3. Plane A is flying with velocity 2000 692.82
m s-1 in a direction N60oE while plane 
B is flying at 180 m s-1 in a direction 200

N45oW.Find the velocity of A relative B A v
to B and direction .
4. Body A is moving at 80 m s-1 due
eastwards while B is moving at 60 m s- 
v A  692.82 2  200 2
1
from the direction N 30oE .Find the Magnitude , B

relative velocity of A to B and  721.12 m s 1

direction .  200 
SHORTEST TIME AND CLOSEST Direction ,   tan 1    16.1
o

DISTANCE OF APPROACH .  692.82 

EXAMPLES: Thus the relative velocity of B to A is
1. Body A is moving northwards at 600 721.12 m s-1 in a direction 16.1 o below the
m s-1 while body B is 500 m on the positive horizontal .
west from A and moving at 800 m s-1 (ii) Closest distance :
in the direction N60oE .Find ; - Closest distance of approach is the
(i) The relative velocity of B to A perpendicular distance connecting
(ii) Closest distance between the the line of action of velocity of B to
two bodies . the line of A reversed (we reverse the
(iii) Shortest time of approach . one relative to).
DATA So reversing velocity of A ,

N 600ms-1
800ms-1

60o
30o
Body B Body A N
800ms-1
500m d
60o
30o
  600 cos 90   0 
o
Body B Body A
v A   
o   500m
 600sin 90   600 
  800 cos 30   692.82 
o

vB   
o  
 800sin 30   400  -600ms-1
(i) Relative velocity of B to A

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d
sin 30o  56.57km
500
d  500 sin 30o
d  250 m 
v
Thus the closest distance of approach is 250 m. A B
3.43km
(iii) Shortest time ,t
Relative velocity =
closest dis tan ce   
v  v A  vB
A B
shortest dis tan ce
 60 cos 270 o   80 cos 225o 
 d    
B vA  o   o 
t  60sin 270   80sin 225 
250  0   56.57 
721.12    
t  60   56.57 
t  0.35s
2. Motorist A is driving due south at 60  56.57 
 
km/h and motorist B who is 100km on  3.43 
the east of A is driving from north-east
at 80km/h .Find ; Magnitude ,
(i) The closest distance between 
56.57 2   3.43
2
the two motorists . A vB 

(ii) Shortest time of approach .  56.67 km / h

Data Closest distance :
Reversing the relative to:
N 225o
45o
100km
0o
270o A B

80km/h 270o
600km/h
d

(i) Velocity of A relative to B

d
sin 45o 
100
d  100 sin 45o
d  70.71km
So the closest distance of approach is
70.71km .
(ii) Shortest time ;

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 d Horizontal and pass through a general point

vA 
B
t P  x, y  in space after a time t from the point
70.71 of projection .
56.67 
t
t  1.25 hours
EXERCISE 20 y-axis
1. An aeroplane A is flying due east
at 15 km/h and another aeroplane B u
is flying due north at 20km/h .If u y  u sin 
aeroplane A is 10km west of  P  x, y 
B ,find the time taken to reach the y
shortest distance of approach .  ux  u cos 
0 x-axis
2. Two ships A and B are 4km x
apart .A is due west of B .If A
moves with a uniform velocity of
8km/h due east and B moves with
uniform velocity of 6km/h due x  horizontal displacement from point of
south .Calculate ; projection at any time ,t
(i) Magnitude of velocity of A y  vertical displacement from horizontal
relative to B . through the point of projection at any time ,t
(ii) Closest distance between A
u x  horizontal component of initial velocity
and B.
(iii) Shortest time of approach u y  vertical component of initial velocity
TOPIC 8:PROJECTILE MOTION General/fundamental equations of
A projectile is an object given an initial projectile motion .
velocity so that it moves freely through a Horizontal motion
uniform(constant) force field or moves under The acceleration is zero horizontally since the
influence of gravity alone. horizontal component of velocity remains
constant throughout the motion ( a x  0 ms 2 ) .
Projectile motion is of different types .
(i) vertical projection vy
(ii) horizontal projection vy  0
ux
(iii) projection at an angle to the uy
horizontal . ux ux
Areas where projectile motion is applied ux vy
include;
- firing a military artillery
- taking football free kicks
- car speedometers Horizontal component of velocity at any time
- short put t is got by
- car overtaking vx  u x  a x t .
- navigation etc .
CASE 1: PROJECTION OF A BODY AT Since ux  u cos  , ax  0
AN ANGLE ,  TO THE HORIZONTAL . vx  u cos   0  t
Consider the motion of an object which is
projected with a velocity u at an angle  to  vx  u cos  ................(i)
the The horizontal distance travelled after time t is
got from second equation of motion ;

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1
s  ut  at 2
2 y-axis
Using s  x , ax  0 , ux  u cos 
1
x  u x t  ax t 2
2
P  x, y 
1
x  (u cos  ) t   0  t 2 y
2
x  (u cos  ) t ...............(ii) 0 x-axis
x
Vertical motion Distance OP  x  y 2 2

Vertically ,the velocity changes due to The trajectory

influence of gravity . This is the path followed by a projectile .
Using first equation of motion Derivation of Trajectory equation
vy  u y  ayt The variables are x and y
Considering upward motion ; Horizontally : x  (u cos  ) t ...............(ii)
u y  u sin  , a y   g  Making t the subject , t 
x
u cos 
 v y  u sin   gt .....................(iii)
1
Using also second equation of motion ; Vertically : y  (u sin  )t  gt 2 .............(iv)
2
1 Substituting for t in equation (iv) gives
s  ut  at 2
2 2
 x  1  x 
Vertically y   u sin     g 
 u cos   2  u cos  

upwards, s  y , u y  u sin  , a y   g 
gx 2
1 y  x tan   2
So y  (u sin  )t  gt 2 .............(iv) 2u cos 2 
2
Determining speed and direction of particle  gx 2   1 
y  x tan    2   
 2u   cos  
2
at any time t
Recall speed is a scalar quantity thus has gx 2 sec2 
magnitude only .therefore,speed is the y  x tan  
magnitude of velocity at a particular point . 2u 2
The above equation is in the form y= Ax – Bx2
vx where A and B are constants which is an
P 
equation of a parabola. Therefore the
p trajectory is a parabola.
v

vy Key terms used in projectile motion

1. Maximum height, H

Speed v  vx 2  v y 2
v 
Direction ,   tan 1  y 
 vx 
Distance covered at any point along the
curve .
Distance is the magnitude of displacement at
the given point .
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1
y  uxt  gt 2
2
1
0   u sin   T  gT 2
2
 1 
0   u sin   gT  T
 2 
1
Either T= 0 or u sin   gT  0
2
1
But since T  0 ,then u sin   gT  0
2
1
gT  u sin 
2
At maximum height, v =0 2u sin 
T
Using third equation of motion , v 2  u 2  2as g
Vertically upwards ; Note: Time of flight is twice the time taken to

: v y  0 , a y   g , u y  u sin  , s  H reach maximum height.
2 2 T  2t
v y  u y  2gH
4. Range , R:
0 2   u sin    2 gH
2
It is the horizontal distance from the point of
projection to a point on the plane through the
2 gH  u 2 sin 2  point of projection where the projectile lands
u 2 sin 2  i.e horizontal distance OA.
H Using x  (u cos  ) t
2g
2. Time to reach the maximum height When X  R , t  T
Using v = u + at R  (u cos  )T
Considering upward motion ;  2u sin  
 
: v y  0 , a y   g , u y  u sin  R  u cos    
 g 
v y  u y  gt u 2  2sin  cos  
R
0  u sin   gt g
gt  u sin  u 2 sin 2
R
u sin  g
t
g
3. Time of flight, T
The time taken by the projectile to move from 5. Maximum range ,Rmax
the point of projection to a point on the plane Note: For any given initial speed, the range is
through the point of projection where the maximum when sin 2  1 or   45o
projection lies i.e. time taken to move from O
u2
to A. Recall when the object lands at A ,the Rmax  1
vertical displacement, y=0 m g
Using second equation of motion , u2
1 Rmax 
s  ut  at 2 g
2
:  s  y  0m , u y  u sin  , a y   g , t  T  Examples

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1. Prove that the time of flight T and the 2u sin 

horizontal range R, of a projectile are T
g
connected by the equation gT 2  2 R tan 
2  30sin 38o
T
Where  is the angle of projection.
9.81
Data T  3.78 s
2u sin  Horizontal distance covered by the ball =
using T  Range ,R
g
u 2 sin 2
Tg  2u sin  ...........(i) R
g
u 2 sin 2
R 302 sin 2(38o )
Also g Using R 
9.81
Rg  u 2  2sin  cos   ..........(ii )
R  89.1 m
Equation  i   ii  gives
2
Since the ball is kicked at same time as second
Tg 
2
 2u sin  
2 footballer starts running ,then the time taken
 2 by the second footballer to reach the ball is
Rg u  2sin  cos   3.78 s.
T 2g 4u 2 sin 2  Distance travelled by second footballer to
 2 reach the ball is , x  120  R
R 2u sin  cos 
x  120  89.1  30.9m
So, the speed of second footballer is
T 2 g 2sin  x
 v
R cos  t
 gT  2 R tan 
2
30.9
v  8.2 m s 1
3.78
2. Two footballers, 120m apart, stand facing 3. A projectile is fired from ground level with
each other. One of them kicks a ball from the a velocity of 500m s-1 at an angle of 30oto the
ground such that the ball takes off at a velocity horizontal. Find the horizontal range, the
of 30m s-1at 38o to the horizontal.Find the greatest height to which it rises and time
speed at which the second footballer must run taken to reach the greatest height. What is the
towards the first footballer in order to trap the least speed with which it could be projected in
ball as it touches the ground, if he starts order to achieve the same horizontal range?
running at the instant the ball is kicked.
Data

ball
x
A R B
120m

For the first footballer, the time he ball takes

to touch the ground =time of flight ,T

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(ii) Horizontal displacement .

(iii) Maximum height above the
ground .

+
10sin30o 10ms-1

H
0 30o y  0m
10cos30 o A

20m

B
x


(i) Let the total time of motion be t .

(i) Range , 1
u 2 sin 2 Using s  ut  at 2
R 2
g Considering vertical upward motion ;
 500 
2
sin 2  30o  :  s  20m , a y   g , u y  10sin 30o 
R
9.81 1 2
20  10sin 30o  t  gt
R  22069.96 m 2
1
(ii) Maximum height ,H
20  5t   9.81 t 2
2
u 2 sin 2  4.905t 2  5t  20  0
H
2g 5  52  4  4.905  20
t
500 2 sin 30 
o 2
2  4.905 
H
2  9.81 5  20.43
t
H  3185.5 m 9.81
(iii) Time taken to reach the greatest t  2.59 s
height. (ii) Horizontal displacement
u sin  x  uxt
t
g x  (10 cos 30o )  2.59
500sin 30 o x  22.43 m
t
9.81 (iii) Maximum height from the ground =
t  25.5s 20+H
(b) least speed , u 2 sin 2 
1 H
umin   Rg  2 2g
102  sin 30o 
1 2
  22069.96  9.81 2 
H  1.27 m
4.An object is projected with velocity 10 m s-1 2  9.81
at an angle 30o to the horizontal from a point Maximum height =20+1.27=21.27 m
at a height 20 m above the ground .Find;
(i) Time of motion Exercise 20
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1. A body is thrown from the top of a

tower 30.4m high with a velocity of
24m s-1atan elevation of 30oabove the
horizontal. Find the horizontal distance
from the roof of the tower of the point v P
where it hits the ground. 5m
2. A body is projected at such an angle 15m
that the horizontal range is three times 30o
the greatest height. Given that the 35m
range of projection is 400m, find the
necessary velocity of projection and
angle of projection. Find ;
3. A projectile fired at an angle of (i) The value of v
60oabove the horizontal strikes a (ii) Time taken to reach p.
building 30maway at a point 15m (iii) Actual velocity at P .
above the point of projection 7. An object is projected at an angle  to
(i) Find the velocity of projection. the horizontal .It covers a horizontal
(ii) Find the velocity of the range R in a time of flight T .Show that
projectile when it strikes the gT 2  2 R tan  .
building. 8. An object is projected with a velocity
4. An object is projected at an angle 60o u m s 1 at an angle  to the
to the horizontal and passes through a
vertical .Show that maximum range is
point (45 ,10) metres in space .Using
u2
gx 2 .
y  x tan   2 , calculate g
2u cos 2 
(i) Velocity of projection. 9. An object is projected with a velocity
(ii) Time taken to reach the point . 20 3m s 1 at an angle 60o to the
(iii) Time of flight . horizontal .Find ;
(iv) Horizontal range . (i) Time taken to reach maximum
(v) Maximum height . height .
5. Given the equation of trajectory (ii) Time of flight .
y  x 3  80 x 2 (iii) Horizontal range .
Find , (iv) Maximum range .
(i) Angle of projection . (v) Maximum height attained .
(ii) Velocity of projection . 10. A ball is kicked at angle 30o to the
(iii) Time of flight ,horizontal horizontal from a spot which is 40 m
range and velocity of away from the goal posts of height 15
projection . m .If the ball just clears the horizontal
6. The figure below shows a path bar of the goal posts ,calculate ;
described by a projectile . (i) Speed at which the ball is
kicked .
(ii) Time taken to reach the goal
posts.
(iii) Distance behind the goal posts
where the ball hits the ground .
Case 2: HORIZONTAL
PROJECTION

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Let an object be projected horizontally (ii) Velocity after 1.2 seconds and
with a velocity u from a point at a direction.
height h above the horizontal ground (iii) Velocity and direction on
as shown . hitting the ground .
uy  0
TOPIC 9: NEWTON’S LAWS AND
0 ux  u MOMENTUM
MOMENTUM
h
This is the product of mass of a body and its
velocity .

x Momentum = mass  velocity

= mv
Initially ,there is no motion vertically
upwards at point of projection O ,thus The S.I units of momentum is kg m s-1 .
uy  0
Linear momentum : This is the product of
So the velocity of projection u caters mass and velocity of a body moving along a
for horizontal component of initial straight line .
velocity .
Basic equations for horizontal Angular momentum : This is the product of
projection . mass and angular velocity of a body moving
Using second equation of round a circular path .
1
motion , s  ut  at 2 N.B : Momentum is a vector quantity .
2
NEWTON’ S LAWS OF MOTION .
Horizontally ;
:  s  x , ax  0 , ux  u  FIRST LAW :
1 “A body continues in its state of rest or
x  uxt   0  t 2
2 uniform motion in a straight line unless acted
x  ut .................(i) upon by an external force to behave
Vertically upwards: otherwise .”
:  s  h a y   g , u y  0  - Newton’s first law is also called law of
1 inertia .
h  u y t  gt 2 - Inertia is the reluctance of a body to
2
change its state of rest or uniform
1 motion in a straight line.
h  0  t  gt 2
2 OR:Inertia is the tendency of a body
1 to either remain at rest or continue
h  gt 2 .....................(ii)
2 moving with uniform in a straight line .
TRIAL EXERCISE ; - Inertia is a latin word meaning
An object is projected horizontally at a laziness .
speed of 36km/h from a point at a - Mass is the measure of inertia of a
height of 45m above the ground .Find; body .
(i) Time taken to hit the ground . - A body of small mass has low inertia
since it can easily be made to start
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moving when at rest and to stop (applied force)  (rate of change of

moving if it has been in motion . momentum)
- A body of large mass has high inertia
since it is a bit hard to make it start mv  mu
F
moving if it has been at rest and to t
stop it when it has been in motion . km  v  u 
- Therefore because of inertia ,the above F , but k  1
t
tendencies are realized when a body of
m v  u 
given mass is made to start or stop F
moving . t

QUESTION :Explain why a small car is v u

But a
easier to stop than a large truck when t
brakes are applied at the same time .
 F  ma
Note ; When a bus is moving ,passengers
inside are also in the motion with the Note ; If m=1 kg and a=1 m s-2 ,
bus .When brakes are applied ,the F =1  1= 1N
passengers jerk forward so as to remain in
motion due to Newton’s first law . Definition of a newton :

QUESTION : Explain why passengers A newton is a force which gives a body of

jerk forward when moving bus is suddenly mass 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m s-2 .
stopped . APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S
SECOND LAW .
SECOND LAW :
“The rate of change of momentum of a (a) A goal keeper moves his hands
body is directly proportional to the applied backwards before catching a fast
force and takes place in the direction of moving ball .
the force .” Data
According to Newton’s second law of
If a body of mass ,m is initially moving m v  u 
with a velocity u and after t seconds ,it force , F  ,when the goal
t
gains a velocity v , then , keeper moves his hands backwards ,the
time of contact of the hands with the
ball is increased which reduces the
force of impact at the hands by the
F v ball .
m u m
(b) Explain why a jumper bends legs
before landing on the soft surface.
Data
Initial momentum  mu

Final momentum  mv According to Newton’s second law of

m v  u 
Change in momentum  mv  mu force , F  ,when the jumper
t
mv  mu bends the legs ,time of landing is increased
Rate of change of momentum  which reduces the force of impact on
t landing .

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The surface also made soft so that the - Force on collision ,

shock due to force of impact is reduced by 2mu
the longer time it takes to come to rest . F
t
(c) Gas molecules bombard the surface F 2 mu
2l
walls of a container with a force due to
u
Newton’s second law . 2
Explanation 2mu
F , for one molecule
y l
- For N- molecules colliding with face 1,
Nmu 2
force of impact is
l
l - Area of surface/face 1 ,A  l  l  l 2
I - Total Pressure exerted on face 1
m u force
x 
m area
u l Nmu 2
 l
l l2
z
Nmu 2
P 3
- A gas is contained in a cube of side l l
and its molecules are in thermal Question:
random motion depending on the
temperature changes . Nitrogen gas is contained in a cube of side 10
- For a molecule of mass , m moving cm and contains 2.0 1022 molecules each of
with velocity u towards face 1 . 27
mass 2.32 10 kg .calculate the force of
Momentum  mu collision on one of the surfaces and pressure
- Due to collision at right angles to the exerted if speed of molecules is 480 m s-1 .
surface ,momentum of the molecule is
reversed ,   mu  (d) A jet of water from a hose pipe exerts a
- Change in momentum force of impact on a wall .
Explanation .
 mu    mu   2mu
- Let a water jet of velocity u ms 1 from
- Total distance travelled molecule to
a hose pipe of cross-section area ,A be
and fro from face A  l  l  2l .
directed towards the wall .
- Average velocity of the molecule is
total dis tan ce 2l
given by u  
time taken t u wall
2l
u
t Hose pipe A V=0
2l
t 
u Water jet

- Volume of water jet occupying

distance l between the pipe and the
wall  Al

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- If  is density of water ,mass of water A water jet from a nozzle of cross-

jet is m   Al . section area 4 cm2 strikes the board
- Incident momentum at the and the spring compresses by 5
 mv , v  0 cm .Find the velocity of the water jet .
wall (e) An object of mass m dropped from a
 m0  0 height h above the ground strikes the
- Change in momentum  mu  mv ground with a force equal to its
  Alu  0 weight .
- Time taken to cover distance l , Explanation
dis tan ce
Velocity 
time u0
m
l
u
t
l h
t
u v0
- Force of impact
changein momentum

timetaken - Initial momentum at height h is  mu
 Alu  Alu - Time taken to fall through height h
F  u 1
l l Using s  ut  at 2
u 2
F   Au 2 1 2
h  0  t  gt
- Pressure at the wall 2
F 1 2
 u 2 h  gt
A 2
P  u 2 2h
t
Exercise 21: g
1. A water jet flow out of a hose pipe of
- Velocity on striking the ground ,
cross-section area 4.0 104 cm2 with a Using v  u  at
velocity 20 m s-1 towards wall .Find v  0  gt
the force of impact at the wall and
pressure exerted ,density of water is 2h
vg
1000 kg m-3 . g
2. A light horizontal spring of force - Momentum on striking the ground
constant 512Nm-1 has one end fixed  mv
on the wall and other end attached on
2h
a light board as shown .  mg
g
- Force of impact
changein momentum

timetaken
Light board
nozzle spring wall 2h
mg 0
g
  mg
2h
g

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 F  mg ;which is the weight . - vertically  m  v cos 

Questions ;
Final momentum after impact
1. An object of mass 4kg is dropped
from a height of 20 m above the  m  v cos 
ground .Find force of impact at the - Horizontally
 mv cos 
ground .
2. Sand falls at a rate of 200 kg s-1 - vertically  m  v cos 
from a height of 10 m on a Change in momentum horizontally
conveyor belt .Calculate;
 mv cos   mv cos   2mv cos 
(i) Force of impact on the belt .
(ii) Change in kinetic energy . Change in momentum vertically
(iii) Power at the belt .  mv sin   mv sin   0
(iv) Explain why the values in
(ii) and (iii) are the same . Resultant change in momentum
3. A ball of mass 2 kg is dropped  (2mv cos  )2  02  2mv cos 
from a height of 20 m .It strikes the
ground and bounces to a height of Force of impact
12 m .If the collision with the resul tan t changein momentum
ground lasted for 2.0 10 4 s ,find 
timetaken
the force of impact .
Example 2mv cos 
F 
A ball of mass m is kicked with a velocity t
v ms 1 at an angle  to the horizontal
Question
towards a wall . After impact with the
wall ,the ball bounces off at an angle of 2 to 1. A ball of mass 2kg is kicked with a
the incident direction with the same velocity of 20 m s-1 at an angle of 60o
velocity .If the collision lasted for a time t , to the horizontal towards a wall .After
show that force of impact is impact ,the ball bounces off with the
same velocity at an angle 120o to the
2mv cos  initial direction .If the collision lasts
F .
t for 2 105 s ,find the force of impact
with the wall .
Data
2. A ball of mass 1.5 kg is kicked with a
velocity 10 m s-1 at an angle 30o to the
v v sin  horizontal towards a wall .After
impact ,it bounces off at angle 80o to
v cos  the initial direction with a velocity of 8

wall m s-1 .If the collision lasts for

v cos  v 4 104 s ,find the force of impact .
THIRD LAW
 “For every action ,there is an equal
v cos  but opposite reaction .”
ground APPLICATIONS
(a) Passengers in a bus jerk forward
Initial momentum : when a bus stops moving .
- When brakes are applied , passengers
-horizontally  m  v cos  jerk forward since they have been in
motion with the bus and wish to
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continue being in motion due to (c ) Motion of a helicopter .

Newton’s first law .When the bus
stops ,the engine exerts a backward - The blades of a helicopter rotate with
reaction force due to Newton’s third high velocity and strike air molecules
law causing the passengers to jerk downwards with a great force .Due to
forward . Newton’s third law ,an equal but
(b) Motion of a rocket . opposite force is experienced by the
- Fuel and gases are burnt in the helicopter to counter balance its
combustion chamber and the fumes are weight as it hovers in space .
expelled out of the exhaust with very TYPES OF COLLISIONS :
high velocity . 1. Elastic collisions .
- Due to high velocity , there is a big 2. Inelastic collision
action force exerted on the outside air
ELASTIC COLLISION
and an equal but opposite reaction
force is exerted on the rocket causing it This is a type of collision in which the
move forward due to Newton’s third colliding bodies separate after collision
law .Burning of fuel continues and the and move with different velocities in
rocket moves forward due to upward either same or different directions .
thrust on it . During this collision ,both momentum
Propulsion/thrust and kinetic energy are conserved .
Examples include :
force
- Collision between gas molecules
during thermal random motion .
- Collision between the ground and
bouncing ball .
a - Collision between two steel ball
bearings .
INELASTIC COLLISION

Rocket This is a type of collision where the

colliding bodies stick together(coalesce)
of mass
after collision and move with a
m
common velocity in the same
direction .Only momentum but kinetic
energy is not conserved .
Exhaust gases Examples include ;
- Collision when a bullet strikes a
- For upward motion , wooden block and remains embedded
F  mg  ma in it .
F  ma  mg - Collision between two cars which join
bampers and move together .
F  ma  g 
N.B: During inelastic collision , total
Question kinetic energy after collision is always less
4
than total kinetic energy after collision
A rocket of mass 4 10 kg is fired vertically since some of the energy is lost in form of
upwards with acceleration 6 ms-2 .Calculate heat and sound .
the thrust on it at lift .

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PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF - Force exerted by m2 to

LINEAR MOMENTUM
m2  v2  u2 
m1 , F12 
It states that “when two or more bodies t
collide ,their total linear momentum - Using Newton’s third law , the forces
remains constant provided no external are equal but opposite .
forces act on the system .” F21   F12
OR; For a system of colliding objects ,the m1  v1  u1  m2 v2  u2 

total linear momentum before collision is t t
equal to the total linear momentum after m1v1  m1u1  m2v2  m2u2
collision provided no external forces act
m1v1  m2v2  m1u1  m2u2
on them .
 m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2v2
Question :  m1u1  m2u2  cons tan t
Use Newton’s laws to show that total (b) Bodies moving in opposite direction
momentum of colliding bodies is for u1  u2 .
conserved whether when bodies are
moving in the same direction or opposite
directions .
Data
u1 - u2 u2 v2
(a) Same direction m1 m2 u2 u2
- Let m1 , m2 be masses of two bodies
Before collision After collision
initially moving in same direction with
velocities u1 , u2 ,which collide after a
time t and gain new velocities v1 , v2 - Force exerted by m1 to
respectively for u1  u2 . m1  v1  u1 
m2 , F21  .
t
- Force exerted by m2 to

u1 u2 v2 m2  v2  u2 
v1 m1 , F12 
m1 m2 m1 m2 t
- Using Newton’s third law , the forces
Before collision After collision
are equal but opposite .
F21   F12
- During collision ,each body exerts a
m1  v1  u1  m2  v2   u2 
force of impact on the other due to 
m v  u  t t
Newton’s law of force F  . m1v1  m1u1   m2 v2  m2u2
t
- Force exerted by m1 to m1v1  m2 v2  m1u1  m2u2
m1  v1  u1   m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v2
m2 , F21  .
t Thus total momentum before collision is equal
to total momentum after collision .

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EXAMPLES ON PERFECTLY (iii)The difference in kinetic energy is because

INELASTIC COLLISION some of the energy is lost in form of heat and
sound during collision .
1. A struck of mass 4 tonnes moving at
30 m s-1 collides with a stationary Trial questions .
truck of mass 2000kg .If they stick
3
together after collision ,find ; 1. A truck of mass 6 10 kg moving at 7 m s-1
(i) Their common velocity makes a perfectly inelastic collision with a
(ii) The loss in kinetic energy . 3
stationary truck of mass 110 kg .Find the ;
(iii) Explain why there is difference
in kinetic energy . (i) Common velocity after
DATA collision .
(ii) Loss in kinetic energy .
2. A bullet of 0.2 kg is shot with a
velocity of 200 m s-1 towards a block of
u1 u2 wood of mass 1.8 kg at rest .After impact ,the
m1 m2 u2 v
u2 bullet remains embedded in the block and the
block slides through a distance of 80 m
Before collision After collision before coming to rest .Find the coefficient of
friction between the block and the surface .
Data
Let v be common velocity after collision .

bullet block
0.2 kg 1.8  0.2  kg
1.8kg v
m1u1  m2u2  (m1  m2 )v 200ms-1
4000  30  2000  0  (4000  2000) v Before impact After impact
120000
v  20 m s 1
6000

1 1 Using conservation of linear

(ii) K.e before collision  m1u12  m2u2 2 momentum ,
2 2

1 1 m1u1  m2u2  (m1  m2 )v

  4000  302   2000  02  1.8 106 J (0.2  200)  (1.8  0)  (0.2  1.8) v
2 2
40  0  2 v
1
K.e after collision  (m1  m2 )v 2 v  20 m s 1
2

1 After impact ,the system decelerates to

  (4000  2000)  20   1.2 106 J
2
rest through distance of 40 m.
2
Loss in K.e u  20m s 1
, v  0, s  40 m , a  ? 
 6 6
5
 1.8 10  1.2 10  6.0 10 J

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- When a spring is stretched or

R compressed ,energy is developed in it .
u  20ms 1 - Let a spring of force constant K be
V=0
stretched or compressed by x .
f  R
40m
 0.2  1.8 gN F  0N
F
Using v 2  u 2  2as
02  202  2  a  80
x
160a  400
a  2.5 m s 2 - Energy developed  work done
 average force  extension .
Thus the deceleration is 2.5m s-1 0  F   x

On coming to rest 2
1
Friction force  decelerating force  Fx
2
 R  ma
Using Hooke’s law , F  Kx
But R  mg Energy developed
 mg  ma
1
  0.2  1.8   9.81   0.2  1.8  2.5    Kx  x
2
2.5 1
  Kx 2
9.81 2
  0.25
Examples
TRIAL QUESTION 1. An object of mass 0.4 kg is released
An arrow of mass 10 g is shot towards from a height of 2m above a vertical
a soft board block of mass 390 kg fixed spring of force constant
lying at rest on a horizontal rough 100 N m1 .Find the compression
surface of coefficient of friction produced in the spring .
0.02 .After impact ,the arrow remains Data
embedded in the block and the block
slides through a distance of 40 cm 0.4kg A
before coming to rest .
(i) Deceleration of the block along 2m
the rough surface .
(ii) Common velocity of the arrow B
and the block after impact .
(iii) Velocity of the arrow before
striking the block .
ENERGY STORED IN A
STRETCHED SPRING .
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- At point A: fixed horizontally . The object is pulled

P.e  mgh backwards until the spring is
 0.4  9.81 2  7.848 J compressed by 4 cm .When the 1.6 kg
object is released , it is projected by
- Since energy is conserved ,K.e at B is
the spring and makes a perfectly
the initial potential energy at A .
inelastic collision with another object
 K .e  7.848 J
of mass 0.4 kg at rest .The objects
- K.e at B  Energy needed to compress
slide through a distance of 20 cm along
the spring .
a rough surface before coming to
1
K .e  Kx 2 , x is compression in rest .Find ;
2 (i) Energy developed due to
spring . compression in the spring .
1 (ii) Velocity with which the 1.6 kg
7.848   100  x 2
2 object is projected .
7.848 (iii) Common velocity of the two
x2   0.15696 objects after collision .
50
(iv) Coefficient of friction the
x  0.15696  0.4 cm rough surface .
DATA
TRIAL QUESTION : (i) Force constant , k  80 Nm1 ,

Compression , x  4cm  0.04m

0.2kg
1 2
Energy developed  kx
2

1
E   80   0.04   0.064 J
2

2
(ii) Velocity u of projection of 1.6 kg :
In the figure above ,an object of mass 0.2 kg is
placed on top of a spring balance of constant Energy developed in spring  k .e of the 1.6
kg object .
100N m1 .It is then pulled downwards to
compress the spring by 5 cm .When 1 2 1
k x  mu 2
released ,the spring projects the object 2 2
vertically upwards .Find how far from the 1
spring is the object projected . 0.064   80  u 2
2
2. 0.064  2
u  0.28 m s 2
80
1.6kg 1.6kg
(iii) Common velocity v after collision :
0.4kg
 total momentum   total momentum 
  
20 cm  beforecollision   after collision 

In the diagram above , an object of

mass 1.6 kg is placed in contact with a
spring of force constant 80 N m-1
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m1u1  m2u2   m1  m2 v objects stick together and move

through a a distance of 15 cm along a
1.6  0.28  0.4  0  1.6  0.4  v rough surface of coefficient of friction
0.448 0.15 and then come to rest .Find the
v  0.22 m s 1
2 force constant of the spring .
3. A wooden block of mass 3.98kg rests
(iv) For deceleration along rough on rough horizontal surface .The block
surface , is attached to a light spring of force
2 2
Using v  u  2as constant 100Nm-1 whose other end is
 1 20  fixed .A bullet of mass 20g fired into
 u  0.22 m s , v  0 , s  m  0.2m , a  ?  the block embeds itself there and the
 100 
spring is compressed by 4 cm .If
0  0.22  2a  0.2 
2 2
coefficient of kinetic friction between
0.4a  0.0484 the block and the surface is 0.3 ,find
the velocity of the bullet before it is
a  0.12 ms 2
embedded in the block .
Hence the value of deceleration is 0.12 m s-2.
BALLISTIC PENDULUM:
On coming to rest ,
This is a set up used to determine the speed of
Friction force = decelerating force . a bullet .

 R  ma , but R  mg - A bullet of mass m is shot with

 mg  ma unknown velocity u towards a block of
wood of mass M hanging at rest on
a 0.12 two strings of equal length l .
 
g 9.81 - After impact ,the bullet remains
  0.012 embedded in the block and the block
swings through a height h making the
EXERCISE 21: string become inclined at an angle 
to the vertical .
1. An object of mass 0.5 kg is placed in
contact with the free end of a
horizontal fixed spring of force
constant 50N m1 .The object is then String l
pulled backwards so that the spring is
compressed .When released , the object bullet 0ms-1
u M V
moves and makes a perfectly inelastic m
collision with a stationary object of block
(m M)
mass 0.3 kg .The objects slide along a
composite
rough horizontal surface of coefficient
Before collision After collision
of friction 0.04 through a distance of
30 cm before coming to rest .Find the
compression produced in the spring . If v is the common velocity after
2. An object of mass 2.8 kg is placed in collision ,then from conservation of linear
contact with the free end of a momentum ,
horizontal fixed spring .The object is
pushed to compress the spring by 10
cm and then released to collide with a
stationary objects of mass 1.2 kg .The
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mu  M  0   m  M  v But also
mu yhl
v
m  M  hl y
 h  l  l cos 
 h  l 1  cos  
 l
y 2
Using v  2 gh ,substitute for h
l
h v 2  2 gl 1  cos  
v2
 1  cos 
v 2 gl
m  M  v2
cos   1 
2 gl
Using principle of conservation of energy ,  v2  mu
  cos 1 1   ,v 
Kinetic energy of the composite after collision  2 gl  m  M 
 potential energy acquired at height h.
N.B: Angle of swing depends on the following
1 factors .
 m  M  v 2   m  M  gh
2 - velocity of the bullet .
1 2
v  gh
2 - length of the string .
v 2  2 gh - mass of the wooden block .

 mu 
2
TRIAL QUESTION .
   2 gh
mM  A bullet of mass 400g is shot with a velocity
m 2u 2 of 200 m s-1 towards a block of wood of mass
 2 gh 19600 g hanging at rest on a string of length 2
m  M 
2

m .If the bullet remains embedded in the

m 2u 2  2gh m  M 
2
block ,find ;

2 gh  m  M 
2
(i) The common velocity after impact .
u 2 (ii) The height through which the
m
block swings .
u
m  M  2gh (iii) The angle at which the string
m becomes inclined .

 M EXAMPLES ON ELASTIC COLLISION

u   1   2 gh
 m Case 1: Objects moving at an angle to
original direction after collision
Angle of swing 
1. .
y
cos  
l
y  l cos 
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C Total momentum before collision = total

momentum after collision
A B
Horizontally:
m1 u 
m2
 m1u1  m2 (v1 cos  )  m1 (v2 cos  ).....(i)

Vertically:
D
0  m2 (v1 sin  )  m1 (v2 sin  ).......(ii)
In the diagram above , A and B are objects of
Solving equations (i) and (ii)
mass m1 and m2 lying at rest on a horizontal simultaneously ,we can obtain the unknowns
surface .A is then projected with a velocity of in a given problem .
u m s-1 towards B and makes perfectly elastic
collision with it .After collision, B moves Trial questions
along direction BC with velocity v1 while A
1. In the example above ,if A has mass ,
moves along BD with velocity v2 .Use m , B has mass 2m and that A is
principle of conservation of linear momentum projected with a velocity 12 m s-1
to obtain equations that describe their towards B , given that after collision B
behavior . moves along BC in direction   300
and A moves along BD in direction
Data
  60o ,show that the velocities of B
After collision ,we resolve the velocities since and A after collision are 3 3 m s-1
velocity is a vector quantity but mass is not and 6 m s-1 respectively .
resolved because it is a scalar quantity . 2. .

v
m s 1
2
A B
v 60o


x m s 1

Before collision After collision

Horizontally: Horizontally: In the diagram above ,A and B are objects
each of mass 4 units lying at rest on a
m1u1  m2  0 m2 (v1 cos  )  m1 (v2 cos  )
horizontal surface .A is then projected with
Vertically: Vertically: velocity v m s-1 towards B and makes an
None of the m2 (v1 sin  )  m1 (v2 sin  ) elastic collision with it .After collision ,B
objects had a moves in a direction 60o to the initial
vertical velocity v
initially , direction of a velocity m s-1 while A moves
2
m1  0  m2  0
in direction  to its original direction with
0 velocity x .Show that

By conservation of linear momentum , (i)   30o

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(ii) x  0.87v  6  3v1 

2
2

Case 2 :Bodies which collide and 12  3v  2 

1 
 2 
remain moving horizontally .
1. An object of mass 6kg moving at 2 ms- 2 (6  3v1 ) 2
12  3v1 
1
makes a perfectly elastic collision 2
with a stationary object of mass 4 24  6v12   6  3v1 
2

kg .Find:
(i) Velocity of each object after 24  6v12  36  36v1  9v12
collision .
(ii) If E1 is K.E of 6 kg after 15v12  36v1  12 = 0
collision and E2 that of 4 kg
after collision ,find the v1  0.4m s 1 since its velocity reduces after
E collision .
ratio 1 .
E2
DATA 6  3  0.4
v2   2.4 m s 1
(i) 2
Thus the velocity 6kg and 4 kg masses after
2ms -1
v1 v2 collision are 0.4 m s-1 and 2.4 m s-1
0ms-1
respectively .
6kg 4kg 6kg 4kg
(ii) Kinetic energy of 6 kg after
collision
Before collision After collision
1
E1   6  v12
2
By conservation of momentum , 1 12
E1   6   0.4  
2
J
2 25
 6  2    4  0    6  v1    4  v2 
Kinetic energy of 4 kg mass after collision ,
12  6v1  4v2 .......................(i )
1
By conservation of kinetic energy , E2   4  v22
2
1 1 1 1 1 288
E2   4   2.4  
2
 6  2 2   4  0 2   6  v12   4  v22 J
2 2 2 2 2 25
2 2
12  3v1  2v2 .....................(ii) E1 12 288
 
E2 25 25
From eqn(i) ,making v2 the subject , Ratio
12 25 1
  
6  3v1 25 288 24
v2 
2
2. A body of mass m1 moving with
Substituting in eqn (ii) velocity u1 collides with another body
of mass m2 moving with velocity u2 in
the same direction .If their respective
velocities after collision are v1 and
v2 ,show that v2  v1    u2  u1  .
Data
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2. An object of mass m1 moving with a

velocity u makes a perfectly elastic
collision with a stationary object of
u1 u2 v1 v2 mass m2 .Their velocities after
collision are v1 and v2
m1 m2 m1 m2
m2
respectively .Given that  ,
Before collision After collision m1
v1 1
(i) Show that  1    .
v2 2
By conservation of momentum , (ii) Show that the ratio of kinetic energy
m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v2 of m2 after collision to total energy (kinetic
4
m1u1  m1v1  m2 v2  m2u2 energy before collision) is .
1   
2

m1  u1  v1   m2  v2  u2  .......(i )
3. A car of mass m1 is moving with a
By conservation of kinetic energy , velocity u1 behind another car of mass
m2 moving with velocity u2 in the
1 1 1 1
m1u12  m2u2 2  m1v12  m2v2 2 same direction .If the car of mass m1
2 2 2 2 collides with the one in front perfectly
elastically and they continue moving in
m1u12  m1v12  m2 v2 2  m2u2 2
the same direction as before ,show that
m1  u12  v12   m1  v2 2  u2 2  .............(ii) (i) Velocity of m1 after collision is
 m  m2  u1  2m2u2
v1  1
Eqn(ii) divide by .
m1  m2
eqn(i)
(ii) Velocity of m2after collision is
m1  u1  v1 u1  v1  m2 v2  u2 v2  u2 
  m  m1  u2  2m1u1
v2  2
m1  u1  v1  m2 v2  u2  .
m1  m2
 u1  v1    v2  u2  4.
u1  u2  v2  v1
u1  u2   (v1  v2 )
A B C
EXERCISE 22 m1 u m2 m3
1. An object of mass 2m moving with a
velocity u makes perfectly elastic
collision with a stationary object of
In the diagram above ,A,B and C are objects
mass m . If v1 , v2 are their respective
of masses m1 ,m2 and m3 respectively lying at
velocities after collision . rest in a straight line on a smooth horizontal
v flat surface .A is then projected with a velocity
(i) Show that 2  4 .
v1 u and makes perfectly elastic collision with
(ii) If E1 is kinetic energy of 2m B .B moves and makes perfectly inelastic
after collision and E2 that of m, collision with C .show that B and C move
E with a common velocity
show that 2  8 . 2m1m2u
E1 v
 m1  m2  m2  m3 
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ENERGY DUE TO EXPLOSIVES - Also if E2 is the kinetic energy of the

gun ,
- Let a gun (rifle) of mass mr be used to 1
E2  Mv 2
shoot bullet of mass mb with a velocity ub as 2
shown . 1 M
 Mv 2 
v 2 M
M 2 2
m M v
u 
rifle 2M
bullet
 Mv 
2

 , Mv  p
2M
- Before shooting is done ,both the bullet in p2
E2  ..............(ii )
the chamber and the rifle are at rest .Thus the 2M
initial momentum is zero . - Dividing (i) by (ii) gives
E1 p2 p2
- When the bullet moves out of the gun ,it  
exerts a backward force on the gun due to E2 2m 2M
Newton’s third law ,making the gun recoil p 2 2M
backwards with a recoil velocity v .  
2m p 2
- Total momentum after the shooting is done E1 M
 ..........(iii)
is m  u  M  v E2 m
= mu  Mv - The above expression shows that
kinetic energy is inversely
- By conservation of linear momentum , proportional to mass ,that is , it is
0  mu  Mv high for bodies of small mass and
Mv  mu low for bodies of big mass .
- If E is the total energy produced
mu during the explosion (shooting) ,then ,
v
M E1  E2  E.........(iv)
- From Mv  mu ,the momentum of the
ME2
gun is the same as the momentum of - From eqn(iii) , E1 
the bullet . m
Let Mv  mu  p Substituting into eqn(iv) gives
- If E1 is the kinetic energy of the ME2
 E2  E
bullet ,then m
1 ME2  mE2  mE
E1  mu 2
2  M  m  E2  mE
1 m mE
E1  mu 2  E2  , is K .e of the gun
2 m M m
m 2u 2  mu 
2
M
E1   Since E1  E2
2m 2m m
But mu  p ,so M m
E1   E
p2 m ( M  m)
E1  ............(i)
2m M
 E1  E ,is K .e of bullet .
( M  m)

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QUESTION;
E pulley
If 1   , show that M   m .
E2
Data cable
T
From eqn (iii)
E1 M
 . a
E2 m
Mass , m
M
 
m
M  m mg(weight)
EXERCISE 23:
1. A gun of mass 250 g is used to
shoot a bullet of mass 50 g .If total For upward acceleration ,
energy developed during the
explosion is 2400 J , Find the T  mg  ma
energy of the bullet and the gun .
2. An alpha particle of mass 210 units T  ma  mg
splits to form a nucleus of mass 4 T  ma  g 
units and a residue nucleus of
mass 206 units.If E is the total The tension depends on the sum of the two
energy expended during accelerations .
splitting ,find the energy of the
nucleus and of the residue nucleus . (b)Descending (downward motion)
3. A radioactive isotope disintegrates
by emitting an alpha particle of
mass m and turns into a new pulley
nucleus of mass M .If the
radioactive nucleus and other cable
T
particles move in opposite
directions during the reaction and
a
that total energy Q is
Mass , m
generated ,show that energy of the
M
alpha particle is Q
( M  m )
mg(weight)
APPLICATION OF
NEWTON’S EQUATION OF
FORCE  F  ma  . For downward acceleration ,
1. Explain the changes in mg  T  ma
tension in the cable( string)
T  mg  ma
when a lift is ascending and
when it is descending . T  m g  a
(a) Ascending(upward
motion) The tension depends on the difference of two
accelerations .

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The results show that tension in the cable is Data

maximum when the lift is ascending and
minimum when the cable is descending . N.B; You consider each mass at a time and
apply F  ma
NOTE: During downward motion ,if the lift
falling freely under gravity ,then its For m1 kg mass
acceleration is a  g .so the tension
: T  m1 g  m1a ..........(i )
T  m( g  g )
For m2 kg mass
T  m0
T  0N : m2 g  T  m2 a ...........(ii)

The tension in the cable is zero as well as the Eqn(i) +eqn(ii)

reaction on the person inside the lift .The
person experiences a sensation of m2 g  m1 g  m2 a  m1a
weightlessness .  m2  m1  g   m2  m1  a
Question : (m2  m1 ) g
a
m2  m1
An object of mass 20kg is placed in a lift
moving with acceleration 2 m s-2 .Find the
Using equation (i)
change in tension when the lift is ascending
and when it is descending . T  m1a  m1 g
CONNECTED PARTICLES:  g  m2  m1  
T  m1    m1 g
CASE 1:  m2  m1 
m m g  m12 g  m1m2 g  m12 g
Consider bodies of masses m1 and m2 T 1 2
m2  m1
hanging on a string passing over a smooth
fixed pulley . 2m1m2 g
T
m2  m1

Note :Force on the pulley F  T  T  2T

TRIAL QUESTION :

a m1

m1 g m2 a

m2 g

If m2  m1 ,find the acceleration and tension

when released .

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Data
For motion of m1

:T  m1a .........(i)

For motion of m2
6kg : m2 g  T  m2 a .............(ii )

Eqn(i) +eqn(ii)
4kg 8cm
m2 g  m1a  m2 a
m2 g
a , required acceleration
ground  m1  m2 
4 kg and 6 kg masses are suspended on a Tension;
string passing over a smooth fixed pulley .The
T  m1a
6 kg mass is 8 cm above the ground .if the
system is released ,find ;  m2 g 
 m1  
(i) Acceleration  m1  m2 
(ii) Tension in the string . mm g
T  1 2 , the tension
(iii) Force on the pulley . m1  m 2
(iv) Time taken by the 6 kg to hit the
ground . Force F on pulley ,
(v) Velocity on hitting the ground .
CASE 2:
T

R F
a
T
T
m1 
T F2  T 2 T 2
x
a F  T 2 T 2
m1 g m2
F  2T 2

m2 g F  2 T

I Time taken by m1 to reach the pulley

through distance x
Bodies of mass m1and m2 are connected by a
string passing over pulley fixed at the edge of Using second equation of motion ,
the table .m1 is on a smooth flat table and
mass m2 hangs freely .If m2>m1 ,the system
moves with acceleration a when released as
shown .
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1 (v) Velocity of the 2kg mass on

s  ut  at 2 reaching the pulley .
2
1 2. Calculate the acceleration and tension
x  0  t  at 2 in the string if the system below is
2 released .
2
2 x  at
m2 g
2x  t2
( m1  m2 ) 2kg 30o

2 x ( m1  m2 ) Smooth
t
m2 g table 8kg
g
Velocity of m1 on reaching the pulley
Using first equation of motion , CASE 3.
v  u  at R
a
v  0  at
v  at T1
T2
m3
 m2 g   2 x  m1  m2  
v  
smooth T2
 m1  m2   m2 g 
 T1
a surface a
m1 m3 g m2
Simplifying the above expression gives

2xm2 g m1 g
v m2 g
m1  m2
- If m2  (m1  m3 ) , the system moves
Trial questions: with same acceleration as shown .
- Tensions are different since they are
1.
two different strings .
For m1 kg mass
2kg T1  m1 g  m1a .........(i)
For m3 kg mass
5 cm T2  T1  m3a ........(ii)
For m2 kg mass
6kg
m2 g  T2  m2 a ..........(iii)
- From the above equations ,acceleration
and tension are obtained .
Trial questions .
If the system in the diagram above is 1. Find acceleration and tensions in the
released ,find ; strings if the systems below are
(i) Acceleration released given that the table is smooth
(ii) Tension in the string
(iii) Force on the pulley
(iv) Time taken by the 2kg mass to
reach the pulley .
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Horizontal flat surface

2kg R
smooth
4kg table
10kg

mg (weight)

60o 2kg 30o

smooth
4kg table 10kg
- If a plane is inclined at an angle say
a in b to the horizontal ,then if  is
a
the angle ,we write sin   .
b
CASE 4 :INCLINED PLANES .
Example s
Key points ;
Scenario 1
- Acceleration due to gravity ,g acts
vertically downwards Write down the possible equations for mass
always .Therefore weight (mg)of a m1and m2 in the figure below.
body acts vertically downwards .
- On inclined plane ,the
weight( mg )has a component
perpendicular to plane and along the
plane .
- The normal reaction ,R is always at
perpendicular to the surface on which
the body rests and is equal to the
weight (mg) .

- If m2>m1 ,then motion is as indicated ,

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- The plane is smooth ,and applying below .

Newton’s second law F  ma .
For m1 kg mass;
Along the plane
: T  m1 g sin   m1a ............(i)
Perpendicular to plane(no motion, so
forces balance)
: R  mg cos  …………(ii)
For m2 kg mass
: m2 g  T  m2 a .........(iii)
- The three equations are then solved
simultaneously to determine any
unknowns in a given problem .
TRIAL QUESTIONS Using F  ma ,

Find the acceleration ,tension in the string For m1 kg mass ,

and normal reaction in each of the systems
below is released . :T  m2 a ..........(i )
:R  m2 g .........(ii )
(a) Plane inclined at angle 30o .
For m2 kg mass ,
Along plane ,

: m1 g sin   T  m1a .........(iii )

Perpendicular to plane ,no motion.

: R  m1 g cos  ........(iv)

The four equations are then solved

simultaneously to obtain the unknowns .
(b) Plane inclined at an angle 1 in 20 .
TRIAL QUESTION:
Find acceleration ,reactions and tension in the
string if the system below is released and
surfaces are smooth .
(a)

Scenario 2.
Write down the equations of motion in the
system

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(b) .

Limiting friction is the maximum friction

(c) . between two surfaces.
Definitions :
Static friction is a type of friction which
prevents relative motion between two surfaces
in contact and at rest .
Kinetic/sliding/dynamic friction is a type of
friction which opposes relative sliding motion
between two surfaces in contact and in
motion .
Limiting friction is the maximum frictional
force which opposes relative motion between
two surfaces in contact and just about to
move .
Laws of solid friction
LAW 1
TOPIC 10 :SOLID FRICTION “Frictional force acts parallel to the two
surfaces in contact and in a direction so as to
Friction is a force that opposes relative sliding oppose their relative motion or attempted
motion between two surfaces in contact . motion.”
Types of friction include ; LAW 2
- Static friction “The frictional force is independent of the
- Kinetic friction / sliding friction/dynamic area of contact of the given surfaces provided
friction . the normal reaction is constant but depends on
- Limiting friction the nature of the surfaces in contact .”
Note :
LAW 3:This is divided into two ;
Static friction opposes the tendency of one
body sliding over the other. (i) “For given pair of surfaces in
contact and at rest, the limiting
Kinetic friction opposes the sliding of one frictional force is directly
body over the other. proportional to the normal
reaction”. That is ,
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f R When the area of contact between the

f  s R two surface is reduced ,the number of contact
points remains approximately the same .This
Where  s is the coefficient of static/limiting shows that friction is independent of the area
of contact and this explains law 2 .
friction whose value lies between 0 and 1.
Increasing the weight of the body results
R is the normal reaction .
into increase in the normal reaction since they
(ii) “For two surfaces in contact and are equal and opposite .This increases pressure
in motion, the sliding frictional at welded joints .This implies a greater
force is proportional to the normal limiting frictional force .This explains law 3 .
reaction and independent of the
Coefficient of static friction,  s
relative velocity of these surfaces .”
That is ,
Consider a block resting on a horizontal
f R surface
f  k R
R
Where  k is the coefficient of kinetic/sliding
friction . T
f
Molecular Theory explanation of the laws of
solid friction. W

The block is in equilibrium under the action of

its weight W and normal reaction R.

surface 1 Suppose a string is fixed to the block and the

tension (T) in the string increased gradually,
the static frictional force f s ; which posses the
Surface 2 tendency of the block to ride over the surface
comes in play. In equilibrium ,static friction
f s  T and
Consider two surfaces 1 and 2 in contact as
fs  s R
shown above .
When 2 surfaces are put together, the The value f l of f s at which the block starts
actual area of contact is very small ,so the moving is called the limiting frictional force,
pressure exerted at the points of contact is
very high .The molecules at contact points are 0  f s  fl
therefore pushed into close proximity and
thus welded joints are created .This increases The ratio of the limiting frictional force to the
the degree of interlocking of these irregular normal reaction is called the coefficient
projections on the surfaces .These projections
have to be broken before motion can take of static friction  s .
place ,hence an opposing force is
developed .This explains law 1 . fl
s 
R

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Measurement of coefficient of static friction,

s .
R
Smooth pulley
Method 1: Using an inclined plane. block


a
f
Scale pan+
mg masses
Mg

A wooden block of known mass ,m is

connected to the scale pan by a string passing
A block is placed on a plane and the plane is
over a smooth pulley as shown above .
tilted until when the block just begins to slide.
The angle of θ of inclination of the plane Masses are added to the scale pan until the
surface to the horizontal is measured. block just slides. The total mass M of the scale
pan and masses added is noted.
The co-efficient of friction is given by
s  tan  The coefficient of static friction is
M
Theory calculated from s  .
m
When the block is at the point of sliding
THEORY:
f  W sin  ................(i)
At equilibrium, Normal reaction = weight of
R  W cos  …………..(ii) the block

eqn(i)  eqn (ii) R  mg .............(i)

f W sin  At the point of attempting to slide ,


R W cos  Friction force = weight of scale pan plus
  s  tan  masses added

Method 2: Using a solid block on table, scale f  Mg ..........(ii)

pan and masses
Dividing eqn(i) by eqn(ii) gives
Set up
f Mg

R mg
M mass of scale pan and masses
 s  
m mass of the block

ALTERNATIVELY:

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The procedure is repeated for different values

R
of R(use different masses of blocks) and
masses are added to scale pan until the block Smooth pulley
block
jut slides .

The values of weight of the scale pan and a
f
masses record as f (since friction= weight of
scale pan and masses). Scale pan+
mg masses
A suitable table is tabulated ,
Mg
f N RN 

Known masses are added to a scale pan and

each time, block is given a slight push.
At some point, the block continues to move
with a constant velocity when given a slight
A graph of f against R is plotted. push .
The mass of the scale pan plus the added mass
is obtained and recorded as M .
f N
The coefficient of kinetic friction is got by
f M
k  .
m
R
RN  Examples
1. A car of mass 200kg moving along a
straight road at a speed of 96km/h is
The slope ,S of the graph is calculated as brought to rest by steady application of
the brakes in a distance of 80m. find
f the coefficient of kinetic friction
s  s between the tyres and the road.
R
Data
Hence the coefficient  s of static friction can
be found . 96  1000m
m  200kg , u   26.7 m / s ,
3600 s
Co-efficient of kinetic (dynamic) friction.
v  0, s  80m , friction , f   R
Set up

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m  1500kg , u  20 m s 1 , v  0 , s  ?
a Tractive pull , F  3500 N
R
u  26.7ms 1
v0

f
s  80m
mg

NB ; In the direction of MOTION ,there is no

force since the car is decelerating to rest .

Resultant force  0  f  ma
Using Resultant force  ma
  R  ma
Along the plane ,
but R  mg
: F   mg sin 30 o  f   ma
  mg  ma
a F   mg sin 30 o  R   ma
 ................(i )
g
Perpendicular to plane ,
2 2
Using v  u  2as
: R  mg cos 30 0
02  26.7 2  2  a  80
f   mg cos 30o
a  4.5 m s 2
f  0.25  1500  9.81cos 30o
Substituting into equation (i) gives f  324.8 N
  4.5
  0.45  F  mg sin 30 o  f  ma
9.81
3500  1500 9.81 sin 30 0  324.8  1500 a
2. A car of mass 1.5 x 103kg and tractive pull a  4.69ms 2
3.5x103N climbs a truck which is inclined at
an angle of 300 to the horizontal. The speed of Using
the car at the bottom of the incline is 20ms-1
and the coefficient of sliding friction is 0.25, v 2  u 2  2as
calculate 0 2  20 2  2 4.69  s
(i) The distance travelled along the 9.38 s  400
incline before the car comes to a halt. s  42.6 m
(ii) The time taken travelling along v  u  at
the incline before the car comes to a halt.
0  20  ( 4.69) t
Data t  4.26 s

TRIAL QUESTION
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An old car of mass 1500kg and tractive pull Work is a scalar quantity.
4000N climbs a tract which is inclined at an
angle of 300 to the horizontal. The velocity of S.I unit joule ( J ) .
the car at the bottom of the incline is 108kmh-1
ENERGY
and the coefficient of sliding friction is 0.35.
Energy is the ability to do work .
(i) Calculate the distance travelled
along the incline before the car S.I units of energy is joule(J)
comes to a halt.
( Ans : 86.53m) MECHANICAL ENERGY
(ii) The time taken to travel along the
incline before the car comes to a There are two forms of mechanical
halt.( Ans; 5.77s) energy ,namely ;
(i) Kinetic energy
TOPIC 11 :WORK, POWER AND (ii) Potential energy
ENERGY
The sum of potential energy and kinetic
Work : This is the product of force on a body energy is equal to the mechanical energy of
and distance covered in the the system .
direction of the force .
work done  force  distance KINETIC ENERGY ; This is the energy
possessed by a body due to its motion .
S.I unit of work is joule  J  Kinetic energy of a body of mass ,m moving
1 2
NOTE; Work is said to be done only if a body with velocity ,v is given by K .E  mv
2
moves from one point to another by a force .
Work – energy theorem
Consider a body resting on a smooth surface.
Method 1 Consider a body resting on a
smooth surface.
F

a
s u v

F
If a force F moves the object through a
distance s , then work done W=F× S
x
F
Fsin 

Fcos  Consider a force F which acting on a body
OF mass , m giving it an acceleration a , by
s Newton’s second law F = ma

If the force pulls the block at angle  to the dv

But a 
horizontal through a horizontal distance dt
Work done, W=FS cosθ dv
F m …………..(i)
dt
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The small work done W in displacing mass

m, through a small distance x , under action m F m
of a force F.
W  F .x ………….(ii) s
Total work done ,
If a force F moves the object through a
x2 distance s , then work done
W   F .dx
x1 W  F  s …………..(i)
x2 mdv dx
W  .dx , v But from Newton’s second law , F  ma
x1 dt dt
v2  W  mas
W   mvdv
v1
Using third equation of motion ,
where v1 and v2 are the velocities of the
v 2  u 2  2as
body when at displacement x1 and x2
respectively. v2  u 2
as 
2s
v2
 mv 2 
W    v2  u 2 
 2  v1 W  m 
 2 
mv2 2 mv12
W  1 1
2 2 W  mv 2  mu 2
2 2
1 1
W  mv2 2  mv12
2 2 Again work done by resultant force = change
in kinetic energy.
The above is the expression for the work –
energy theorem Example

It states that, “the work done by the resultant A car of 4 tonnes travelling at 108 km/h is
force on a body is equal to the change in the brought to rest in a distance of 90 m by action
kinetic energy of the body.” of brakes and frictional forces .Calculate

Given that , (i) the average stopping force

(ii) time taken to stop the car .
v1  u , v2  v
data
1 2 1
Fs  mv  mu 2
2 2

Method 2:
Consider a mass in initially moving of a speed
u which is subjected to a constant accelerating
force F. suppose the speed is increased v in a
distance S.
Consider a body resting on a smooth surface.

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POTENTIAL ENERGY :This is the energy

a possessed by a body by virtue of its position in
u  108km / h v0
the field of force or its state .There are two
0N types of potential energy , namely ,

f Gravitational potential energy; This is

s  90m energy possessed by a body due to is position
in the gravitational force field .
Consider a body at a height , h above the
108 1000m ground .
u  30 m / s
3600s
(Work done by resultant force in direction of
motion) = (change in kinetic energy )

1 2 1 h
0  f  S  mv  mu 2 mg
2 2
1
 f  90  m v 2  u 2 
2
1
90 f   4000  0 2  30 2  Gravitational potential energy , P.E  mgh
2
2000  900 Elastic potential energy ; This is the energy
f   20000N stored in a stretched or compressed spring .
90
If you stretch a spring ,energy is used .When
Thus the frictional force is 20000N
you release it , it gives up that energy as it
From v 2  u 2  2as attains its original length and position .

0 2  30 2  2 a 90 
Spring
a   5 m s 1
F
From v  u  at

0  30  5t If e is the extension ,then

t  6s 1 2
elastic potential energy  Ke
2
The time taken to stop the car is 6 s .
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF
TRIAL QUESTION
ENERGY .
A cycle of mass 200 kg travelling at 144km/h
It states that “energy can neither be created
on a horizontal road is brought to rest in a
nor destroyed but can be transformed from
distance of 80 m by action of brakes ,and
one form to another .”
friction forces .Find the ;
Case 1: Consider a body thrown upwards ,
(i) Average stopping force .
(Ans : 2000N)
(ii)Time taken to stop the cycle .
(Ans : 4s)
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P.Emax

u
m K .Emax

The initial K.E is maximum and it ascends

upwards ,the K.E gradually reduces as .Calculate
potential energy increases .So at maximum
Acceleration of the block .
height ,The potential energy is maximum and
K.E is temporarily zero since the particle is at Gain in kinetic energy 5 s after moving from
rest . rest .
 K .Elost  P.E gained Data
1
mu 2  mgh Perpendicular to plane ,
2
: 24.5  mg cos 60o
Case 2:Consider a body released to fall ,
24.5
m
9.81 cos 60o
P.E m  5kg
u0
Along the plane ,
h
: resul tan t force  ma
K.E v 90   40  mg sin 60 o   ma
90   40  5  9.81sin 60 o   5 a
P.Elost  K .Egained
a  1.5 m s 1
1
mgh  mv 2
2 Using first equation of motion ,
Worked examples u  0 , a  1.5 ms 2 , t  5s
1. In the figure below ,three forces v  0  1.5  5
90N ,40N and 24.5N act on a block v  7.5 m s 1
placed on a smooth plane inclined at
angle of 60o to the horizontal . Gain in K.E  final K.E  Initial K.E
1 2 1
 mv  mu 2
2 2
1 1
  5  7.52   5  02
2 2
 140.6 J
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2. A body of mass 0.2kg is released from friction between the block and inclined
rest at the top of a smooth plane plane is 0.25.With what speed will the
inclined at 30o to the horizontal .The block reach the bottom of the incline?
block compresses a spring placed at
the bottom of the plane by 10 cm If the block is projected up the incline with a
before its momentarily brought to speed of 20m ,how far up the incline will the
rest .If the force constant of the spring block travel ?
is 20Nm-1,determine the distance the
Data
block has travelled down the incline
before it comes to rest and its speed
just before it reaches the spring .
Data

m  12kg , u  0 ,   0.25,
d  0.9 m, h  0.45 m , v  ?
m  0.2kg , u  0 , e  10cm  0.1m,
k  20 Nm 1 Friction ,
By conservation of energy , f  R

Gravitational P.E  Elastic P.E f   mg cos 30 o

f  0.25  12  9.81cos 30 o
1 2
mgh  ke f  25.487 N
2
1 By conservation of energy ,
0.2  9.81 0.5 x   20  0.12
2
x  0.1 m P.E at the top of plane  kinetic energy
+work done to overcome friction
K .E  P.E
1
mgh  mv 2  f  d
1 2
 0.2v 2  0.1
2 1
12  9.81 0.45  12  v 2  25.487  0.9
v  1m s 1 2
2
52.974  6 v  25.487  0.9
3. A 12kg block is released from rest
from a rough inclined plane at 30o to 30.0357
v  2.237 m s 1
the horizontal from a point 0.9m from 6
the base .The coefficient of kinetic
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Thus velocity at the bottom of the incline is

2.237 m s -1.
Principle of conservation of mechanical
Case 2: Motion up incline energy.
It states that “in any mechanical system ,the
total energy remains constant provided there
are no dissipative forces .”
Key points:
Sum of potential energy and kinetic energy is
equal to mechanical energy ,that is
M .E  P.E  K .E .

Dissipative forces are forces where work done

against such a force can not be
recovered .Examples include ; air
resistance ,friction ,viscous drag etc .
Question
m  12kg , u  20 m s 1 , f  25.487 N , v  0 Show that the following obey the principle of
conservation of mechanic energy.
K.E lost = P.E gained +work done against
A stone projected upwards
friction
Data
1
mu 2  mgh  f  d
2
1 v
 12  202  12  9.81  d sin 300   25.487 d
2
B
d  28.45 m

TRIAL QUESTION . u
y a  g
A bullet of mass 10g is fired at short range A
into a block of wood of mass 990g resting on
smooth horizontal surface and attached to a h
spring of force constant 100 Nm -1.The bullet
remains embedded in the block while the
spring is compressed by a distance of 5.0
cm .Find
At point A ,
(a) (i) Elastic potential energy of
compressed spring . M .E A  K .E A  P.E A
(ii) Speed of the bullet before 1
 mu 2  mgh
collision with the block . 2
(b) If the surface is rough ,calculate the At point B ,
friction force on the system if the
coefficient of friction is 0.25 .
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v 2  u 2  2as , s  y  h , a   g At B ;
Using
v 2  u 2  2 g ( y  h) v 2  u 2  2as
1 Using v 2  02  2 g  y  h 
Multiply through by m
2 v 2  2 gy  2 gh

1 2 1 1 1
mv  mu 2  m  2 g  y  h   Multiplying by m gives
2 2 2 2
1
 mu 2  mgy  mgh 1 2
2 mv  mgy  mgh
2
 M .EB  K .EB  P.EB
 M .EB  K .EB  P.EB
1
 mv 2  mgy 1 2
2  mv  mgh
1 2
 ( mu 2  mgy  mgh)  mgy  (mgy  mgh)  mgh
2
1  M .E A  mgy
 mu 2  mgh
2
Thus M .E A  M .EB
Thus M .E A  M .EB
CONSERVATIVE FORCES.
A falling stone.
These are forces for which the work done in
moving a body round a closed path is
A zero .For a conservative force, the work done
u0
is independent on the path taken.
Examples of conservative forces ;
B Gravitational force, Elastic force,
y a  g
Electrostatic force.
h v For a conservation force, the work done in
moving the body round a close path in the
field of force is zero.

Since the body is released , u  0 In a conservative force field, mechanical

energy is conserved
At A :
NON- CONSERVATIVE FORCES:
M .E A  P.E A  K .E A
For a non-conservative force, the work done
1 to move a body round a closed path is not zero
 mgy  mu 2
2 and is dependent on the path taken. Example
1 of non-conservative forces: Friction, Air
 mgy  m  0 
2

2 resistance,Viscosity drag.
M .E A  mgy ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

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Consider a mass m resting on a smooth which is partly smooth and partly

horizontal surface and attached to a spring rough as shown.
whose other end is fixed.
smooth
rough
m

x1  0 3kg
v
m Fext
e When the block is released, it slides without
x2  x
friction until it leaves the spring and then
continues to move along the rough portion for
8.0m before it comes to rest. The coefficient
Suppose an external force Fext is applied to the of sliding friction between the block and the
mass, so that the spring becomes stretched by rough surface is 0.20. Calculate the:
a distance e . An equal and opposite force,
Felastic i.e elastic force appears in the spring. (i) maximum kinetic energy the block.
(ii) Compression of the spring before
Felastic  kx (Hooke’s law) the block was released.
Data
Applied force is directly proportional to (i) Along the rough surface ,
extension provided the elastic limit is not
  0.20 , s  8.0m , v  ?
exceeded.

When a spring is stretched from x1  0 Kinetic energy = work done against frictional
force
to x2  x ,
1 2
e mv  f  s
Work done ,W   F dx 2
0
but f   R , R  mg
e
1
W   kxdx  mv 2   mg  s
0
2
 kx 2 
e v  2 gs
w 
 2 0 v  2  0.20  9.81 8
1 v  5.6 m s 1
W  ke 2
2
1 2
K .E  mv
This work done is called elastic potential 2
1 2 1
energy , V  x   ke   3   5.6   47.04 J
2

2 2
EXAMPLES 1 2
(ii) Elastic energy ,E  ke
1. A 3.0kg block is held in contact with a 2
compressed spring of a force constant
120Nm -1.The block rests on the
smooth portion of a horizontal surface
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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

1 1. A mass of 500g is released from rest so that

47.07  120  e2 if falls vertically through a distance of 20cm
2
onto a scale pan, of negligible mass, hung
2  47.07 from a spring of force constant 100Nm-1. Find
e
120 the position of the scale pan when it first
e  0.89m comes to rest. ( Ans :0.14m)
Thus the compression in the spring
was 0.89 m . POWER
2. A bullet of mass 10g is fired at short
It is the rate of doing work.
range into a block of wood of mass
990g resting on a smooth horizontal work done
surface and attached to a spring of Power 
time
force constant 100Nm-1. The bullet
remains embedded in the block while F S
the spring is compressed by a distance P
t
of 5.0cm. Find the elastic energy of
the compressed spring, and the speed S s
P  F   , but  v
of the bullet just before collision with t t
the block. P  F v
Data
The S.I unit of power is watt (W) .
1 2
Elastic energy = ke
2 1J s 1  1W

1
 100   0.05  0.125 J
2

2 Definition:
Kinetic energy = elastic energy A watt is the power generated when work of
1
1J is done for 1s .
 m  M  v 2  0.125
2 Example s;
1
 0.01  0.99  v 2  0.125 1. A truck of mass 500 tonnes has
2
maximum speed of 90 km/h while
0.125  2  1 
v  0.5 m s 1 moving up an incline of sin 1  
1  50 
Using conservation of momentum against frictional resistance of
10000N. Find the maximum power of
m1u1  m2u2  m1  m2 v the engine .
(0.01  u)  0.99  0   0.01  0.99 0.5 
0.5
u  50 m s 1
0.01

Thus the speed of bullet before collision is 50

m s-1 .
Exercise 24

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 1  1 v  u  at
  sin 1    sin  
 50  50 From 5  0  10  a
a  0.5 m s 2
f  100000 N , m  500000 kg
90 1000 m Using Newton’s second law ,
v max   25 m s 1
3600 s
resultant force  ma
Using Newton’s second law along the plane
 F  f   750  0.5
:  resul tan t force   ma F  5 g  750  0.5
F   f  mg sin    ma F  750  0.5  5  9.81
F  424.05 N
For constant speed ,then acceleration is
zero ,  a  0  . P  F v
P  424.05  5
F   f  mg sin    m  0
P  2120.25 N
F   f  mg sin  
1
F  100000  500000  9.81
50
F  198100 N

Pmax  F  vmax
EXERCISE 25
 198100  25
 4952500W
1. A particle of mass 1000kg moves
with uniform velocity of 10ms-1 up a straight
2. A car of mass 750 kg resting on a level truck inclined at an angle of 20° to the
road is uniformly accelerated for 10 horizontal. The total frictional resistance to
seconds until the speed is 18 km/h .If motion of the car is 248N. Calculate the power
the resistance to motion is 5g developed in the engine.
N ,Calculate the power of the car 10 3. A rough surface inclined at an angle 
seconds after starting motion . to the horizontal . A body of mass m is
Data pulled at a uniform speed a distance x
a up the surface by a force acting along a
R line of greatest slope .The coefficient
of friction between the body and the
u0 v  18km / h
F plane is mgx  sin    cos   ,where g
is the acceleration due to gravity .
t  10 s 4. A car of mass 800 kg ,working at a
f
constant rate of 15000 W ascends a hill
750g N of angle of incline 1 in 98 against a
constant resistance to motion of 420
18 1000m N .Find ;
v  5 ms 1 (i) The acceleration of the car up
3600s
the hill when travelling at
speed of 10 m s-1 .

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COMPLETE ADVANCED LEVEL -PHYSICS PAPER ONE (MECHANICS ,HEAT ,MODERN PHYSICS)

(ii) Maximum speed of the car up

the hill .
(Ans: 1.25 m s-2 ,30 ms-1)

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TOPIC 12 : STATICS
rotation
This is a science that deals with the study of
forces acting on a rigid body . Force
acceleration
A rigid body is a body with fixed joints .
Examples of rigid bodies: F
body
- A beam
- Ladder
- Jointed rods CENTRE OF GRAVITY

There are two types of forces acting on bodies . Centre of gravity is a point where the total
weight of a body is concentrated .
(i) Concurrent forces
(ii) Coplanar forces
Definition:
Concurrent forces are forces acting on a body
in different directions .

F1
F2

F3

Coplanar forces are forces that act in the same

plane .

F3

F2

F1

CENTRE OF MASS
Centre of mass is a point in a body where an
applied force produces acceleration but not
rotation .

1
NOTE:
d1 d4
For a uniform body ,the centre of mass and
centre of gravity coincide (act at the same point). d2
d3
A uniform body is a body whose centre of F1 F2 F3 F4
gravity and geometric centre coincide . c.w
Ac.w
MOMENT OF
FORCE Sum of clockwise(c.w) moments = sum of
Line of anticlockwise (ac.w) moments
action of ( F1  d1 )  ( F2  d 2 )  ( F3  d 3 )  ( F4  d 4 )
d force
Experiment to verify principle of moments.
F An object of mass m1 is suspended on the metre
rule at a distance d 2 from the knife edge .
Moment of force is the product of force and
perpendicular distance of its line of action from a Another object of mass m2 is suspended on the
turning point .
metre rule on the opposite side of the knife edge
and is adjusted to a distance d 2 to obtain
balance as shown .
 moment of   perpendicular 
    force    
 force   dis tance  d1 d2
 Fd
S .I unit : N m 1

Dimensions: m1 m2

 moment of force   F    d 
 MLT 2  L anticlockwise moment = m1  d1
2 2
 ML T
Clockwise moment =  m2  d 2 
Moment of force applies when;
It is observed that ( m1  d1 )=  m2  d 2  ,hence
- Opening door
- Tightening nut cracker the principle verified .
- Rotating a car sterling
- Determining mass using beam
balance/weighing balance Experiment to determine unknown mass using
the principle of moments
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
An object of known mass mo is suspended on
When a body is in equilibrium under action of
coplanar forces ,the sum of clockwise moments the metre rule at a distance d o from the knife
taken about a fixed point is equal to the sum of edge .
anticlockwise moments taken from the same
fixed point . A second object of unknown mass m is
suspended on the metre rule but on the opposite
side of the knife edge .
The object is then adjusted to distance d to
obtain balance as shown .

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 Resultant force
do d F  F1  F2  F3  F4  ....  Fn
Metre rule n
F   Fi
i 1

mo m
Example :
1. Parallel forces act on a horizontal light
Knife edge
beam as shown .

mo  do 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m
Using principle of moments , m  .
d 15N 5N 30N 40N 20N 10N

Experiment to determine mass of a metre rule

using principle of moments Find
(i) resultant force
A solid of known mass ms is suspended on the (ii) Distance of line of action of
metre rule at some distance from one end . resultant force from end A.
DATA
The metre rule is then placed horizontally on the (i) Resultant
knife edge and adjusted until it balances as force ,
shown . F  15  5  30  40  20  10  N
F  120 N
0 100cm
G (ii) Let the line of action of
resultant force cut the beam
Metre AB at a distance x from end
ms A.
rule
Mg
ms g
A
x
B
2m 2m 2m 2m 2m
At balance point ,distances d1 , d 2 are read and 15N 5N 30N 40N 20N 10N
recorded .
Using the principle of moments , 120N

ms g  d1  Mg  d 2
ms  d1
M 
d2  moment of   sum of moments 
   
Note; When a number of parallel forces act on a  resul tan t force    of all forces about 
 about end A   end A 
body ,their resultant is the sum of all forces .    
120 x  15  0  30  4  40  6  20  8  10 10
120 x  630
Line of action of
x  5.25 m

............... .... Exercise 26.

F1 F2 F3 F4 Fn
11 1. Forces of magnitude 10N ,30 N ,40
N,5N,15N and 25N act at points
Resultant force a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f and g on a light horizontal
rod AB of length 2 m .Points a and g are
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 at ends A and B of the rod This is a state of equilibrium in which when a
respectively .Given that ab = 0.2m ,bc body is slightly displaced ,it does not return to its
=0.3m ,cd =0.3 m, ef =0.4 m and fg=0.3 original position and thus occupies a new
m .If forces act parallel to each other in position .
the same direction ,find:
(i) Resultant force - During unstable equilibrium ,when a
(ii) Distance from end A where the body is gently tilted ,the centre of gravity
line of action of the resultant is lowered and when released ,it
force cuts the rod . topples(falls off).
STABILITY F G
Stability refers to the state of balance of a body .
G
A body is in a stable state under the following
conditions . W

(i) The resultant force on the body is W

zero . -

(ii) The resultant moment about any Neutral equilibrium

point must be zero .
This is a state of equilibrium in which when a
body is given a slight displacement ,it occupies a
Note ; Stability of the body can be increased by : new position similar to the original position .
(i) Increasing base area . The position of the centre of gravity from the
(ii) Lowering the centre of gravity . ground remains unchanged .
EQUILIBRIUM
- Equilibrium is a state of rest of a
body .The resultant force on the body is
G G
zero .
h h
- There are three states of equilibrium,
namely:
(i) Stable equilibrium
EQUILIBRIUM AND COPLANAR
(ii) Neutral equilibrium
FORCES .
(iii) Unstable equilibrium
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM A body is in equilibrium under action of
coplanar forces if the conditions below are
This is a state of equilibrium in which when a
fulfilled .
body is given a slight displacement ,its returns to
its original position . (i) The sum of all forces in any one
direction should be equal to the sum
- During stable equilibrium ,when a body
of forces in the opposite direction .
is gently tilted ,its centre of gravity is
(ii) The sum of clockwise clockwise
raised and when released ,it returns to its
moments taken from a fixed point is
original position .
equal to the sum of anticlockwise
moments taken from the same point .
EXAMPLE
F
1. AB is a uniform rod of length 8 m and
mass 20 kg hinged to the wall at point A.
returns
A string is attached to end B and fixed to
G
the wall at point C vertically above A
where AC = 6 m , so that the rod stays in
horizontal equilibrium .
W (i) Sketch a diagram showing the forces
acting on the rod .
Unstable equilibrium (ii) Calculate tension in the string .

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 (iii) Find the reaction at hinge A and
direction . T sin 
(iv) Find a mass that should be added to
20 kg so that the string breaks when
tension exceeds 200 N.
4m 4m
Data A

B
(i) Let T = tension
R = reaction at hinge
string 20g
C
g
T
6m 20 g  4  T sin   8
R
 20  9.81 4
 T
A B 3
4m 4m 8
wall
5
T  163.5 N
20g
The tension in the string is 163.5 N
(ii)
(iii) Substituting for T in (i) and (ii)
Ry T
Tsin  4
Rx  163.5  130.8 m
R C=10m 5
6m 3
   Ry   163.5  196.2
5
Rx Tcos  8m
Ry  196.2  98.1  98.1 N
20g
Reaction at hinge , R  Rx 2  R y 2

c  82  62  10m
R  130.82  98.12
6 3
sin   
10 5 R  163.5 N
8 4
cos    Direction ,
10 5
Resolving horizontally , Ry
tan  
4 RX
Rx  T cos   T  
5  98.1 
  tan 1    36.87
o

4  130.8 
Rx  T .............(i)
5
(iv) Let the additional mass be m
Resolving vertically ,
200 sin 
Ry  T sin   20 g
200N
3
Ry  T    20  9.81 4m
5 
4m 
3 A 200cos  B
Ry  T  196.2 ..........(ii)
5
(20+m)g
Taking moments about A

Taking moments about A

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 (20  m) g  4  200sin   8 Rx  T cos 700
3 Rx  173.94 cos 70o  59.49 N
 20  m   9.81 4  200  8
5
20  m  24.46 Resolving vertically ,
m  4.46 kg Ry  T sin 70o  10 g
2. .
Ry  10  9.81  173.94sin 70 o
string  65.35 N
wall

700 0.4m Reaction and Direction:

A B
70 o
1.0m Rx
10kg 

R
Ry=65.35N
In the figure above ,AB is a light rod and
the system is in equilibrium .Find ;
(i) Tension in the string
(ii) Reaction at hinge A . Reaction R  Rx 2  R y 2
(iii) A mass that must be added to
10kg for a tension greater than
 59.49   65.35 
2 2
180N to make the string break . R
Data R  88.37 N

Direction ,

R 
  tan 1  y 
Ry T sin 70o  Rx 
T
R  65.35 
 tan 1  
 59.49 
 700   47.69 o
A Rx T cos 70o 0.4m B
0.6m Therefore the reaction at the hinge is 88.37N in a
direction 47.69o below the horizontal .
10g
(iii) Let the mass be m

(i)
Since AB is a light rod, then its mass is 180sin 70 o
180N
negligible . 1

Taking moments about A ,

70o
A 180 cos 70o B
10 g 1  T sin 70o  0.6 0.4m
0.6m
10  9.81
T (10+m)g
0.6  sin 70o
T  173.94 N

(ii) Resolving horizontally ,

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10  m  g 1  180sin 70 o  0.6 4. Workout question 3 above if AB is light
rod to obtain tension in the string and the
9.8110  m   101.49 reaction at A .
10  m  10.35 5. .
m  0.35kg

Exercise 27
string
1. AB is a uniform rod of length 6m and wall
mass 40 kg hinges to the wall at end A .A
600
string is attached to end B and then fixed A B
to a point C on the wall which is above 70o
4.5m 1.5m
A at a distance 8m so that the rod is in 2kg
horizontal equilibrium .
(i) Draw a diagram showing forces
acting on the rod .
(ii) Find the tension in the string .
(iii) Calculate the reaction at the hinge In the figure above ,if the rod AB uniform and
A and direction . has mass 38 kg ,find ;
2. PQ is a uniform rod of length 8m and
mass 25 kg hinged to a wall at end P and (i) Tension in the string .
end Q is attached to a string which is (ii) Reaction at the hinge A .
fixed at point R on the wall where R is (iii) Determine the mass that must be
vertically above P at a distance of added to the 2 kg mass if the string
6m.The rod stays in a horizontal breaks when the tension exceeds 350
equilibrium when an object of mass 5kg N.
is suspended on it at end B .
(i) Draw a diagram to show the THE LADDER PROBLEMS
forces on the rod . 1.
(ii) Find the tension in the string .
(iii) Calculate the reaction at P and
direction .
3. Study the figure below

string
C

12m
In the figure above ,AB is a uniform ladder of
80o length 12 m and mass 20 kg .It is inclined to the
A B wall at end B while end A is on a horizontal
ground .find ;
wall
10kg
(i) Reaction at A and B .
(ii) Coefficient of friction at A and B if
In the figure above ,AB is a uniform both the wall and the ground are
rod of mass 20 kg hinged to the wall rough and that the ladder is on a point
at end A and end B attached to the of slipping .
string which is then fixed to a point C DATA
on the wall so that the rod is in
horizontal equilibrium .Find the
(i) Tension in the string .
(ii) Reaction at A and direction

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 (i) At A on the ground , X  1 R1 , but
Resolving forces horizontally, X  R2  82.31 N

X  R2 .........(i) X 82.31
1    0.45
R1 196.2
Resolving vertically ,
At end B on the wall ,

R1   2 R2  20 g
R1  20 g
196.2  82.31 2  20  9.81
R1  20  9.81
20  9.81  196.2
R1  196.2 N 2 
82.31
Taking moments about A , 2  0

This implies the wall is smooth .

2.

string

wall 70o B
50o

R2  12sin 50 o  20 g  6 cos 50 o
In the figure above ,AB is a uniform rod
20  9.81 6 cos 50 o of length 10 m and mass 25kg hinged to
R2 
12sin 50 o the wall at end A and end B is attached
756.69 to a string fixed to the wall at a point
R2   82.31N above A so that the rod is in
9.193
equilibrium .Find ;
Therefore reactions at A is 196.2N and at B is (i) Tension in the string .
82.31 N. (ii) Reaction at the hinge A .

(ii) At the point of slipping ,

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 R  Rx 2  Ry 2

 86.57   195.27 
2 2
R
R  213.60 N

Ry
tan  
Rx
 195.27 
  tan 1    66.09
o

 86.57 

The reaction at the hinge A is 213.60 N in a

direction 66.09o above the horizontal .
Resolving horizontally,
Rx  T cos 30o .........(i ) 3. Study the figure below
Resolving vertically ,
Ry  T sin 30o  25 g .......(ii )
Fixed pulley
Taking moments about A
 string

Taking moments about A ,

5kg 80o

60o

In the figure above ,AB is a uniform rod of

length 8 m hinged to the ground at A .End B is
the attached to a string which passes over a
smooth fixed pulley and carries a mass of 5kg
hanging freely.The rod is inclined at an angle
60o to the ground at A while the string makes an
angle of 80o with the rod .

25 g  5cos 40 o  (T cos 30 o 10sin 40 o  (i) If the system is in equilibrium ,find

tension in the string and the mass of
T sin 30 o 10 cos 40 o )
the rod .
939.36  5.567T  3.830T (ii) If the ground is rough and that the rod
T  99.96 N is on the point of slipping at A, find
the coefficient of friction of the
Substituting for T in eqn (i) and (ii) gives; ground .
Rx  99.96 cos 30o  86.57 N
Data
o
Ry  99.96sin 30  25  9.81 Let m be mass of the rod .
Ry  195.27 N

Reaction at A

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 R  T sin 20 o  5g  mg
R  49.05sin 20 o  5  9.81  19.7  9.81
R  242.37  16.78
R  225.53 N

Substituting in

 R  T cos 20o
49.05cos 20o

225.53
  0.204

4. A uniform ladder AB of mass 30 kg is

inclined to a vertical smooth wall at end
(i) At equilibrium ,there is no A while end B is in contact with a
acceleration . smooth horizontal surface(floor).The
ladder makes an angle of 60o with the
For 5 kg mass , floor .A man 50 kg climbs the ladder to a
5 g  T  5a , a  o 1
distance of its length .Find the normal
5g  T  0 3
reaction at A and B and actual reaction at
T  5  9.81  49.05 N B and direction .
Data
Taking moments about A ,
Let l be length of the ladder .

R2
R1
l
l
2 
l
3
60o
Rx

50g
30g

mg  4 cos 60 o  T cos 20 o  8sin 60 o  T sin 20 o  8cos 60 o

2mg  6.5104T  1.3681T Resolving horizontally ,
2  9.81m  7.8785T Rx  R2 ........(i)
19.62 m  7.8785  49.05 Resolving vertically ,
m  19.70kg R1  30 g  50 g
R1  80  9.81  784.8 N
(ii) At the point of slipping ,friction opposes the slip as Taking moments about B .
shown by the forces resolved on the diagram .
sIn horizontal equilibrium ,

 R  T cos 200

But in vertical equilibrium ,

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 1. (a) Find the normal reaction at A and B
and the resultant reaction at B if AB is a
uniform ladder .
(b) If the ladder is at a point of slipping
in each case ,find the coefficient of
friction of the ground .
(i)

3m

200N
A
4m
l l
R2  l sin 60 o  30 g  cos 60 o  50 g  cos 60 o
2 3
1 1
R2 sin 60 o  30  9.81  cos 60 o  50  9.81  cos 60 o
2 3 (ii)
155.325
R2   179.36 N
0.866
So, the normal reaction at A is 179.36N
From (i) ;

Rx  R2
Rx  179.36 N

2 2
Actual reaction at B , R  Rx  R1
2. Find the the reaction at the hinge A and
R 179.36    784.8 
2 2 tension in the string if the systems below
are in equilibrium given that AB is a
R  805.03 N uniform rod .
(i)
Direction ;

R1
R

 (ii)
Rx

 784.8 
  tan 1    77.13
o

 179.36 

EXERCISE 28

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 man of mass 40kg ascends(climbs) the
2
ladder up to of its length .
3
(i) Find the normal reactions at P and
Q.
(ii) If the ladder is on a point of
slipping ,find the coefficient of
friction of the horizontal surface .
EXAMPLE

SPHERE


3. Find mass of uniform rod AB in the F
diagrams below in equilibrium . 2m

BLOCK

In the figure above ,a spherical object of mass 20

kg and radius 5 m rests on a horizontal surface
but in contact with a block of height 2m .A
horizontal force F directed through the centre is
applied to the sphere so that it rolls over the
block .find the value of F .

DATA\

(a)
(b)

Fixed pulley

 string

4kg 70o 52  32  x 2
x  25  9
x  4m
30o
Taking moments about hinge P on the block,
F  3  20 g  x
4. PQ is a uniform ladder of mass 20kg 20  9.81 4
inclined to a smooth vertical wall at point F  261.6 N
3
P while Q is in contact with a rough
horizontal surface at an angle of 30o. A EXERCISE 29

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 SPHERE C
E
B
G
 A
F D F Cardboard
h lamina

BLOCK
The lamina is then balanced at other
In the figure above ,a spherical object of mass M positions and lines CD and EF are drawn
and radius r is in contact with a block of height on it .
h .A horizontal force is applied to the sphere Point G where all the lines meet is the
through its centre so that the sphere moves over centre of gravity of the lamina .
2. Using a plumbline
Mg 2hr  h 2
the block .Show that F  , Three hole A ,B and C are created near
rh the edges of irregular lamina whose
centre of gravity is required .
g is acceleration due to gravity .
The lamina is suspended on a retort
CENTRE OF GRAVITY (c.o.g) stand through one of the holes ,say A.
A pendulum bob is attached on a
Centre of gravity is a point on a body where the thread(plumbline) and the free end of the
total weight acts or concentrated . thread is tied on a pin through hole A as
shown .
Experiment to determine the c.o.g of an
irregular lamina .
1. Using balancing method . pin
A cardboard is balanced on a straight lamina
A
edge such as a metre rule and line AB is
drawn along the position of balance using
a straight edge and sharp pencil . B
C
thread hole

Retort stand
Pendulum bob

B
At rest position as the bob hangs ,line AB
A is drawn along the string on the lamina .
Cardboard
The procedure is repeated by hanging
lamina
the bob through holes B and C .
The point G where lines meet is the
Metre rule
centre of gravity of the irregular lamina .

A
lamina

B
G
C

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NOTE: 2. Masses of 10kg 5kg ,15kg and 20kg are
placed at points with position vectors
- The total mass M of a body is a sum of
 i  2 j  ,  2i  3 j  ,  i  4 j  and  3i 
the masses mi of the particles which
respectively .find the position vector of
make up the body ; i  1, 2,3,..., n the centre of gravity .
M  m1  m2  m3  ... m n
n TOPIC 13 :FLUIDS AT REST
M   mi (A) PRESSURE
i 1

Likewise ,the total weight Mg of the Pressure is the force acting normally per square
body is the sum of the weights of the metres.
particles which make up the body.
Mg  m1g  m2 g  m3 g  ...  m ng Mathematically,
n �
Mg  g  mi �= .
�
i 1

- Centre of gravity is a point with co-

ordinates  x , y  where S.I unit of pressure is pascals or newtons per
metre squared(i.e Pa or Nm-2)
m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3  ...  m n x n
x
M FORMULA FOR PRESSURE AT A DEPTH
mx INSIDE A LIQUID .
x
M - Considering a plate of area at a depth ,h
inside a liquid of density  .
m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3  ...  m n y n
y
M Liquid surface
my
y
M 
 mx my  h
 C.O.G   x , y    ,  F  mg
 M M 
EXAMPLES
1. Masses of 5kg ,6kg,10kg,20kg,4kg and
15kg are at points (1,0) ,(2,1) ,(- Plate
2 ,3) ,(3,1) and (2,4) respectively .Find of area Liquid of
their centre of gravity . density , 
A
x 1   2   0
M    5    6    10   
y  0  1  1  - Volume of liquid column of height h
 2   3  2 above area A of the pole is V  Ah .
20    14    15   - Mass of the liquid column is m  V
3  1   4
m   Ah
But M=5+6+10+20+14+15 =70kg - Force on the plate due to weight of the
70 x  5 1  6  2   10 0   20 2   liquid column is F  mg .
F   Ahg
14  3   15  2 
- Pressure on the plate ,
49 F  Ahg
x  0.7 P 
70 A A
70 y  5(0)  6(1)  10(1)  20(3)  P  h g
14(1)  15(4) - Therefore ,pressure in liquids depends
150 on ;
y  2.143 (i) Density of the liquid
70
(ii) Depth inside the liquid
G  x , y   G  0.7, 2.143
TRIAL QUESTION
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Show that Pressure in liquids increases with The pressure is transmitted through the
depth . liquid to the piston of large cross-section
area (big radius R) in order to lift the
L
load ,L , P 
A2
Pressure at M = Pressure at N.
F L

TANK h1 A A1 A2
h2 F A1
h3 B 
L A2
C Water
water jets F  r2

L  R2
F r2
  2
ground L R

APPLICATIONS OF P  h g
Holes A ,B ,C are created in the tank at
depths h1, h2,and h3 respectively ,closed 1. BALANCING COLUMNS
and the tank is filled with water . - If two immiscible are poured in a U-
The holes are then opened and water jets tube ,they show different heights due to
out through the holes . different densities .
The water jet from hole C which is at a
highest depth spats at the ground at H H
furthest distance from the tank than the
rest of the jets as shown above.
This indicates that pressure is highest at
highest depth .
Transmission of pressure in
fluids(PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE) Liquid X of hx hy
It states that pressure applied at any density
point in an enclosed fluid is transmitted x
equally in all directions. M N
This principle applies for hydraulic brake
and hydraulic press. Liquid Y of
density  y

F , effort load , L
M
- Points M and N are on the same level
N thus experience the same pressure .
Pressure at M = pressure at N
H   x hx g  H   y h y g
hx  x  hy  y
 x hy
Force 
Ram  y hx
piston of
piston of
area A1
area A2 QUESTION
A force is applied on a piston of small
cross-section area(small radius ,r) in
F
order to produce high pressure P  .
A1
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 Liquid Y 15cm 25cm
Liquid X

Pressure at M = Pressure at N
mercury P  h g  H
P  H  hg
 Gas pressure  H  h  g
In the figure above ,two liquids X and Y were
poured in a U-tube in which mercury was
TRIAL QUESTION.
initially poured .Liquid X has a density
1000kgm-3 and stood to a height of 25 cm in the In the case above ,if the liquid is water of density
tube while liquid Y stood to a height of 15 1000kg m-3 ,and that the difference between the
cm .calculate the density of liquid Y . water surfaces in the tube is 15 cm ,calculate the
gas pressure .
2. U-tube manometer .
Used to determine gas pressure P (B) ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
(i)
It states that “when a body is wholly or partially
immersed in a fluid,it experiences an upthrust
force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced .”
Deducing Archimedes’ principle .

- Considering an object a, b, c, d of
uniform surface area, A wholly immersed
in a liquid of density  as shown .

Upthrust
h1 F1
Pressure at M = Pressure at N a d
P  H  h g
h2 F object F
 Gas pressure  H  h g
b c
TRIAL QUESTION
Liquid of
F2
In the case above ,if the liquid is mercury whose density
density is 13600 kg m-3 and difference in 
mercury surface is 20 cm.calculate the gas
pressure . - Surfaces ab and cd are at the same
depth ,resultant force on them due to
(ii) pressure is zero .
- Surface ad is at depth h1 ,force F1 on ad
due to pressure is
F1  P1 A
F1  h1 gA
- Surface bc is at depth h2 ,force F2 on bc
is
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 F2  P2 A 1. An object of mass 180g and density
F2  h2  gA 8000kg m-3 is suspended on a string fixed
at the other end .The object is then
The resultant force between bc and ad is wholly immersed in a liquid of density
the upthrust on the object . 800 kg m-3.calculate the tension in the
U  F2  F1 string .
U  h2  gA  h1  gA 2. An object of mass 1000kg m-3 is
U    h2  h1  Ag suspended on a vertical fixed string and
when fully immersed in a beaker of
But  h2  h1  A  V ,Volume of the liquid water .calculate the tension in the string .
displaced . 3. An object of mass m and density  is
U  Vg , where V  m ,mass of the suspended on a string and totally
liquid displaced . immersed in a liquid of density  .show
U  mg ,which is the weight of the that the tension in the string is
liquid displaced hence Archimedes’  
mg 1   ,where g is acceleration due
principle .  
EXAMPLE gravity .
An object of mass 360 g and density FLOTATION
16000kg m-3 is suspended on a string and - Bodies float on water because they are
fully immersed in a liquid of density less dense than water .
1600kg m-3 .Find the tension in the - Floating occurs when weight of a body is
string . taken up by displaced fluid ;when weight
Data of the body is balanced by the weight of
displaced fluid , the body floats .
Object - Recall that weight of displaced fluid is
mo  360 g  0.36 kg equal to upthrust .
0.36 - Upthrust is the upward force on a body
V  2.25  10 5 m3 immersed in a fluid.
16000
Liquid NB; A fluid is any substance that flow
easily .The examples are liquids and
l  1600kg m 3
gases .
Volume of object = volume of liquid THE LAW OF FLOTATION
displaced . A floating body displaces its own weight
Vl  2.25  10 5 m3 of the fluid in which it floats .
Mass of liquid displaced - The law of flotation applies to ;
ml  lVl (i) Sailing ships
(ii) Floating balloons in air
ml  1600  2.25  10 5 kg (iii) Submarines
ml  0.036 kg (iv) Cartesian divers etc
NOTE;
- Ships are made from metals which are
T (tension) denser than water but their inside is
hollow which reduces the average
u density making them float on water .
- Buoyancy of a submarine is supported
liquid by ballast tanks .When water is allowed
object
into the ballast tanks ,its weight increases
mog
and it sinks .In order to raise it
upwards ,the water is pushed out of the
T  U  mo g , U  ml g ballast tanks by use of air at very high
T  mo g  ml g pressure,weight is reduced and the
At equilibrium , submarine floats .
T  (0.36  0.036)  9.81 Worked example
T  3.18 N 1. A piece of metal of volume
EXERCISE 4.5 105 m3 is attached to a piece of
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 wax of mass 1.2 10 4 kg and density water ,they float with the wax fully
600 kg m-3 .When immersed in submerged .Fin the density of the
water ,they float with the wax metal .
submerged .Find density of the metal .
Data

metal wax
metal wax mass Mass  2  10 4 kg
volume Mass  12  10 4 kg  4.2  10 2 kg Density
 4.5 105 m3 Density  6  10 2 kg m  1.5  10 2 kg
volume 
mass  V  mass
mass volume 
 4.5  10  5 volume  0.042 volume
volume 
12  10 4  2  10 4
 
6  10 2 1.5  10 2
 2.0  10 6 m3  1.33  10 6 m3

Total volume of metal and wax = volume Total mass of metal and wax
of water displaced  
= 4.2 102  2 104 kg = 4.22 102 kg
4.5 105  2.0 106  V Weight of metal and wax =
V  4.7 10 m 5 3
 
4.22 102  9.81 N  0.414 N
Mass of water displaced Volume of water displaced = total
mw   w  V volume of metal and wax
 1000  4.7 105  4.7 102 kg  0.042 
V   1.33 106  m3
Upthrust =weight of water displaced   
U  mw g Mass of water displaced
 4.7  102  9.81  0.042 
  1.33  10 6   1000
 4.611 101   
=
U  0.4611N  42 3 

Total mass of metal and   1.33  10  kg

  

wax  4.5  105   12  104 kg  Upthrust = weight of water displaced .
Weight of metal and wax  42 
   1.33  10 3   9.81

 4.5 105   12 104  9.81N    
Weight of metal and wax =upthrust  412.02 
  0.01305  N
  
 4.415 10 4
  1.177 10 2   0.4611 Upthrust = total weight of metal and
  1017.735 kg m 3 wax
 412.02 
2. A piece of metal of mass   0.01305   0.414
  
4.2 10 2 kg is attached to a block of
  1027.61kg m 3

wax of mass 2.0 10 4 kg and density

EXERCISE 30
1.5  102 kg m 3 ,when immersed in

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 1. A piece of metal of volume When immersed in
2.6 107 m3 is attached to a block of water ,
wax of mass 8.0 10 4 kg and density
2.0 10 2 kg m 3 .When the two are
immersed in water ,they float with
the wax submerged .Find density of
the metal .
2. A piece of metal of mass 2.6 10 2 kg
is attached to a block of wax of mass
1.0 10 4 kg and density
2.0 10 2 kg m 3 .When the two are
immersed in water ,they float with
the wax submerged.Find the density Volume of water displaced =volume
of the metal . displaced by the rod +volume displaced
EXAMPLE by plasticine
A cylindrical rod has a length 30 cm  A  30  h   A  5
and density 1 .The rod has a piece
 A  30  h   5
of plasticine of density  2 and length
Mass of water displaced
5 cm attached to its lower end .The
  w  A  30  h   5
rod floats vertically in water of
density 1g cm-3 with the plasticine  1 A  30  h   5
submerged .Show that height h of the
rod above the water surface is  A  30  h   5
h  30 1  1   5 1   2  . Upthrust on the whole substance =
Data weight of water displaced
U  A  (30  h)  5  g
Let A be cross-sectional area of the During floating ,
rod . Weight of substance(object) = upthrust
W U
A  30 1  52  g  A  (30  h)  5 g
30 1  5  2  (30  h)  5
h  30  30 1  5  5  2
 h  30 1  1   5 1   2 
EXERCISE 31
1. A cylindrical piece of cork of cross-
section area 15 cm2 and length of 20 cm is
Volume of the rod  Al1  A  30  30 A covered at one end with a layer of brass 2 cm
Mass of the rod  1  30 A  301 A thick .If the cork floats in water with the brass
Volume of plasticine  Al2  A  5  5 A all submerged below the water surface ,show
that the height h of the cork above the water
Mass of plasticine   2  5 A  5 2 A surface is given by
Total mass of the rod and h  20 1   c   2 1  b  where  c and b
plasticine  30 1 A + 5  2 A
are densities of cork and brass respectively
 A  30 1  5  2  and density of water is 1.0 g cm-3.
Weight of the rod and plasticine, 2. A cylindrical piece of metal of cross-
W  A  30 1  5  2  g section area 20 cm2 and length 30 cm is
covered at one end with a layer of brass 2
cm thick .The metal floats vertically in
water of density 1 g cm-3 with the brass
well below the water surface .If  o is the

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 density of the metal and  b is density of U  mf g
brass ,show that the height h of the metal 4 r 3 g
above the water surface is U
3
600 1  o   40 1  b  - Viscous force  velocity
h
20 F v
OBJECT FALLING THROUGH A F  k vt ; k  6 r
FLUID .
A fluid is any substance that flows F  6 r vt
easily .Examples include liquids and Where  is the coefficient of viscosity of
gases . the fluid and is units are Ns m-2 .
An object falling through a fluid From the diagram above ,
experiences three forces : At terminal velocity,
(i) Its weight (W) U  F W
(ii) Upthrust (U) Substituting for U ,F and W
(iii) Viscous drag(force) ,F 4 r 3 g 4 r 3  g
gives + 6 r vt =
3 3
2 2
r      g  3 v t
U F 3
9 vt
Spherical r
object 2g    
vt
QUESTION

r  4.0  103 mm, vt  4.0  105 m s 1 ,

W If
  1200kg m 3 ,   1000kg m 3

NB; Terminal velocity , vt is the Calculate the coefficient of viscosity using

expression above .
maximum constant velocity attained by a
body falling through a viscous fluid . EXAMPLE
- If the object is spherical with radius r , its
4 3 1. A spherical object of radius 4 mm falls
volume is V   r with a velocity 2 10 4 m s 1 through oil
3
- But volume of object = volume of the of density 900 kg m-3 .If density of the
fluid displaced . material of the object is
- If  is the density of the material of the 1200 kg m-3 ,find ;
object ,then , (i) Volume of the object .
(ii) Weight of the object .
Mass of object , m0    V
(iii) Viscous force.
4 4 r 3  (iv) Coefficient of viscosity .
mo     r 3 
3 3 Data
- Weight of the object is
4
W  mo g r  4mm   0.004 m
1000
4 r 3  g
W v  2  10 4 m s 1
3
- If  is the density of the fluid ,then ;   1200 kg m 3
Mass of the fluid displaced ;   900 kg m 3
m f   V
(i) Volume ,
4
    r3 4
3 V  r3
3
- Upthrust =weight of the fluid displaced
4
V    0.004   2.68  10 7m 3
3

3
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 (ii) Mass of object If a substance has density  s and volume ,V
mo    V and is immersed in water of density  w ,then
mo  1200  2.68  10 7  3.22  10 4 kg
Relative
Weight of object
density ,R.D
W  mo g
weight of subs tan ce
W  3.22  10 4  9.81  3.16  10 3 N 
weight of water displaced (upthrust )
(iii) Volume of oil displaced = volume of
the object ms g
Mass of oil displaced R.D 
mw g
m f   V
m f  900  2.68  107 But ms   sV and mw   wV
m f  2.41 104 kg Since volume of substance = volume of water
Upthrust = weight of oil displaced displaced,when its fully immersed .
U  mf g
 SV
U  2.41104  9.81  2.36 103 N R.D 
 wV
U  F W

F  W U R.D  S
using w
F  3.16 103  2.36 103
F  8.0 104 N Relative density can therefore be defined as the
(iv) ratio of density of substance to the density of
F  6 rv water .
F EXAMPLE

6 r v
1. An object has a weight 0.48 N in air and
8.0 10 4 0.36 N when immersed in water .Find its

6  0.004  8 10 4  density if that of water is 1000 kg m-3 .
  53.05 Ns m 2 Data
EXAMPLE Weight in air , Wa  0.48N
1. An oil drop of radius 2 mm and density Weight in water , Ww  0.36 N
900 kg m-3 falls with terminal velocity of
4 10 4 m s 1 through air of density 2.9 Upthrust ,
kg m-3 .Find ;
(i) Volume of the oil drop U  Wa  Ww
(ii) Weight of oil drop U  0.48  0.36  0.12 N
(iii) Upthrust on the drop
(iv) Viscous force and coefficient of weight of object in air
Relative density =
viscosity of air . upthrust in water
2. An oil drop of radius 2 mm and density
800 kg m-3 falls in air through a distance Wa 0.48
of 1 cm in 20 seconds . If density of air is R.D  
U 0.12
1.29 kg m-3 .Find the coefficient of R.D  4
viscosity of air .
RELATIVE DENSITY (R.D) But
Relative density is the ratio of weight of a
substance to weight of displaced water in which
it is immersed .

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 s 1. When an object od mass 0.5kg is
R.D  immersed in water of density 1000 kg m-
w 3
, it is found to have a weight of
s 1.642N .Calculate is density .
4
1000 2. A block of mass 120g is suspended from
 s  4000kg m3 a spring balance .When the block is fully
immersed in water ,the balance reads
2. A solid has mass of 320g .It has weight 0.63 N and reads 0.75N when the block
of 1.8452N when immersed in a liquid is fully immersed in oil. Calculate;
and a weight of 2.1862N when immersed (i) Density of the block
in equal volume of water .If density of (ii) Density of oil .
water is 1000 kg m-3 ,find ; 3. A solid has volume of 0.55m3 .It weighs
(i) Density of the solid . 0.18N on the suspend spring in air and
(ii) Density of the liquid . has weight of 0.12N when fully
Data immersed in a solid .Find the mass of the
solid.
Mass of the solid =320 g =0.32kg MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE
DENSITY
Weight of solid in
1. Experiment to determine relative
air , Wa  0.32  9.81  3.1392 N density of a solid by Archimedes’
principle (using a spring balance).
Weight of solid when immersed in
A solid is suspended on a spring
water , Ww  2.1862 N balance and its weight in air is read
and recorded as Wa .
Upthrust on the solid in water
U  Wa  Ww
U  3.1392  2.1862  0.953 N

Wa 3.1392
(i) R.D    3.29
U 0.953 Spring
Wa
 s  R.D   w balance

 s  3.29  1000  3290 kg m 3

Weight of solid in the liquid , Wl  1.8452 N

solid
(ii) Upthrust in the
U l  Wa  Wl The solid is then fully immersed in water and its
liquid , new weight in water is read and recorded as
U l  3.1392  1.8452  1.294

Relative density of a liquid =

upthrust in liquid
upthrust in water of equal volume Ww
Spring
U l 1.294 balance
R.D    1.36
U w 0.953

Using
solid

R.D  l
w U  upthrust 
l  1.36  1000  13600 kg m 3

water
EXERCISE 32
Ww .

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Upthrust on a solid is calculated from Their weight in air is read and recorded as w1 .
(Wa  Ww ) .
The sinker together with the floater are then fully
Relative density of the solid is then calculated immersed in water is read and recorded as w2 .
Wa
from . Upthrust on the sinker and floater is calculated
Wa  Ww
from w1  w2 .
2. Experiment to determine relative
density of a liquid using Upthrust on the floater alone is calculated from
Archimedes’ principle .  w1  w2   U s .
A solid is suspended on a spring balance and its Relative density of the floater is calculated from
weight in air is read and recorded as Wa . wo
.
The solid is then fully immersed in a liquid  w1  w2   U s
whose relative density is required and its new 4. Experiment to determine relative
weight in the liquid is read and recorded as Wl . density of a solid by balancing
method .
Upthrust on the solid when immersed in the
A solid S whose relative density is required is
liquid is calculated from (Wa  Wl ) .
suspended on the metre rule at a distance d from
a knife edge .
The solid is then removed from the liquid, dried
clean and then fully immersed in an equal Another solid of known weight wo is suspended
volume of water .
on the other side of the metre rule and adjusted
Weight of the solid in water is read and recorded to a distance d1 to produce balance in air as
as Ww . shown .

Upthrust on the solid when immersed in water is

calculated from (Wa  Ww ) . d1 d

Relative density of the liquid is calculated from

Wa  Wl S
. solid
Wa  Ww

3. Experiment to determine relative wo wa

density of a floating solid using
Archimedes’ principle .
Using the principle of moments ,weight of solid
A floater is suspended on a spring balance and wd
its weight in air wo read and recorded . S in air is calculated from wa  o 1 and
d
A sinker is also suspended on the spring balance recorded .
and its weight wa in air is read and recorded . Solid S is then fully immersed in water and wo
The sinker is then fully immersed in water and is adjusted to new distance d 2 to restore
its weight ww in water is read and recorded . balance .

Upthrust on the sinker is calculated from

U s  wa  ww

The sinker is removed from the water and dried

clean .
A floater is then attached to the sinker and both
are suspended on the spring balance .
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 Solid S is then immersed in a liquid whose
d2 d relative density is required and wo is adjusted to
a distance d 2 to produce balance .

d2 d
wo
beaker
s water

wo
beaker
Weight of solid S in water is calculated from
s
wd
ww  o 2 and recorded .
d Liquid
wl
Upthrust on the solid when immersed in water is
w
calculated wa  ww  o  d1  d 2  .
d
Relative density of the solid is calculated from
Weight of solid S in the solid is calculated from
wo d1 wd
wl  o 2 .
wa d d1 d
 
wa  ww wo  d1  d 2  d1  d 2
Upthrust on the solid when immersed in the
d
w
liquid is calculated from wa  wl  o  d1  d 2  .
5. Experiment to determine relative d
density of a liquid by balancing
method . Finally the solid is removed from the
liquid ,cleaned dry and then fully immersed in an
A solid S of unknown weight and another of equal volume of water .
known weight wo are used .
Known weight wo is adjusted to new distance
Solid S is suspended on a metre rule at a distance d3 to obtain balance .
d from knife edge and the solid of known
weight wo is suspended on the other side of the
metre rule and adjusted to distance d1 from the
a distance d 2 to produce balance .
knife edge to have balance in air .

d3 d
d1 d

S solid

wo
wo wa beaker
s

Using principle of moments ,weight of solid S in water

wd ww
air is got from wa  o 1 .
d

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Weight of solid S in water is calculated from
wd
ww  o 3 .
d l Capillary stem

Upthrust on the solid when immersed in water is

calculated from Liquid of density
wd wd 
wa  ww  o 1  o 3 wo
d d   d1  d3 
d Large bulb for
buoyancy(floating)
Relative density of the liquid is then calculated
from
wa  wl d1  d 2
 Lead shots to keep it
wa  ww d 1  d 3
upright
Question
When a solid of mass 0.2kg is suspended on a - If A is cross-sectional area of the
spring balance and fully immersed in water, the capillary stem and that a length l of the
spring balance reads its weight as 1.542N .When stem is above the liquid surface ,then ;
the floater is attached to the solid and both Volume of the stem above the surface is
suspended on a spring balance in air ,their Al .
weight is found to be 2.442N and when both are - If V is the total volume of the stem and
fully immersed in water ,the spring balance reads bulb , then volume of displaced liquid is
1.984N as their weight .Find the relative density (V  Al ) .
of the floater . - Mass of displaced liquid is  V  Al  .
MEASURING RELATIVE DENSITY OF A - Weight of displaced
LIQUID USING A HYDROMETER . liquid(upthrust)   V  Al  g .
A hydrometer is used to measure specific gravity Examples
(relative density )of liquids. 1. A hydrometer floats with 0.08 m of its
capillary stem outside the water and with
A hydrometer is inserted in a liquid whose 0.05m of the stem outside the liquid of
relative density is required and during floating ,it density 800 kg m-3 .What is its length
displaces a liquid of weight equal to its wn outside a liquid of density 1600 kg m-3 if
weight . cross-section area of the stem is 2cm2 ?
Data
It sinks more in water than in a liquid of higher Let V be volume of stem and bulb .
density . Cross-section area of
stem ,A= 2cm2  2 104 m2
In water ,
Length un- immersed , l  0.08m
Weight of water
displaced   w V  Alw  g
 1000 V  0.08 A  g
In liquid of density 800 kg m-3
Length un- immersed , l  0.05 m
Weight of liquid displaced   V  Al  g
 800 V  0.05 A  g
Weight of water displaced = weight of
the liquid displaced .

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 1000 V  0.08 A  g =800(V- 0.05A) g - Mass of paraffin displaced
V  13  106 
10V  0.8 A  8V  0.4 A - Weight of paraffin displaced
2V  0.4 A  13  106   9.81
0.4  2 104  5 2
 1.2753  104 
V  4 10 m - Weight of water displaced =weight of
2
paraffin displaced
Let l be the un –immersed length in a liquid of 0.10791  0.00012753
density 1600 kg m-3 .   846.154kg m3
Weight of liquid displaced Exercise 33
  V  Al  g  1600 V  Al  g 1. A hydrometer has 10 cm of its stem
submerged in water and 4 cm of its
Weight of water displaced =weight of liquid submerged in a certain liquid .If
displaced . volume of the bulb and stem is 15
cm3 and that the stem has a cross-
1000 V  0.08 A  g  1600 V  Al  g section area of 0.2 cm2 ,find the
density of the liquid .
10 V  0.08 A   16 V  Al  2. A hydrometer has a bulb and stem of
volume 12 cm3 .It floats with 4
10V  0.8 A  16V  16 Al cm of its stem un-submerged in a
6V  0.8 A certain liquid .Find density of the
l
16 A liquid .
3. A hydrometer floats in water with 6.0
6  4 10 5   0.8  2 10 4 
l cm of its graduated stem above the
16  2 10 4  surface and with 4 0 cm of oil of
density 0.8 g cm-3 .
l  0.125 m
If density of water is 1 g cm-3 ,find
the length of the stem un-submerged
2. A hydrometer has a capillary stem of
in a liquid of density 0.9 cm-3 given
cross-section area 0.5 cm2 .Volume of the
cross sectional area of the stem is 0.4
bulb and stem is 14 cm3 .When immersed
cm2 .
in water ,it floats with 6.0 cm of the stem
above the water surface. In paraffin ,it
TOPIC 14: CIRCULAR MOTION
floats with 2 cm of its stem above the
surface of paraffin .calculate the density Circular motion is the motion of body round a
of paraffin if that of water is 1 g cm-3 . circle or circular path .
Data Examples of circular motion ;
Cross-section area ,A=0.5 cm2 - Motion of planets round the sun .
Volume of bulb and stem ,V=14 cm2 - Motion of the moon round the earth .
Density of water =1 g cm-3 - Motion of a motorist /cyclist on a circular
Volume of stem above water truck .
= Al  0.5  6  3cm3 N.B: A body executing circular motion does it
Volume of water displaced =14-3=11 with uniform velocity (speed) round a circle of
cm3 same radius .
Mass of water displaced During circular motion ,a body has an angular
= V  111  11g velocity    taking it round and a tangential
Weight of water displaced velocity ( v) at every point .
=  11103  9.81  0.10791N Let a body describe a small angle  at the
In the liquid , centre of a circle of radius r from one point to
- Volume of the stem above the surface of another in a time t with angular velocity  as
paraffin  Al  0.5  2  1cm3 shown .
- Volume of paraffin displaced =14- 1 =13
cm3  13 106 m3

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 v

r
B
  r s
r  v
r
A
angular displacement
Angular velocity  Distance described =
timetaken
angle described
  circumference
 2
t 
 -is a small angle in radians . s   2 r
t - is time in seconds 2
Unit of angular velocity are radians per second s  r  ...................(i )
( rad s 1 ). Dividing both sides by t
Definition s 
r
Angular velocity is the rate of change of angle t t
swept at the centre of a circle during circular s ds   d
In limits as t  0,  , 
motion . t dt t dt
OR: Angular velocity, , is the rate of change ds d
of angular displacement of body moving in a r
dt dt
circular path .
ds d
NOTE: But  v, 
- If a body makes 1 complete dt dt
cycle(revolution) ,  v  r
TRIAL QUESTIONS
Then   360o  2 radians
1. An object describes 2 revolutions per
t  T ,periodic time
second round a circle of radius 10
cm .Find
From (i) Angular velocity
 (ii) Velocity .

t 2. An object moves round a circle of radius
2 20 cm with a period of 0.5 seconds .Find

T its velocity .
1 1 NOTE:
  2  , but ,  f From V  r
T T
  2 f 2
Since    2 f
2 2 T
Also from   ,T  v can also be written as
T 
v  r  2 f
DEFINITIONS
Periodic time ;is the time taken to describe a v  2 rf
complete cycle /oscillation .
Frequency , f is the number of complete cycles Acceleration of a body moving in a circle
described by a body in one second . Consider a body moving with constant speed v
VELOCITY DURING CIRCULAR in a circle of radius r
MOTION If it travels from A to B in a short
Consider a body moving in a circle of radius r time, t then vA and vB are tangential
with uniform speed v velocities at A and B respectively .
In a small time t ,the object covers a small Also v A  vB  v
distance s on the circumference from A to B
and sweeps out a small angle  at the centre of
the circle as shown below .

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 v
vB In limit as t  0,  a , acceleration
t
vA v2
B a ..................(iv)
r  r
 s Method 2:
Let an object describe angle 2 at the centre of
r a circle of circle of radius r in a time t with
A uniform velocity v from A to B .
Distance described(AB
angle described
)=  circumference
2

s   2 r
2
s  r  ...................(i )
Dividing both sides by t
s 
r
t t
s
In limits as t  0,  v
t
 If s is the distance covered from A to B ,and that
vr angle 2 is small ,
t
S  r  2 ...........(i)
vt
   ...............(ii) Resolving velocity at A and at B ,
r
Considering a velocity -vector diagram below ,

v A  vB  v
vA



 vB
 v cos    v cos  
vA    , vB   
 v sin    v sin  
Acceleration in the horizontal direction,
v v
ax  B A
t
v cos   v cos 
ax 
t
a x  0, no acceleration .
Acceleration in the vertical direction ,
Similarly just like eqn(i) , v v
ay  B A
v  v t
v v sin   sin 
   ..................(iii) ay 
v t
Equating eqn(ii) and (iii) gives
2v sin 
vt v ay 
 t
r v
2
v v If  is small , sin    ,

r t

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 2v F  ma
a
t v2
F  m
v  2  r
a .................(ii )
t mv 2
F .......................(i )
From equation (i) ; r

s  r  2 Also v  r

m  r 
2
s
 2  .................(iii ) F
r r
F  mr 2 ................(ii)
Substituting eqn (iii) into (ii)

v s Also since a   2 r
a 
t r
a   2 f 
2
r
v s
a  a  4 f r 2 2
r t
v  F  ma gives
a  v
r F  m  4 2 f 2r 
v2
a  F  4 2 f 2rm........................(iii )
r
Definition : Centripetal force is the force which
Also since v  r  ,acceleration can be keeps an object moving round a circle and acts
towards the centre .
v 2  r 
2

a  NOTE : - If the force acts away from the centre

r r
of the circle , then it is called a centrifugal force .
a   r
2

THE CENTRIFUGE
v2
This acceleration a  or a   2 r during - It is used to ;
r
circular motion is called Centripetal 1. separate liquids of different densities .
acceleration . 2. separate solid particles dropped in a
solution .
Definition : Centripetal acceleration is the rate
of change of velocity of an object moving round WORKED EXAMPLES
a circle and its direction is towards the centre of
1. An object of mass 0.2kg moves round a
the circular path .
circle of radius 20 cm with period of 0.5
NOTE: If the rate of change of velocity with seconds. Find the centripetal force .
time acts away from the centre of the circle , it is 2. An object of mass 50 g describes 4
referred to as Centrifugal acceleration . revolutions per second round a circle of
radius 10 cm .Find the centripetal force .
Definition : Centrifugal acceleration is the rate
of change of velocity of an object moving round INSTANCES WHERE A CENTRIPETAL
a circle and is directed away from the centre of FORCE IS EXPERINCED .
the circle .
1. An object attached to one end of a string
FORCE DURING CIRCULAR MOTION and whirled in a horizontal circle
experiences a centripetal force .The
The force acting on a body during circular centripetal force is equal to the tension in
motion is called centripetal force . the string and it is felt as heat at the
fingers .
Centripetal force = mass  centripetal
acceleration .

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 planet
sun r mp

Ms
Centripetal force = tension
(i) v  u at
1
(ii) s  ut  at2
2
(iii) v2  u2 2as
orbit
1 1 1
(iv)  
f u v

mv 2
 T ,m –is the mass of the object
r
and v- is the velocity . Centripetal force = gravitational force
Radius of the circle = length of the
mpv 2 GM S m p
string .(r = l) 
2. For a cyclist moving on a circular track , r r2
centripetal force is the friction on the
tyres . Where v  velocity of planet

m p  mass of the planet

M s  mass of sun

r  radius of orbit
G- Universal gravitational constant .
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TENSION IN
THE STRING DURING CIRCULAR MOTION
IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE
Let an object of mass m be attached to a string of
2 length l and whirled in a vertical circle with
mv
 F , F   R, is the friction force . velocity v as shown .
r
m- is the mass of the cycle and cyclist and v – is
velocity .
Likewise for the motorist ,total friction on the
tyres provides the centripetal

Radius of the circle is the length of the

string ,i.e r  l
force .
The object can be seen at positions A ,B , C and
mv 2 D during motion .
 F1  F2
r
At each position ,centripetal force on the object
3. A planet moving the sun experiences a is the resultant force towards the centre of the
centripetal force equal to the circle .
gravitational force of attraction between
At point A;
the planet and the sun .
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 mv 2
T1 
r
At point C ; Axis of rotation

r
mv2
T3  v
r Parabolic
Thus T1  T3 path
h

At position B;

mv 2 Ground
T2  mg 
r

mv 2 Example
T2   mg
r An object of mass 0.02kg is attached to one end
of a string of length 40 cm and then whirled in
At position D; a vertical circle with uniform velocity .The axis
of rotation is 70 cm above the ground and the
mv 2
T4  mg  string is likely to break when tension exceeds 50
r N .Find;
mv 2
T4   mg (i) Linear speed and angular velocity at
r
breaking point .
The results show that tension in the string is the (ii) Time taken by the object to hit the
same when the object is at A and C . ground .
(iii) Distance away where the object hits
Tension is minimum when the object is at B (on the ground .
top of the circle ) DATA
mv 2 m  0.02kg , l  r  40cm  0.4m, T max  50 N
Tmin   mg
r
The tension is maximum at position D (at the
bottom of the circle )

mv 2
Tmax   mg
r
It is at point D that the string is likely to break
due to maximum tension . tension .
After breaking , the resultant motion of the
object is a parabolic path in a direction of a
tangential velocity .

(i) Breaking point is at bottom of the

circle,
mv 2
Tmax   mg
r

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 0.02v 2 (i) Velocity at the new point
50   0.02  9.81 (ii) Tension in the string by then .
0.4
Data
50  0.05v 2  0.1962
v 2  996.076 (i)
v  31.56 m s 1
Using
v 31.56
v  r     78.9 rad s 1
r 0.4

(ii) Using
1
s  ut  at 2
2
: s  0.30m , u y  0, a  9.81 ms 2
1
0.30  0  t   9.81t 2
2
2
0.60  9.81t
t  0.06116
60o 2m
t  0.25 m s 1 y
2m
(iii)
x  ut
h
x  31.56  0.25  7.89m

EXERCISE 33 y
cos 60o 
1. An object of mass 50 g is attached to a 2
string of length 50 cm and whirled in a y  2 cos 60o  1m
vertical circle with uniform velocity .The yh2
axis of rotation is 2m above the ground
and the string can break if tension in it  h  2  1  1m
exceeds 40N . At point A (On projection )
(i) In what position is the string
likely to break? 1
(ii) Find linear velocity and angular K .E   0.4  20 2  80 J
2
velocity of the object at breaking
P.E  0.4  9.81 0  0 J
point .
(iii) Find time taken by the object to M .EA  P.E  K .E
hit the ground and the distance it
covers .  0  80  80 J
2. An object of mass 40g is attached to a
string of length 50 cm and whirled in a At B (new position)
vertical circle with a velocity of 1
10 ms 1 .Find minimum and maximum K .E   0.4  v 2  0.2v 2
2
tension in the string .
P.E  0.4  9.81 1  3.924 J
EXAMPLE M .EB  0.2v 2  3.924
An object of mass 0.4 kg hangs on a vertical
Using principle of conservation of energy ,
fixed string of length 2 m. It is then projected
horizontally with a velocity 20 m s 1 to describe M .E A  M .EB
circular motion in a vertical circle. At some 80  0.2v 2  3.924
point ,the string makes an angle 60owith the
initial position .Find ; v  19.50 m s 1

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 (i) At the new position B ; Vertically; T cos   mg..................(ii)
Centripetal force = resultant force towards Dividing (i) by (ii) gives
the centre .
mv 2
mv 2 T sin  r
 T  0.4 g cos 60O 
r T cos  mg
v2
0.4  19.50 2 tan  
 T  1.962 rg
76.05
or v 2  rg tan 
T  76.05  1.962
T  78.012 N Trial exercise 34
Trial question : 1. An object of mass 0.4 kg is suspended
on a vertical fixed string and then set into
An object of mass 0.8kg is suspended on a circular motion in a horizontal circle with
vertical fixed string of length 2.8 m .The object uniform velocity 20 m s-1 .If radius of
is then projected horizontally with a velocity the circle is 4 cm , find ;
10ms-1 so that it describes circular circle .Find its (i) Angle of inclination of the string
velocity and tension at a point where the string to the vertical .
is inclined at angle 50o to the initial position . (ii) Length of the string .
OTHER SYSTEMS EXECUTING CIRCULAR (iii) Tension in the string .
MOTION (iv) Period of the motion .
2. A conical pendulum has period of
A: CONICAL PENDULUM 0.5seconds and its string makes 60o with
the downward vertical .If its mass is 0.2
This is an object of mass m suspended on a kg ,find ;
vertical fixed string and set into circular motion (i) Radius of the circle .
round a horizontal circle with a velocity v ms-1 (ii) Length of the string .
(iii) Height of the point of suspension
of the string above the circle .
(iv) Tension in the string .
 T cos  3. A bob of mass 0.20kg is suspended by an
T
extensible string of length 0.80m and
 then set to rotate in a horizontal circle of
radius 0.04 m .Find ;
mv 2 (i) Linear speed of the bob .
T sin 
r (ii) Tension in the string .
(iii) Periodic time .
mg (iv) Frequency in the circle .
4. A stone of mass 0.5kg is tied to one end
of a string 1m long .The point of
During motion ,the string becomes inclined at an suspension of the string is 2m above the
angle  to the vertical so that the vertical ground .The stone is whirled in a
component T cos  of the tension balances the
weight mg of the object and the horizontal
component T sin  provides the centripetal force
mv 2
necessary to keep the object in motion
r
round the circle .
Resolving forces at equilibrium ,

mv 2
Horizontally ; T sin   .....................(i)
r
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 horizontal circle with increasing (i) Vertical height of the point of
suspension above the circle.(h = 0.994m)
(ii) Length of the string, (l = 1.99m)
 (iv) Velocity of the mass attached to the
T string.(v = 5.41ms-1)

2m B: A PLANE BANKING ITS WINGS

- A plane can execute circular motion y
stone banking its wings at an angle to the
horizontal .
- During forward horizontal motion ,the
G upward lift force on the wings balances
its weight mg .

Lift force (F)

If the string breaks when tension in it is 12.5N lift lift

and angle  is maximum ,

(i) Calculate the maximum value of  .

(ii) How far from G will the stone hit the
ground .
(iii) What will be the velocity of stone of Weight ( mg)
the stone when of hits the ground . - During negotiating a corner (circular
5. A steel ball of 0.5kg is suspended from a motion ),the horizontal component of the
light inelastic string of length 1m. The lift force provides the necessary
ball describes a horizontal circle of radius centripetal force to keep the plane in
0.5m.Find motion while the vertical component
(i) The centripetal speed of the ball balances its weight .
(ii) The angular speed of the ball
(iii) The angle between the string and the
radius of the circle if the angular
speed is increased to such a values
that the tension in the
6. An object of mass 0.5kg on the end of
the string is whirled around in a
horizontal circle of radius 2m, with a
constant speed of 10ms-1. Find its angular
velocity and the tension in the string.
7. A small ball of mass 0.1 kg is suspended
by an inextensible string of length
0.5m and is caused to rotate in a horizontal circle
of radius 0.4m. Find
(i) The resultant of these forces. ( 1.3N)
(ii) The period of rotation. (1.1s)
8. A pendulum bob of mass 0.2kg is
- Resolving forces in the horizontal ,
attached to one end of an inelastic string
of length 1.2m. The bob moves in a mv 2
F sin   .......................(i)
horizontal circle with the string inclined r
at 30° to the vertical. Calculate: - Resolving forces in the vertical ,
(i) the tension in the string F cos   mg.................(ii)
(ii) the period of the motion - Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii) ,
9. The period of oscillation of a conical
pendulum is 2.0s. If the string makes an
angle of 60° to the vertical at the point of
suspension, calculate the:

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 mv 2 mv 2
F sin  r F r
 
F cos  mg R mg
v2 F v2
tan   
rg R rg
NOTE : During circular motion ,a plane F
increases speed so as to increase the - But from F   R ,   
R
centripetal force necessary to maintain it in v2
motion round a circular track . 
TRIAL QUESTIONS rg
1. A plane of mass 5 tonnes negotiates a  v   rg
circular path of radius 2km with speed of Where  is the coefficient of friction of the road
360km/h. Find;
surface .
(i) Angle of inclination of the wings
- The result above shows that velocity of
to the horizontal .
the cyclist is increased by ;
(ii) Centripetal force .
(i) Increasing the roughness of the
2. (a) Explain why a pilot banks the wings
road surface .
of a plane in order to move round a
(ii) Increasing the radius of the
circular track?
circular track .
(b) Why does the speed of the plane
TRIAL QUESTION
moving in a circular track increases ?
1. A cyclist of total mass 50kg rises on a
(c ) A pilot banks the wings of his air
circular track of radius 2000 cm on a
craft so as to travel at a speed of 360
road surface of coefficient of friction
km/h in a circular horizontal path of
0.25 .Find ;
radius 5.0km .Find the angle at which he
(i) Velocity of the cyclist .
should bank the aircraft .
(ii) The centripetal force .
C: CYCLIST ON A CIRCULAR TRACK .
NOTE :
- Let a cyclist and cycle of total mass M
In order for the cyclist to negotiate a circular
move with uniform velocity v on a
track at a reasonably high speed ,he must bend
circular track of radius r as shown .
through an angle from the vertical towards the
centre of the track .
EXPLANATION
During motion round the circular track ,the
centripetal force produces a moment of force
about the centre of gravity on the cyclist away
from the centre of the track .
The cyclist leans towards the centre so that the
normal reaction produces a moment of force
about the centre of gravity on the cyclist towards
the centre to counter balance the moment of
centripetal force and the cyclist is kept in motion
- For vertical equilibrium , on the track .
R  mg...............(i)
- For horizontal equilibrium ,the
centripetal force is equal to the frictional
force on the tyres .
mv 2
F ..................(ii)
r
- Dividing equation (i) by (ii)

h is the height of the centre of gravity G above

the road surface .

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When the cyclist leans ,G is displaced through a 2. Derive an expression for the angle of
distance a from the original position . inclination to the horizontal necessary for
Taking moments about G . a rider moving round a circular track of
radius r without skidding at a speed v in
R terms of g , r and v .
D: MOTORIST ON A BANKED ROAD
Definition : Banking is the inclination of the
G mv 2 road surface at an angle to the horizontal to
r enable the car easily negotiate a corner

h without overturning and also move at a high
 speed.
a
F
mg

F h  Ra
F a
 .................(1)
R h
Considering the triangle from the diagram
below ,


h

a  - banking angle
It should be noted that during road
a construction ,friction is assumed to be negligible
tan   ..................(2)
h (F = 0) but it comes into play during motion of a
Resolving forces horizontally , motor car on the road surface .
mv 2 ANALYSING THE MOTION
F .........................(i)
r R R cos 
Resolving vertically ,
R  mg......................(ii) 
Dividing equation (i) by (ii), F cos 
mv 2
mv 2 R sin  
F r F r
 F sin 
R mg 
F v2
 ...................(3)
R rg mg
Substituting (2) and (3) into equation (1) gives ;
v2 R  total reaction due to contact of tyres with
 tan 
rg the ground .
F  total friction on to all tyres .
v  rg tan  m  total mass of the motorcar and motorist .
or
 v2  Resolving forces in equilibrium ,
  tan  
1
Horizontally :
 rg  mv 2
Examinable questions F cos   R sin  
r
1. Explain why it is necessary for a bicycle
But F cos  0 , since F= 0
rider moving round a circular path to lean
towards the centre of the path .
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 mv 2 F  total friction on to all tyres  F   R  .
R sin   .................(i)
r m  total mass of the motorcar and motorist
Vertically ; Resolving horizontally ;
R cos   F sin   mg mv 2
But F sin   0  R cos   R sin   ...........(i)
r
R cos   mg...................(i) Resolving vertically ;
Dividing equation (i) by (ii) R cos    R sin   mg
mv 2 R cos    R sin   mg ........(ii )
R sin  r

R cos  mg Dividing equation (i) by (ii)
mv 2
v2  R cos  R sin  r
tan   
rg R cos    R sin  mg
v 2  rg tan   cos   sin  v 2

v  rg tan  cos    sin  rg
QUESTION : Explain why velocity on a Dividing by cos 
banked circular track is higher than that on  cos  sin 
 2
a level track . cos  cos   v
Data cos   sin  rg

On a level track ,the centripetal force is only due cos  cos 
to friction on the tyres . On a banked track ,the   tan  v 2
centripetal force is provided by the friction on 
1   tan  rg
the tyres and the horizontal component of
normal reaction thus leading to a higher speed    tan  
v 2  rg  
due to increased centripetal force .  1   tan  
Review questions :
(a) What is meant by banking a track?    tan  
 vmax  rg  
(b) Explain why a car moves with high speed  1   tan  
on a banked track than un banked track . CASE 2:Slipping towards the centre
(c) Derive an expression for the banking In this case ,friction acts away from the centre so
angle for a car of mass m moving with as to oppose the slip .
speed v on a banked track of radius r .
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
VELOCITY ON A BANKED TRUCK
DURING SLIPPING .
CASE 1: Slipping away from the centre .
In this case ,friction acts towards from the
centre so as to oppose the slip .

R  total reaction due to contact of tyres with

the ground .
F  total friction on to all tyres  F   R  .
m  total mass of the motorcar and motorist
Resolving horizontally ;
mv 2
R sin    R cos  
r
R  total reaction due to contact of tyres with mv 2
R sin    R cos   ..........(i )
the ground . r
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Resolving vertically; MV 2
R sin    R sin   mg...............(ii) F1  F2  ...............(i)
r
Dividing equation (i) by (ii) Resolving vertically ;
mv 2 R1  R2  Mg.....................(ii)
R sin    R cos  r

R cos    R sin  mg Taking moments about the centre of gravity G ,
sin    cos  v 2 R1
 R2
cos    sin  rg G
tan    v 2 a a
 2 2
h
1  tan  rg
 tan    
v 2  rg    F1  F2 
 1   tan  
 tan     Mg
vmin  rg  
 1   tan  
NOTE : Velocity is maximum during slipping a a
 F1  F2   h  R1 
 R2 
away from the centre and it is minimum when 2 2
the body is slipping towards the centre of the  MV 2
R1a R2 a
banked track .  h 
 r  2 2
TRIAL QUESTIONS
1. A car travels round a bend banked at an From
angle of 22.6o .If the radius of curvature R1  R2  Mg
of the bend is 62.5 m and the coefficient  R2  Mg  R1
of friction between the tyres of the car
and the road surface is 0.3 .Calculate the MV 2 h R1a  Mg  R1  a
 
maximum speed of the car on the bend . r 2 2
2. A car of mass 500 kg moves on a rough 2 MV h 2

circular track of radius 20m and  R1a  Mga  R1a

r
coefficient of friction 20.5o to the
2 MV 2 h
horizontal .Find 2 R1a  Mga 
(i) Maximum velocity of the car . r
2
(ii) Reaction on the car . Mg MV h
R1  
CONDITION FOR A CAR TO OVER- 2 ar
TURN For overturning , R1  0 ,there is loss of contact
Let a motorist of total mass M with tyre
of the inner tyre with the road surfaces ,skidding
separation distance a whose centre of gravity G
occurs and the car is set to overturn .
is at height h above the ground be moving with
uniform velocity on a level circular track of Mg MV 2 h
  0
radius r as shown below . 2 ar
R1 R2 Mg MV 2 h

2 ar
2
g V h

2 ar
G MV 2 arg  2V 2 h
a a r 2V 2 h  arg
centre 2 2 h
arg
V2 
F1 F2 2h
r arg
Mg V
2h
Note :
Resolving horizontally ;

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 1. In order to drive the car at a reasonably 1. The vehicle is likely to overturn if
high velocity (speed), the following must - The bend is sharp (r is small)
be done ; - The centre of gravity is high (h is large)
(i) Increasing the tyre separation . - The distance between the tires is small (a
(ii) Increasing the radius of the circular is small)
track . Skidding
(iii) Lowering the centre of gravity . A vehicle will skid when the available centripetal
2. For the car not to overturn ,the inner tyre force is not enough to balance the centrifugal
does not lose contact with the road force (force away from the centre of the circle),
surface . the vehicle fails to negotiate the curve and goes
off truck outwards.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS For no skidding, the centripetal force must be
1. A car of mass m and tyre separation greater or equal to the centrifugal force i.e.
distance a ,height of centre of gravity h Skidding will occur if
moves on a circular track of radius r with - The vehicle is moving too fast
a velocity v .Show that if the car does - The bend is too sharp (r is small)
arg - The road is slippery (μ is small )
not overturn if v 2  , where g – is the 2. BANKING OF A TRACK
2h
acceleration due to gravity . This is the building of the track round a corner
2. Define the following terms; with the outer edge raised above the inner one in
(i) Circular motion . order to increase the maximum safe speed for no
(ii) Angular velocity skidding.
(iii) Centripetal acceleration - When a road is banked, some extra
(iv) Centripetal force . centripetal force is provided by the
3. Derive an expression for speed v of horizontal component of the normal
body moving with angular velocity  on reaction.
a circular track of radius r . - When determining the angle of banking
4. Show that acceleration of a body with during the construction of the
uniform speed v round a circular track of road ,friction is ignored.
TOPIC 15 :
v2
radius r is . GRAVITATION/PLANETORY
r MOTION
5. Derive an expression for the force F on This is motion of planets(heavenly bodies) in the
an object of mass m moving with universe .
angular velocity  round a circle of There are three laws which govern gravitational
radius r . motion according to Kepler and they are known
6. Explain the action of a centrifuge . as Kepler’s laws of Gravitation .
7. A bend of 200m radius on a level road is Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion
banked at the correct angle for a speed of
15ms-1. If a vehicle rounds the bend at 1. Planets revolve in elliptical orbits having
30ms-1, what is the minimum coefficient the sun at one focus.
of kinetic friction between the tyres and
the road so that the vehicle will not skid. Elliptical path
8. A car travels round a bend in road which
is a circular arc of radius 62.5m.The road planet
is banked at angle 40o to the horizontal sun
the coefficient of friction between the
tyres of the car and the road surface is 0.4.
Find
(i) the greatest speed at which the car 2. Each planet revolve in such a way that
can be driven round the bend without the imaginary line joining it to the sun
slipping. sweeps out equal areas in equal time
(ii) The least speed at which this can intervals.
happen.

Summary
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 Numerical value of G= 6.67 1011 Nm2 kg 2
A D
Using Newton’s law of Gravitation to deduce
S S
sun t Kepler’s third law of gravitation .
t
Consider a planet of mass m moves with
B C speedvin a orbit of radius r round the sun of
mass M.
Area SAB swept = area SCD swept in time apart .
interval t .
3. Each planet revolve e squares of the
periods of revolution of the planets are
proportional to the cubes of their mean Mass , m
distances from the sun. i.e T 2  r 3 SUN PLANET
Newton’s Law of Gravitation r
According to Newton ,a force of attraction
between exists between two bodies at a given Mass, M
separation distance r in the universe .
STATEMENT :
orbit
“The force of attraction between two bodies in
the universe is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distance
apart .” The force of attraction between the sun and the
N.B: GMm
planet, F  2 …………..(i)
He proposed that the path of orbit of a planet r
round the sun is circular rather than elliptical.
The centripetal force keeping the planet in orbit
mv 2
is F  ......................(ii)
Mass , M 2 r
The force of attraction = centripetal force
So equating (i) and (ii) gives
r
GMm mv 2

Mass, M 1 r2 r
GM
v2  ................(iii )
r
If the planet makes 1 revolution about the
sun ,then the time taken is the
1
F  M 1M 2 and F  2 v 2 r
r2 period , T  and since    T 
 r v
M 1M 2 2 r
F v  ……………..(iv)
r2 T
GM 1M 2 Substituting (iv) into equation (iii) gives
F
r2
Where G is a constant known as the Universal 2
 2 r  GM
gravitational constant.   
Dimensions of G.  T  r
Fr 2 4 r2 2
GM
G 2

M 1M 2 T r
4 r
2 3
 F  r 2  T2 
 G   GM
 M 1  M 2   4 2  3
2
MLT 2 .L2 T  r
G    M 1L3T 2  GM 
M .M
 T 2  r3
Units of G: Nm2 kg 2 or m3 s 2 kg 1
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Since 4 2 , G, M are all constants . - Periodic time T is calculated from
This verifies Kepler’s THIRD LAW. t
T
Experiment to determine universal N
gravitational constantG . I
- From T  2 , where is I isthe
Torsion Polished C
wire bar
moment of inertia of inertia of the
rod .Hence C can be obtained .
MASS OF THE SUN
Consider the earth of mass me moves with speed
l v in a orbit of radius r round the sun of mass Ms.
apart .
b B

d
A a Mass , me
d
SUN Earth
r
Two identical small gold spheres a and b of
known mass m each are tied at the ends of a Mass, M s
highly polished bar of known length , l .
Two identical large lead spheres A and B of orbit
known mass M each are then respectively
brought near a and b .Due to attraction of the
two spheres near each other ,a couple is set up at
the ends of the polished bar . The force of attraction between the sun and the
The bar is then deflected through an angle  GM s me
measured by lamp and scale method in radians. earth is F  ..................(i )
r
The distance d between the spheres is measured Centripetal force responsible for circular motion
and recorded .
The force of attraction between any two spheres m v2
of the earth in a fixed orbit is F  e
GMm r
is obtained from F  2 r
d2 But v  ,
The moment of the couple on the bar or torque, T
  F l m  2 r 
2

F e 
GMm r  T 
 l
d2 4 2 rme
The opposing torque on the torsional wire F ...................(ii)
T
is   C ,where C–is torsional constant of the Equating (i) and (ii) gives
wire .
GM s me 4 2 rme
The bar stops rotating if the deflecting torque = 
opposing torque r2 T2
3
GMm 4 2 r
 C Ms 
d2 GT 2
C d 2 Note:
G The earth takes 1 year to revolve round the sun.
Mml
The distance between the sun and the earth is
Hence G can be found .
NOTE: approximately 1.5 108 km .
- The constant C of the torsion wire is If T = 1 year = 365  24  3600s
obtained by setting the polished bar t r  1.5 108 km  1.5 1011 m
with its gold masses into angular G = 6.67 1011 Nm2 kg
oscillations .
- Time t for N- oscillations is determined
and recorded.
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 4 2 1.5 108 
3 1. Motion of planets is circular and they
Ms  move round the sun at the focus .
6.67 10 11 365  24  3600 
2
2. The moon carries out circular motion
M s  2  1030 kg
round the sun .
3. A satellite is a space body which moves
Mass and density of the earth round another space body .
Consider a body of mass m on the surface of the 4. The moon is a natural satellite of the
earth of mass me .The earth is assumed to be earth .
spherical and uniform ,so its mass is 5. All planets are satellites of the sun .
concentrated at is centre . 6. It takes 27.3 days for the moon to move
round the earth and it takes 365 days for
m Body earth to revolve once round the sun .
7. The revolution of the earth results into
seasons while rotation causes days and
mg re
nights .
Me 8. There are also man made
bodies(satellites) which are sent in space
EARTH to move round given planets .

The force of gravity acting on the body is ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY ON

F  mg . EARTH .
The force of attraction between the body and the By considering motion of the moon round the
GM e m earth, the value of acceleration due to gravity on
earth is F  where re  radius of the the earth can be found .
re 2
earth .
GM e m Mass , m
 mg
re 2 Earth moon
GM e  gre 2
r

gre 2 Mass, M e
Me 
G
N.B: orbit
The radius of the earth is known to be 6400km =
6.4 10 6 m . - Period of the moon round the earth is
Mass of 27.3 days .
9.81  6.4  106 
2
T  27.3  24  3600s
earth , M e  11
 6.0  1024 kg  2358720s
6.67  10
If the earth is a sphere ,then volume of the - Radius of the moon’s orbit
4 r  60.1re
earth , Ve   re 3
3 r  60.1 6.4  10 6
Density of earth
r  38464000m
gre 2 Let the moon of mass m move round the
mass G
  earth of mass Me with angular velocity  .
voulme 4
 re 3 Force of attraction =centripetal force on the
3 moon .
3g GM e m
  mr 2
4 reG r 2

3  9.81 2 2
 But from T   
4  6.4 10 6   6.67 1011  T
  5500kg m 3 GM e  r 3 2
Key discoveries :

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  2 
2 T.V signal from point A of the earth is
2 3
 gre  r   transmitted to geostationary satellite 1.The
 T  signals are then transmitted to 2 ,then to 3 which
then transmits to point B of the earth where there
is a receiver .
NOTE:
4 2 r 3 When the satellite is in a parking orbit, period ,T
g
re 2T 2 = 24 hours = 24 x 3600s
G  6.67 1011 Nm2 kg 2
4 2  384640000 
3

g Me = 6 1024 kg
 6.4 10    2358720
6 2
If m is mass of satellite, r- is radius of parking
g  9.86 m s 2 orbit
EXERCISE
The moon moves round the earth in an orbit of
radius 3.85  105 km with a period of 27.3
days .Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on
the earth’s surface .

PARKING ORBIT
A parking orbit is a path in space of a satellite
which makes it appear to be in the stationary
position relative to an observer at a point on
earth .
A satellite launched with a speed such that its Then centripetal force = force of attraction
period equals that of the earth’s rotation about its
mv 2 GM e m
axis and is in the same sense as that of rotation 
of the earth is called the Synchronous or r r2
Geostationary satellite. GM
r 2e
To an observer on the earth’s surface, such a v
satellite appears to be stationary. 2 r
The orbit of the synchronous satellite is called a But v 
T
Parking orbit.
GM e
Uses r
 
2
Geostationary satellite can be used to relay TV 2 r
T
signals and telephone.
Explanation GM eT 2
r3 
Messages from one point on the earth surface to 4 2
other points. 6.67 10 11  6 10 24   24  3600 
2
3
r 
4 2
1 1
r   7.567  10 22  3

r  4.23 107 m
A Height above the earth for a parking orbit,
2 EARTH h  r  re
4
h  4.23  107  6.4  106
B h  3.59  107 m
Variation of acceleration due to gravity
The acceleration due to gravity varies with both
3 altitude and latitude
Variation of acceleration due to gravity with
A set of three or geostationary satellites are latitude
launched in a parking orbit as shown. A radio or
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The acceleration due to gravity increases from
9.78ms-2at the equator to 9.83ms-2at the poles.
The observed variation of g over the earth’s
surface is due to
(i) the effect of the earth’s rotation
(ii) the non- spheroid of their earth
The effect of the earth’s rotation: Because the
earth rotates about it axis, its gravitational
pull on the body on the equator has to provide a
centripetal acceleration.
Effect of non- spheroid of the earth: The earth
is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid
whose equatorial radius exceeds polar radius by
about 21.5km i.e. the body at the equator is
slightly further away than at the poles. Hence - Inside the earth’s surface ,acceleration
acceleration at the poles is slightly exceeds the due to gravity varies linearly with
acceleration at the equator. distance since density of the earth is
Variation of acceleration due to gravity with assumed to be
altitude 4 re G 
uniform , g  thus
-At the earth’s surface 3
GM e  gre 2 g   ,where  is density .
GM e - Outside the earth’s surface ,acceleration
g ....................(i ) due to gravity obeys the inverse square law .It
re 2
decreases with increase in distance r from the
- Above the earth’s surface, 1
If a body is at a point a distance r from the centre earth’s surface according to g   2
r
of the earth where r > re
variation of acceleration due to gravity with
Then acceleration due to gravity is g  .
height h above the earth’s surface .
 GM e  g r 2
GM e At a height h above the earth’s
g  .......................(ii ) surface , r  re  h .
r2
Dividing (ii) by (i) gives , gr
Substituting for r in g   2e
GM e r
g r2 2
 gre
g GM e g 
 re  h 
2
re 2
2
g  re 2  
  1 
g r2 g  g
 1 h 
 
re 
gre 2 
g  2
r2  h
But gre 2  constant , g   1   g
 re 
1 2 2
g  2  h  h  (2  1)  h 
r  1    1  2       ....
Graph showing variation of acceleration due to  re   re  2  re 
gravity with distance from centre of the earth h
A graph of g  against r Since h  re ,higher powers of   greater than
 re 
one can be neglected .
2
 1  h   1  2h
 re 
 re
Thus
 2h 
g   1   g
 re 
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 1 1 
POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC W  GM em   
r 
ENERGY OF A SATELLITE OR SPACE
CRAFT. 1 
W  GM em   0 
A space craft is a man-made satellite carried by a r 
rocket in space and fired to execute circular GM e m
motion in circular round a given plane. W
r
Let a satellite of mass m be in circular motion of Therefore gravitational potential energy is the
radius r wit velocity v round the earth of mass work done to move a body from infinity to a
M e as shown . point in gravitational field .
P.E of the satellite at distance r from the centre
of the earth is
GM em
P.E 
r
Kinetic energy of the satellite .
a
  P
V 
2

a   P
V 2 
a   P V 2 

For circular motion ,

Centripetal force = gravitation force of attraction
mv 2 GM e
 2
r r
GM e
mv 2 
r
Multiplying both sides by half gives
The force of attraction between the earth and 1 2 1 GM e m
satellite of mass m at a distance x from the mv 
2 2 r
GM e m 1 2 GM e m
centre of the earth is F  ……..(i) mv 
x2 2 2r
If the satellite is moved through x towards the GM e m
earth ,work done by gravitational force is  K .E 
W  F x.................(ii) 2r
Mechanical energy of the satellite in an orbit .
If the satellite is moved from infinity to a point a
Mechanical energy = kinetic energy +potential
distance r from the centre of the earth ,the work
energy
done by the gravitational force is M .E  P.E  K .E
r
W   Fdx GM e m GM e m

M .E  
r  GM m  r 2r
W   2
e
dx GM e m

 x  M .E 
r 1 2r
W  GM e m  2 dx Velocity of escape
 x

r
Velocity of escape is the minimum vertical
W  GM e m  x 2 dx velocity with which the body must be

r projected from the earth so that it will never
 x 2 1  return to the earth.
W  GM e m  
 2  1   The work done required for a body to escape
r GM e m
 x 1 
W  GM e m   re
 1   If the body leaves the earth with speed v ad just
1
r
escapes from its gravitational field
W  GM e m  
 x 

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1 2 GM e m GM e m
mv  K .E B 
2 re 2r
2GM e 6.67  1011  5.97  1024  100
v2  
re 2  6.78  106 
2GM e  2.94  109 J
v
re Gain in P.E = P.EA – P.EB
But also GM e  gre 2  5.87  109   6.22  109

v  2 gre  6.22  109  5.87  109

 3.50  108 J
Gain in K.E  K .EB  K .EA
 2.94 109  0  2.94 109 J
EXAMPLES M.E = Gain in P.E +Gain in K.E
1. A satellite of mass 100 kg is in a circular  3.50 108  2.94 109
orbit at a height 380km above the earth’s
surface .  3.29 109 J
Calculate the potential energy ,kinetic EXERCISE 34
energy and mechanical energy of the 1. Calculate the mechanical energy of a
satellite . satellite of mass 200 kg at the earth’s
Data surface.
Mass of satellite ,m =100kg 2. Calculate potential energy,kinetic energy
Mass of the earth , M e  5.97  10 24 kg and mechanical energy of a satellite of
mass 200kg in a circular orbit at a height
Radius of orbit, r  re  h of 420km above the earth’s surface .
r  6.4  106  380  103  6.78  106 m 3. A satellite of mass m is raised from the
earth’s surface into an orbit of radius r
B Mass , m (satellite)
and then set into circular motion .Show
h that total/mechanical energy of the
A GM e m
Earth r
satellite is  2r  re  .
re 2r re
Effect of air resistance/friction to
motion of satellite/space craft.
Mass, M e
- During motion of the satellite, friction
orbit resistance between air and the surface of
a satellite forces the satellite to reduce
radius of orbit .
At point A on the earth’s surface ;
- The satellite moves in an orbit of small
GM e m radius close the earth’s surface .
P.E A 
re - The speed of the satellite increases which
6.67  10 11  5.97  10 24  100 cause an increase in kinetic energy and
P.E A  decrease in potential energy.
6.4 10 6
- Increase in kinetic energy causes heat
 6.22  10 9 J generation over the surface of the
K .EA  0 J ,since there is no motion at the satellite which eventually make it burn
earth’s surface . out .
At point B in the orbit ; Effect of increase in mechanical energy to
GM e m motion of a satellite .
P.EB  - Increase in mechanical energy of a
r
satellite causes an increase in kinetic
6.67  10 11  5.97  10 24  100 energy and a decrease in potential energy.

6.78 10 6 - Increase in kinetic energy causes increase
 5.87  109 J in speed of the satellite and decrease in
radius of orbit.

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Increase in speed results into heat generation 1 
over the surface of the satellite which causes the V  GM   0 
R 
satellite to burn out .
GM
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH V
Let a mass m(kg) be placed in the gravitational R
field of a planet . The negative sign indicates that gravitational
Force on the mass = mass  acceleration due to potential at infinity is zero.
gravity. Also it is negative because work done against
F  mg the gravitational force of attraction to move the
1kg mass from infinity towards the planet.
F
g WEIGHTLESSNESS
m This is a sensation experienced by an astronaut
Where g is the gravitational field strength . while in a circular orbit above the earth’s surface
S.I units of g is N/kg or N kg-1. when he receives no reaction from the surface of
Definition:Gravitational field strength is the contact.
work done to move 1kg mass placed in the UNEB QUESTIONS
gravitational field. UNEB 2017
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL (V) A satellite revolves in a circular orbit at a height
This is the work done to move a 1kg mass from of 600km above the earth’s surface.Calculate
infinity to a point in the gravitational field. the
Derivation: (i) Speed of the satellite.
Let a mass of 1kg be initially at a distance r from (ii) Periodic time of the satellite.
a planet of mass M. UNEB 2015
planet
(i) Derive an expression for the
r period ,T of a satellite in a circular
orbit of radius r above the earth in
M terms of the mass of the earth
R r m,gravitational constant G and r.
infinity (ii) A satellite of mass 200kg is launched
in a circular orbit at a height 3.59 ×
Initially, gravitational force of attraction between 107� above the earth’s surface. Find
GM  1 the mechanical energy of the satellite.
F
r2 (iii) Explain what will happen to the
the planet and 1kg mass is satellite if its mechanical energy was
GM
F 2 reduced.
r
UNEB 2011
Work done to move 1kg from infinity through a
A body of mass 15kg is moved from earth’s
small distance r to a point at a distance R from
the earth. surface to a point 1.8 × 106 m above the earth.If
Work done = gravitational potential the radius of the earth is
= force  distance moved 6.4 × 1024 ��,calculate the work done in taking
W  F  r the body to that point.
UNEB 2008
V GM r
If the moon moves round the earth in a circular
0
dW  
 r2
dr
orbit of radius 4.0 × 108 � and takes exactly
R 1 27.3 days to go round once. Calculate the value
V  GM  2 dr
 r of acceleration due to gravity g at the earth’s
R surface.
V  GM  r 2dr UNEB 2007

R (i) A satellite moves in a circular orbit of
 r 1 
V  GM   radius R about a planet of mass ,M
 1   with a period T .Show that :�3 =
���2
1 1 .
V  GM    4�2
 R  (ii) The period of the motion around the
earth is 27.3days.If the distance of the
moon from the earth is 3.83 ×
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 105 ��,calculate the acceleration due 8. A mass is released from a point at a distance
to gravity at the surface of the earth. of 10R from the centre of the earth, where
(iii) Explain why any resistance to the R is the radius of the earth. Find the speed
forward motion of an artificial of the mass at a point a distance of 7R
satellite results into an increase in its from the centre of the earth. (Assume R =
speed. 6.4x106m)
UNEB 2004 9. Calculate the ratio of mass of the sun to that
(i) The period of a simple pendulum is of the earth, given that the moon moves
measured at different locations along round the earth in a circular orbit of radius
a given longitude. Explain what is 4.0x105km with a period of 27.3days, and
observed. the orbital radius of the earth round the
(ii) Derive the expression for the escape sun is 1.5x108km and its period is
velocity of a rocket fired from earth. 365days. (ans; 2.95x105 ).
(iii) The moon moves in a circular orbit of 10. Calculate the ratio of acceleration due to
radius 3.84 × 108 � around the earth gravity on the surface of mercury to that
with a period of on the surface of the earth given that the
2.36 × 106 �.Calculate the radius of mercury is 0.38 times that of the
gravitational field of the earth at the earth and the mean density of mercury is
moon. 0.68 times that of the earth. (ans; 0.2584)

REVIEW EXERCISE
1. Explain the effect of friction to forward
motion of a space craft . TOPIC 16 :SIMPLE HARMONIC
2. Explain the effect of increase in MOTION (S.H.M)
mechanical energy to motion of a This is periodic motion of a body whose
satellite . acceleration is directly proportional to the
3. Show that the lowest velocity v given to displacement of a body from a fixed point and it
an object of mass m to escape the is directed towards a fixed point.
gravitational influence of a planet of It a special type of periodic motion in which the
mass M and radius R is acceleration of the body along the circular path
2GM is directed towards a fixed point and is directly
v where G is universal proportional to
R the displacement of the body from the fixed
gravitational constant . point.
4. A satellite revolves in a circular orbit at a
height 600km above the earth’s P
surface .Calculate a
(i) Speed of the satellite.
(ii) Periodic time of the satellite. -A A
5. Derive an expression for the period T of o
x
a planet moving in a circular orbit about
the sun in terms of the radius of orbit Ro .
6. A satellite is launched in a circular orbit
about the equator at a height of
O-centre of S.H.M
3.6  104 km above the earth’s A- amplitude of the SHM
surface.Find; a- Acceleration of the particle P
(i) The speed with which the satellite N.B:The acceleration is towards the fixed point
is launched into the orbit. but displacement is away from the fixed .So x
(ii) The period of the satellite. and a are oppositely directed .
Graph of body P in one cycle.
7. A satellite of mass 100kg is inn a
circular orbit at a height of 3.59x107m
above the earth’s surface. Find the
mechanical energy of the satellite.(Mass
of earth = 6x1024kg, radius of earth =
6.4x106m)
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 dv
x(m)
a
dt
dv dx
A a 
dx dt
o dv
Time ,t  a  v ....................(ii )
A dx
Equating ,
dv
v   2 x
dx
Characteristics of a body describing Simple By separation of variables and integrating ,
 vdv    xdx
2
harmonic motion
- Motion is periodic
- Acceleration of the body is towards a v2  2 x2
  c..............(iii )
fixed point 2 2
- Acceleration of the body is directly
proportional to the distance from the But when x =A ,v=0
fixedPoint  2 A2
c
- Mechanical energy is conserved. 2
Practical examples simple harmonic motion. v 2
 x  2 A2
2 2

- Motion of pistons in an engine .  

- Motion of a balance wheel of a pendulum 2 2 2
clock. v   A  x 
2 2 2 2

Graph of velocity against displacement

Equation of simple harmonic motion
V(m s-1)
Acceleration, a   2 x ,where  is angular
velocity, x is displacement from fixed point.
Graph of acceleration against displacement for
simple Harmonic motion. x(m)
-A o A
a(m s )
-2

x(m)
v   A 2
 x2 
Kinetic energy and potential energy of
vibrating object
d 2x Kinetic energy,
Or a  2   2 x 1
dt K.E  mv 2
The solution of the above differential equation is 2
x  A cos t or x  A sin t 1
Where A is the maximum displacement of the

K.E  m 2 A2  x 2
2

body from rest position called amplitude. For a spring of force constant k;
For x  A sin t is a curve as shown above. k
2   k   2m
m
In general x  A sin t    , where  is the 1
Potential energy , P.E  k x 2
phase angle. 2
Velocity of a body executing Simple harmonic 1
Motion  P.E   2 m x 2
2
Acceleration a   2 x …………..(i) Mechanical energy ,
Also

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 M .E  K .E  P.E
1 1
M .E  m 2  A2  x 2   m 2 x 2
2 2
1
M .E  m 2 A2
2
It is noted that total energy of a vibrating object
(a particle undergoing S.H.M) is constant and is
directly proportional to the square of the
amplitude,A. Hence mechanical energy is
conserved in S.H.M.
NOTE:
1
M .E  m 2 A2
2
1
When x  A, K .E  0 J , P.E  m 2 A2
2
1
When x  0 , K.E  m 2 A2 , P.E  0 J
2

Examples
π
1. Given that x = 8cos 0.5πt + 3 , describes
the displacement of a particle from rest position,
find the; 2. A particle is moving simple harmonic motion
of period 8.0s and amplitude 5.0m. Find the:
(i) Amplitude,
(i) Speed of the particle when it is 3.0m from the
(ii) Frequency centre of its motion,

(iii) Period (ii) Maximum speed of the particle

(iv) Maximum velocity (iii) Maximum acceleration

(v) Maximum acceleration Data

(vi) Phase angle

Data

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 amplitude 10m. Find the speed of the
particle when it is 6.0m from its
equilibrium position, also find how far
the particle is from the equilibrium
position 1.5s after passing through it, and
its speed at that instant.
[Ans: v = 3.1ms-1, x = 5.6m , v’ =3.3ms-1 ]
Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion
(i) VERTICAL SPIRAL SPRING
Consider a body of mass m suspended from a
spiral spring of length l and force constant, k, as
shown in the diagram.

l T
3. The displacement y of a mass vibrating in
simple harmonic motion is given by T
e
=20sin10 , where y is mm and t is in seconds.
Calculate the:
m
(i) Velocity when t = 0, x
(ii) Acceleration when t = 3s
mg
DATA
m

mg

In that case the body will be at equilibrium.

At equilibrium, T = mg
But T = ke (From Hook’s Law)
Where e is the extension in the spring at
equilibrium and k is the force constant of the
spring.
Hence ke = mg…………….(i)
When the mass is pulled through a distance x
then released, the resultant upward force on the
mass is F  T   mg
But T  = k (e + x)
F = k (e + x) – mg
Trial questions But from (i) ke = mg
1. A particle moves with simple harmonic F = k (e + x) – ke
motion about a mean position O. When passing F=kx
through two points which are 2m and 2.4m from From Newton’s second law, ma = F
O, the particle has speeds 3ms-1 and 1.4ms-1 Soma = - kx
respectively. Find the: k
(i) Amplitude of the motion, a    x
m
(ii) Greatest speed attained by the particle
(iii) Maximum acceleration The above equation is in the
(iv) Velocity of the particle 1m from O k
form a   2 x ,where  2  ,hence it
[Ans: A = 2.5m, vmax = 2ms-1, amax = 5, v m
=4.58ms-1 ] performs simple harmonic motion.
2. A particle is moving with simple
harmonic motion of period 16s and
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Question: Prove that the period T is given by: distance x. The restoring forces in either springs
m are different, are different, but are all in the same
T  2 . direction, opposite to the direction in which the
k
mass has been displaced.
DATA
2
Period , T  The total restoring force F on the mass is the
 sum of these two forces.
2
T ⇒
k
m
m
T  2
k

(ii) HORIZONTAL SPIRAL SPRING

Consider a horizontal spring of force constant k.
One end of the spring is fixed and the other end
attached to a body of mass m resting on a
smooth surface.

m It should be noted that if the springs are identical,

then; k1 = k2 = k
�
Period, � = 2� (2�)

(iii) SIMPLE PENDULUM

If the body is displaced through a distance x,the Suppose a body of mass m attached to a string is
restoring force , F   k x …….(i) displaced through a small angle  andthen
(F is in opposite direction of x) released. The resultant force on the body towards
From Newton’s second law , F  ma...............(ii ) O is mg sin  .
So , ma   k x
k
a   x
m
Which is in the form
k
a    2 x ,where  2  .Hence it executes
m
S.H.M .
2 m
Period , T   2
 k

Springs fixed and mass placed between the Restoring force , F  mg sin  …..(i)
springs The negative is due to the fact that the force is in
the opposite direction of the displacement.
By Newton’s 2nd law, F  ma ……(ii)
Equating (i) and (ii) gives
ma  mg sin 
If the mass in the figure is displaced through a a   g sin 
small displaced through a small distance x, say If  is small and measured in radians
to the right as shown above, the spring of force x
  sin  
constant k1 is extended by x while the spring of l
force constant k2 is compressed by the same
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 x A is the cross sectional area of the cylinder
a  g   Suppose the cylinder is given a small vertical
l
displacement x and released, the net force on the
g cylinder is U   mg 
a    x
l 
But U  = A ( l +x)  g
Net force ,F = A ( l +x)  g – mg………(i)
Which is in the form a   2 x
From Newton’s 2nd law; F=ma……..(ii)
g
Where  2  ,hence a simple pendulum ma = - (A ( l +x)  g – mg) ,the negatives
l
shows displacement x is opposite direction of
executes simple harmonic motion. acceleration a.
2 g From equation (i) mg = Al  g
T , 
 l Therefore ma = - Ax  g
Period ,
l x
T  2 a = - (A  g)
g m
Trial exercise:  A g 
a    x ,which is in the form
A simple pendulum has a period of 4.2s. When  m 
the length is shortened by 1m, a   2 x .Hence the cylinder executes simple
the period is 3.7s. Use these measurements to Harmonic motion .
determine the acceleration due to gravity
and the original length of the pendulum. A g
Hint : 2 
m
l
Use T  2 m
g And period T  2 .
A g
T 2 g  4 2l
But m  Al ,where  is the density of the
4.2 2 g  4 2l....................(i) cylinder .
3.7 2 g  4 2  l  1...............(ii) T  2
l
.
Solving the above two equations and obtain l g
and g. EXAMPLE:
UNEB2017QN3.
(iv) A FLOATING CYLINDER A uniform cylindrical rod of length 16cm and
Consider a cylinder of mass m, floating density 920 kg m-3 floats vertically in a liquid of
vertically in a liquid of density  to a depth l . density 1000 kg m-3 .The rod is depressed
through a distance of 7mm and then released.
(i) Show that the rod performs simple
Harmonic motion.
(ii) Find the frequency of the resultant
oscillations.
(iii) Find the velocity of the rod when it is
a distance of 5mm above the
equilibrium position .
Data

(i) See notes

(ii)
l
T  2 ,
g
In equilibrium, mg = U where U is upthrust
l  16cm,   920kgm 3 ,   1000 kgm 3
But upthrust = density of liquid  volume
submerged g
U = Al  g
mg = Al  g ……………………….(i)
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 1
f 
T v   A 2
 x2 
1 g Kinetic energy and potential energy of
.f  .
2 l vibrating object
1 1000  9.81 Kinetic energy,
f   1.299Hz 1
2 0.16  920 K.E  mv 2
(iii) A=7mm ,x = 5mm 2
1
v  A2
 x2  ,   2 f K.E  m 2 A2  x 2
2
 
v  2 f A2  x 2 For a spring of force constant k;
k
v  2 1.299 0.0072  0.0052 2   k   2m
m
v  0.03997 1 2
Potential energy , P.E  k x
v  3.997 102 m s 1 2
1
 P.E   2 m x 2
Velocity of a body executing Simple harmonic 2
Motion Mechanical energy ,
Acceleration a   2 x …………..(i) M .E  K .E  P.E
Also 1 1
dv M .E  m 2  A 2  x 2   m 2 x 2
a 2 2
dt 1
dv dx M .E  m 2 A 2
a  2
dx dt It is noted that total energy of a vibrating object
dv (a particle undergoing S.H.M) is constant and
 a  v ....................(ii )
dx isdirectly proportional to the square of the
Equating , amplitude,A. Hence mechanical energy
dv isconserved in S.H.M.
v   2 x NOTE:
dx
By separation of variables and integrating , 1
M .E  m 2 A2
2
 vdv    xdx
2

1
When x  A, K .E  0 J , P.E  m A
2 2
v2  2 x2
  c..............(iii ) 2
2 2 1
When x  0 , K.E  m A , P.E  0 J
2 2

But when x =A ,v=0 2

 2 A2
c
2
v 2
 x  2 A2
2 2
 
2 2 2
v   A  x 
2 2 2 2

Graph of velocity against displacement

t
(v)OSCILLATION OF A LIQUID IN A
x(m) U-TUBE
-A o A

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 1. The oscillations of the liquid are heavily
slowed down due to viscosity, and so die
out in a short time.
2. It is assumed that the displacement of the
liquid is small, and the viscous forces or
viscosity are negligible.
Experiment to determine acceleration due to
gravity using a spiral spring.

A spring is clamped vertically besides a metre

rule.
The initial pointer reading , Po is noted and
recorded.
A known mass is suspended on the spring and
the new reading ,P of the pointer on the metre
rule is noted and recorded.
The extension,e = P-Po is found.
The mass is given a small vertical displacement
and the time t for 20 oscillations.
The period ,T is calculated.
The experiment is repeated for different masses
and the values are tabulated including T2.
A graph of T2 against e is plotted.
The slope,S of the graph is calculated.
The acceleration due to gravity is
4� 2
calculated from g = �
.

Determination of the acceleration due to

gravity g using a pendulum bob

Note:

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For different values of the length l of the string, that the speeds of the particles are 4 m s-1
time t for say 20 oscillations of the swinging and 2 ms-1 when the particle is 3cm and 6
pendulum bob is measured. cm respectively from the
The values are tabulated including values of the equilibrium ,calculate the;
period T and T2. (i) Amplitude of oscillation.
A graph of T2 against l is plotted, and it’s a (ii) Frequency of the particle.
straight line through the origin as shown. UNEB 2004
A mass of 0.1kg is hung from two springs S1 and
S2 connected in series as shown in figure below.

S
K1=100Nm-1
Note : 1

However in practice, the graph in the preceding

case may not pass through the origin as stated.
This could be due to:
- Air resistance S2 K2=200Nm-1
- Uncertainty in the measurement of the
length l,
- The angle of swing being big (greater
0.1kg
than about 100 )

REFER TO YOUR QUESTION BANK AND The force constants of springs are 100Nm-1 and
SOLUTIONS BY MUNGAWU PETER FOR 200Nm-1 respectively.Find:
ANSWERS TO THESE QUESTIONS. (i) The extension produced in the
combination.
UNEB 2010 (ii) The frequency of oscillation of the
mass if it is pulled downwards
A spring of force constant 40 Nm-1 is suspended through a small distance and released.
vertically .A mass of 0.1kg suspended from the HINT
spring is pulled down through a distance of 5mm Let T1 and T2 be tension in the springs S1 and S2
and released.Find the respectively due to weight of the mass M.
(i) Period of oscillation. In equilibrium ,T1= T2 =T(tension is the same in
(ii) Maximum acceleration of the mass. both strings, but extensions are different)
(iii) Net force acting on the mass when it T= k1e1 = k2e2
is 2mm below the centre of At equilibrium,
oscillation. T =mg
=0.1 × 9.81 = 0.981�
UNEB2009 Using T=k1e1
� 0.981
(a) A cylindrical vessel of cross-sectional �1 = � = 100 = 9.81 × 10−3 �
area ,A contains air of volume ,V at 1

pressure ,P trapped by a frictionless air Using T=k2e2

� 0.981
tight piston of mass ,M.The piston is �2 = � = 200 = 4.905 × 10−3 �
2
pushed down and released.
(i) If the piston oscillates with Total extension ,e =e1+e2
S.H.M ,show that the frequency is � = 0.0147�
A P
given by : f  UNEB 1999
2 MV .
A mass of 0.5 kg is suspended from the free ends
(ii) of two springs of force constants 100 Nm-1 and
Show that the expression for f above 50Nm-1 respectively as shown .
is dimensionally correct.
(b) A particle executing simple harmonic
motion vibrates in a straight line.Given

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 A B
m
100Nm-1
50Nm-1
(i) Show that when the mass is
displaced slightly ,it oscillates
with simple harmonic motion of
5kg frequency ,f given
1 �� +��
Calculate the; by;f=2� �
(i) Extension produced. (ii) If the two springs in figure above
(ii) Tension in each string . are identical such that KA =KB
(iii) Energy stored in the springs. =5.0Nm-1 and mass
(iv) Frequency of oscillation when the m=50g .Calculate the period of
mass is given a small vertical the oscillation .
displacement . UNEB 2012
Hint A piston in a car engine performs a simple
Extension is the same but tension in each spring harmonic motion of frequency 12.5Hz .If the
is different. mass of the piston is 0.50kg and its amplitude of
UNEB 2007 vibration is 45mm ,find the maximum force on
A glass U-tube containing a lilted slightly and the piston.
then released .
(i) Show that the liquid oscillate with Examples:
simple harmonic motion. 1. A light spiral spring is loaded with a
(ii) Explain why the oscillations mass of 50g and it extends by 10cm.
ultimately come to rest. Calculate the period of small vertical
UNEB 2007 oscillations.
A body of mass 1kg moving with simple DATA
harmonic motion has speeds of 5m s-1 and 3 m s-
Type equation here.
1
when it is at distances of 0.10m and 0.20m
respectively from equilibrium point .Find the
amplitude of the motion.
UNEB 2009 K
A particle executing simple harmonic motion
vibrates in a straight line.Given that the speeds e
of the particles are 4 m s-1 and 2m s-1 when the
particle is 3 cm and 6 cm respectively from
m
equilibrium, calculate the;
(i) Amplitude of oscillation.
(ii) Frequency of the particle. mg
UNEB 2008
(a) A particle of mass m executes simple Using tension force in spring ,F= mg= ke
harmonic motion between two points A 0.05 × 9.81 = � × 0.1
and B about equilibrium position � = 4.905��−1
O.Sketch a graph of the restoring force � 0.05
acting on the particle as a function of Period ,� = 2� �
= 2� 4.905
= 0.634�
distance ,r moved by the particle. 2. A body of mass 0.1kg hangs from a long
(b) Two springs A and B of spring constant spiral spring. When pulled down 10cm
KA and KB respectively are connected to below its equilibrium point A, and
a mass m as shown in the figure released, it vibrates with S.H.M with a
below.The surface on which the mass period of 2s.
slides is frictionless. (i) What is the velocity as it
passes through A?
(ii) What is its acceleration when it is
5cm above A.

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Types of oscillations x (m)
(i) Free oscillations:
Free oscillations occur in the absence of any
dissipative forces like air resistance, friction 0
and viscous drag. The amplitude and total t (s)
mechanical energy remains constant and the
system oscillates indefinitely with a period T
(the natural period of vibration of the Examples:
system) 1. shock absorbers in cars stops the car to
oscillate after passing over the hump,
2. Toilet doors are critically damped so that
they close very quickly.
- Over damped oscillations
The system does not oscillate but takes a long
time to return to the equilibrium position.
x (m)
Example: A simple pendulum will undergo free
oscillation in a vacuum.
(ii) Damped oscillations 0
These are oscillations where the system loses t (s)
energy to the surrounding due to the
dissipative forces. The amplitude reduces with
time and oscillations eventually die out. Examples:
Damped oscillations can be grouped into under 1. A horizontal spring moving over a very
damped, critically damped and over rough surface,
damped oscillations. 2. A metal cylinder attached to a vertical
- Under – damped oscillations spring and made to move in a very
viscous liquid.
Forced oscillations
These are vibrations where the system is
subjected to an external periodic force thus
setting the system to oscillate indefinitely. When
the periodic force has the same frequency of
oscillation as the system, resonance occurs.

Amplitude of
forced
The system actually oscillates but gradually dies
oscillation
out due to the dissipative forces. The amplitude
of oscillation decreases with time. Examples:
1. A simple pendulum in air,
2. horizontal spring moving over a surface fo
of little roughness. frequency
- Critically damped oscillations fo is the fundamental frequency
The system does not oscillate when displaced,
but returns to the equilibrium position in the Examples;
minimum possible time. 1. The oscillation of a diving board, the
oscillations of the earth quake
2. The oscillations of the air column in
musical pipe instruments e.t.c

Exercise 35:
1. The pendulum of length 130cm has a
periodic time T1. A bob now pulled a
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 side and made to move as a conical The nucleus of an atom contains protons and
pendulum in a horizontal circle of radius neutrons. Neutrons are denoted by N ,protons
50cm. the period of rotation is T2. Find denoted by Z and electrons denoted by e
the ratio of T1: T2 (1.04) The collection of protons and neutrons together
2. A spring gives a displacement of 5cm are called the nucleons.
for a load of 500g. Find the maximum A neutron carries no charge ,a proton carries a
displacement produced when a mass of positive charge and electrons are negatively
80g is dropped from a height of 10cm charged .
onto a light pan attached to the spring. An atom is symbolically represented by ZA X
(5x10-2m) where A- atomic mass/mass number/nucleon
3. A small mass rests on a horizontal platform number .
which vibrates vertically in a simple Z- atomic number/proton number .
harmonic motion with a period of 0.50s. Definitions and key points:
Find the maximum amplitude of the 1. Atomic mass (or nucleon number ,A);is the
motion which will allow the mass to number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom .
remain in contact with the platform 2. Atomic or proton number Z ;is the
throughout the motion. number of protons in the nucleus of an
( 6.3x10-2m) atom .
4. A mass of 0.1kg suspended from a spring of 3.Nuclide ;is an atomic species with a
force constant 24.5Nm-1 is pulled specified number of protons and neutrons
vertically downwards through a distance NB:
of 5.0cm and released. Find the There are forces which bind the nucleons
(i) period of oscillation together. In some nuclides, the forces make
(0.4s) the nucleons stay
(ii) position of the mass 0.3s after together permanently; however in some, the
release energy forces binding the nucleus affect some
5. A uniform cylindrical rod of length 8cm, cross to the nucleons, this happens when the ratio of
sectional area 0.02m2 and density 900kgm-3 neutrons to protons is big. When ratio is big,
floats vertically in a liquid of density the
1000kg m-3. The rod is depressed through a nucleus release excess energy to become
distance of 0.5cm and the released. stable.
(i) Show that the rod performs simple If an atom X, with atomic number Z and mass
harmonic motion number A , then A = Z+N, where N =
(ii) Find the frequency of the resultant number of neutrons.
oscillations (1.86Hz) 4. Isotopes ;These are atom of the same element
(iii) Find the velocity of the rod when with the same atomic number but different
it is a distance of 0.4cm above the equilibrium atomic masses .Examples include ;
position. (0.035ms-1) (a) carbon 126 C , 146 C,

(b) hydrogen 11 H , 2
1 H , 3
1 H
SECTION C: MODERN PHYSICS (c) chlorine Cl ,
35
17
37
17 Cl
5. Radioactivity; is the spontaneous
Outline : disintegration of an unstable heavy nucleus to
1. Nuclear physics and radioactivity acquire a more stable state by emission of alpha
2. Photoelectric effect particles,beta particles or gamma rays .Energy is
3. The atom released in each case.
4. The electron NB; The changes accompanying the emission of
5. Cathode rays radiation from a radioactive substance s differ
6. X-rays from the ordinary chemical changes.They are
spontaneous ,uncontrollable and unaffected by
TOPIC 1:NUCLEAR PHYSICS chemical combination and physical conditions
This deals with the study of an atom and nuclear such as pressure and temperature .It involves
reactions . the nucleus of an atom (not its extra electrons as
in chemical changes) and is an attempt by
unstable nucleus to become more stable .

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6. Radioactive decay When a nuclei decays by release of an α particles,
This is the reduction in mass of a radioactive it loses two protons and two neutrons i.e. mass
nuclide by emitting alpha particles ,beta number decreases by 4 and
particles and gamma rays. atomic number by 2.
7. Radioisotopes ; These are atoms of the same Alpha particle symbol is 42 He .
element but of different mass numbers and can Alpha decay Equation ,
undergo radioactive decay . A 4 A 4
Z X  2 He  Z  2 Y
APPLICATIONS/USES OF
RADIOISOTOPES Example :
210 206 4
- They are used during assessment of the 84 Po 82 Pb  2 He
volume and concentration of blood in Properties of α particles
patients . - They cause fluorescence when incident
- They are used to determine the rate of on some materials
wear of piston rings of an engine and that - They affect photographic films
of car tyres . - They readily ionise gases
- They are used to detect leaks in - They have the least penetrating
underground pipelines carrying water , power .They are easily absorbed by
oil etc . matter. The penetration of matter by α-
- They are also used in food processing particles is unique in that the α- particles
industries for sterilization e .g meat can can not be detected beyond their
be made to stay fresh for over 15 days range .They can penetrate 70mm of air a
using gamma rays . fraction in millimeters in aluminium .
- They are used in paper industries to - They are deflected by electric and
check thickness of paper .The thickness magnetic fields but to a less extent than
of paper can be checked by a beta source   particles. This is because  
below the paper and a Geiger – muller particles are heavier than   particles.
tube and counter above it .
- They are helium nuclei with mass 4 and
- They are also used in radiography in the
charge +2.
treatment of cancer .Gamma rays are
2. Beta particles
used in radiography where they are
These are high energy electrons .The symbol for
replacing x- rays in the treatment of
cancer . a beta particle is   particle is 01 e .
- They are also used in carbon dating . When an element decays by emitting a  
CARBON DATING particle it loses an electron. Hence the mass
This is the measurement of carbon number remains the same but the atomic number
activity of radioactive isotope C-14 increase by one.
material to obtain information about Beta decay equation;
their age . A A0 0
Z X  Z   1 Y  1 e
The unstable isotope 14C produced during
nuclear reactions in the atmosphere as a result of
A
ZX ZA 1 Y  01 e
cosmic ray bombardment give a small portion of Properties of   particles
14
C in CO2 in the atmosphere. - They have a much smaller fluorescent
Plants take in CO2 for photosynthesis. When a effect than   particles.
plant dies it stops taking in CO2 and its - They affect photographic pates.
14
Cdecays to 14N by beta particle emission. - They have ionise gases but less readily
By measuring the activity of 14C in the remains, than   particles
the time when the plant died can be estimated. - They have a greater penetrating power
than α- particles.
- They are deflected by electric and
TYPES OF RADIATIONS AND THEIR magnetic fields much more than  
PROPERTIES particles because they are lighter(have
1. Alpha particles(   particles ); This is negligible mass).
a positively charged helium nucleus . - Negatively charged with a charge of -1 .
An α-particle is a Helium atom that has two
protons and two neutrons . 3. Gamma rays(   rays)

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They are electromagnetic radiations with very - Use lead shields to store radioactive
short wavelengths. These are found to occupy a substances .
band in electromagnetic spectrum of very short - Avoid eye contact to prevent sight
wavelength ,shorter than even the X-rays which damage .
are thought to have the shortest wave length - Do not eat , drink or smoke when using
known. radioactive substances .
The main difference between  - rays and X- - Use forceps to handle sources of
rays is that  -rays originate from energy radiation .
changes in the nucleus in the atom while X rays - Workers should wear protective clothings
originate from energy changes associated with made of thick lead .
electron structure of the atom.
Emission of   rays has no effect on the mass of The Decay law
The rate of disintegration of a given sample at
the nucleus. Emission of  - rays is usually
any time is directly proportional to the number
accompanied by α or   particle emission e.g. of active atoms N, present at that time, t.
234
90 Th  234
91 Pa  10 e   Mathematically
60 60 Let N= number of unstable atoms present at
Co  Ni  10 e  
27 28
time t .
No = original number of atoms present at time t .
Properties of gamma rays  =decay constant
- They are not particles but dN
electromagnetic waves with short From the decay law ,  N
wavelength shorter than X-rays . dt
- Affect photographic plates The negative sign implies that N decreases as t
- They are not deflected by magnetic and increases .
electric fields. This implies that they dN
   N
carry no charge dt
- They travel at the speed of Decay constant,  , is defined as the fraction
light.  c  3.0  108 m s 1  . of the radioactive nuclei which decays per
second.
- They cause photoelectric effect i.e. they By separation of variables ,
eject electrons when they fall on certain 1
metals dN   dt
- They have the greatest penetrating N
power than  or   particles i.e. are Integrating both sides,
1
only absorbed by thick lead.
- They have least ionizing power .
 N dN    dt
Activity ln N   t  c .........(i )
1. State the similarities between alpha and When t = 0, N = N0, which is the original
beta particles . number of atoms.
2. State the similarities among alpha ln N o   (0)  c
particles ,beta particles and gamma rays . lnN0 = c
HEALTH HAZARDS OF RADIATIONS Hence ln N = -λt + lnN0
- They cause damage to body cells due to ln N  ln N o   t
creation of ions which upset or destroy
them . By laws of logarithms ,
- Radiations can also cause immediate  N 
damage to tissue and according to the
ln     t
 No 
dose ,is accompanied by radiation burns .
N
- Hereditary defects(mutation) may occur  e  t
in succeeding generations due to genetic No
damage .  N  N o e  t
- Delayed effects such as cancer ,leukemia
and eye cataracts may also appear many A graph of N against t is called the decay curve.
years later .
Safety precautions

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 N Activity ,A of a radioactive source
No This is number of a radioactive atoms
disintegrating/decaying per second.

No dN
A
2 dt

T1 t The SI unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq)

2
1Bq = 1disintegration per second
Let A  Activity of radioactive source at time ,t
Ao  activity of radioactive source at time ,t = 0
Half- life , T1 Expression for activity ;
2
This is the time taken for the number of From decay law , law , N  N o e  t
radioactive nuclei present in a source to dN
disintegrate to half the original value . Activity , A 
dt
Relationship between  and T1 .
2 d  N oe  t 
N0 A
When t  T1 , N  dt
2 2
From decay law , N  N o e  t d  e  t 
A  No
No  T 1 dt
 Noe 2
2
1  T 1
e 2 A  N o   e  t 
2
Introducing log e both sides A  N o  e  t
1  T 1
log e    log e e 2 A    N o e  t 
2  A   N ............(i)
1 So ,Activity ,A = decay constant  number of
log e    T1 log e e
2 2 active atoms present .
But Also initially at t = 0 ,A =Ao ,N= No ,
1 1  Ao   N o ..............(ii)
log e    ln    ln1  ln 2
2 2 Eqn(i) divide by eqn(ii) ,
log e e  1 A N

 ln1  ln 2    T1 Ao  N o
2
A N
Multiply through by -1 gives  ...........()
Ao N o
ln 2  ln1   T 1
2 N
But recall from decay law ,  e  t
 2 No
ln     T 1
1 2
So , equation  becomes ,
ln 2 A
T1   e  t
2  Ao
0.693  A  Ao e  t .............(iii )
 T1 
2 
Exercise Note : From
A radioactive substance has half-life T1 .If
2
A  N
originally its mass is 0.5 g ,show that
A
ln 2 
T1  ,where  is the decay constant . N
2 

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Therefore ,alternatively , decay constant  is A 2300s 1
the ratio of activity to the number of radioactive Using     9.126  10 13 s 1
N 2.52 1015
atoms present at a given time . Step 3: Half-life ,
Examples ln 2 0.693
1. UNEB 2007 QN9(e) T1  
At a certain time ,an   particle detector
2  9.126  1013 s 1
registers a count rate of 32s-1 .Exactly 10 days T1  7.595  1011 s
2
later ,the count rate dropped to 8s-1 .Find the Summary ;If given mass of radioactive
decay constant . substance ,
Data mN A
A  8s , Ao  32 s 1 , t  10 days
1 (i) Get number of atoms , N 
M
Using A  Ao e  t (ii) Calculate decay constant  from
8  32e
  10  A  N
ln 2
8 (iii) Calculate half- life , T1 
 e 10  2 
32
0.25  e 10  3. UNEB 2006 QN .10
ln  0.25   ln e 10 
The radioisotope 3890 Sr decays by emission of
 ln 0.25   particles .The half-life of the radioisotope is

10 28.8 years .Determine the activity of 1 g of the
  0.1386 per day isotope .
Data
0.1386 0.1386
  Molar mass ,M = 90g ,
Or : 1day 1 24  3600s Half-life , T1 =28.8 years
2
  1.60 106 s 1
2. UNEB 2003 Mass of radioisotope ,m =1 g
A radioactive source contains 1.0  g of Number of atoms
mN A
plutonium of mass number 239 .If the source N
enters 2300   particles per second ,calculate M
the half-life of plutonium . 1g  6.02 10 23 atoms
decaying , N 
Data 90 g
mass , m  1.0  10 6 g , molar N  6.69  10 21 atoms
mass , M  239 g mol 1 ,Activity , A  2300s 1 Decay
step 1:find number of atoms (N) ln 2 ln 2
 
239 g of plutonium has 6.02 1023 atoms constant , T1 28.8  365  24  3600 s
2
6.02 10 23
1g of plutonium has atoms   7.63  1010 s 1
239 A  N
Hence 1.0 10 6 g of plutonium has
Activity , A   7.63  10 10 s 1 6.69  10 21atoms 
23
 6.02  10 
  1.0  106  atoms A  5.1 1012 atoms s 1
 239 
4. An atom X  280 has half-life of 4
So, number of atoms
years .Find ;
decaying , N  2.25 1015 atoms (i) Decay constant
ALTERNATIVELY , (ii) Activity of 1 mg of the atom .
Number of Data
mN A  mass  avogadro ' s number  T1  4 years  4  365  24  3600 s
N   2
M  Molar mass   126144000 s
1.0 10 6 g  6.02 10 23 atoms Decay
atoms , N 
239 g ln 2 ln 2
constant ,     5.49 10 9 s 1
N  2.52  10 atoms 15
T1 12614400s
2
STEP 2: find decay constant 
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Molar mass ,M = 280 g  15 
A    counts per minute per gram
Mass , m = 1mg = 1 10 3 g  40 
Number of atoms , T1  5600 years
mN A 2
N ln 2 ln 2
M    1.238 10 4 yr 1
110 3 g  6.02 10 23 atoms T1 5600 yr
N 2

280 g  A
ln    0.375 
18 ln  
N  2.15  10 atoms A  19 
Using Using Age, t   o  
  (1.238  10 4 )
A  N
t  31706.53 years
activity , A  5.49  10 19 s 1  2.15  1018 atoms
10 1
7. An alpha particle emitted by 222 Ra has
A  1.18  10 atoms s 5.3Mev of energy .Find;
5. One kilogram of wood from a ship (i) Amount of energy released by
wreck has an activity of 1.2 102 counts per 3.0 10 19 kg of the atom .
second due to 14 C ,whereas the same amount (ii) If half-life is 3.8 years ,calculate
of wood has an activity of 2.0 102 counts per the frequency and power .
second .Find the age of the ship wreck .(half- Data
19
life of 14 C = 5.7 103 years) Mass ,m  3.0  10 kg
Data Molar mass ,M =222 g= 222 10 3 kg
A  1.2  102 s 1 , Ao  2.0  102 s 1 222
Ra    energy
T1  5.7  103 years,   ? (i) 1 atom of 222 Ra releases energy, E=
2
5.3MeV
Using
Number of atoms
ln 2
T1  mN A
2  N
M
ln 2
  1.22  104 year 1 3.0  1019 kg  6.02  1023 atoms
3
5.7  10 years present , N 
222  103 kg
Using A  Ao e  t
N  813000 atoms
A
 e  t Total energy  N  E
Ao = 813000  5.3  4308900MeV
 A But 1MeV  106 1.6 1019 J  1.6 1013 J
ln     t
Total energy,
 A0 
ET  4308900 1.6 1013  6.894 107 J
 A  1.2 10 2 
ln   ln  2 
(ii) Total energy , ET  hf
A  2.0 10   4.2 103 years
t  0 6.89  107  6.6  1034 f
 1.22  10 2 yr 1
f  1.04  1027 Hz
Thus the age of the ship wreck is (iii) Power = activity  total energy
4.2 103 years . P  A  ET
6. Activity of fresh wood is 19 counts per P   N  ET
minute per gram and half-life is 5600 ln 2 ln 2
years .Calculate the age of a ship from  
T1 3.8  365  24  3600s
which a piece of wood of mass 40 g and 2
activity is 15 counts per minute .  5.78 107 s 1
DATA
P  5.78  10 9  813000  6.89  10 7
Ao  19 counts per minute per gram .
15 counts per min ute P  3.24  10 9W
A EXERCISE
40 g
1. A radioisotope X-280 has half-life of 4
years and emits alpha particles each of
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 mass 2.4MeV .Find the power due to Data
alpha particles emitted by the sample of T1  1 hour ,
2
5.0  10 4 kg .
Decay
2. A piece of radioactive material contains ln 2 ln 2
1012 atoms and has half-life of 30 days (i) constant ,     0.693 per hour
T1 1
Find the number of disintegrations per 2
second . Initial activity , Ao  6.4  107 dis/hour
(ii)How long will it take 104 atoms to After time ,t = 6hours
remain . Expected activity , A  Ao e  t
3. Activity of a sample of dead wood is 10
counts per minute while the activity of A  6.4  10 7 e 0.6936
the living plant is 19 counts per A  1.0  10 6 dis / hour
mimute .If the half- life of carbon-14 is But a sample of 1.5 cm3 has activity 300 dis/hour
5500 years ,find the age of wood sample . Activity per unit volume
(ans; 5094 years) sample activity  300  3
4. The half- life of a radio isotope is 5.27 =   dis / hour / cm
volume  1.5 
years, calculate
i. Its decay constant. Volume of blood ,
ii. The number of years it will take total exp ected activity
V
75% of a given mass of isotope to decay. activity per unit volume
1.0 106
4. The radio isotope Co decays by
60 V cm 3
emission of a beta particle and a gamma 
300
1.5 
ray. Its half life is 5.3 years. Find the V  5000 cm 3
activity of the source containing 0.10 g of
Thus the volume of blood in the patient is 5000
60
Co.
cm3
Using radioactivity to determine volume
of blood in a patent .
Using radioactivity to determine rate of wear of
A little sample of the patient’s blood is removed
a piston ring
and put in a solution containing a radioactive
The piston is radiated so that it becomes
material .
radioactive .
A carefully removed quantity of the mixture of
The mass of the piston ring and the initial
the blood and the radioactive material is then re-
activity of the piston ring are also determined
introduced in the blood stream of the patient .
using relevant instrument .
After some time ,the body will be evenly
The ring is then installed in the engine and the
distributed with the radioactive material .
ring is run continuously for some given time .
A sample of the blood is then removed and
After some time ,the activity of oil from the
tested using a detector to determine its activity .
engine is determined using a detector .
High concentration of the radioactive material in
The mass worn off
the blood (high activity) shows that the blood is
not enough . activity of oil
=  (total mass of ring ) ra
The volume of blood in the patient will be equal ( activity exp ected after
to the total activity expected after time , t divided time, t )
by the activity per unit volume of blood . mass worn off
(volume of blood) = te of wear =
time of use
activity exp ected after time t
Worked example
activity per unit voulme of blood
A steel piston ring contains 15 g of radioactive
Worked example
iron 2654 Fe .The activity of 2654 Fe is 3.7 105
A radioisotope of half-life 1 hour and initial disintegrations per second .After 100 days of
continuous use, the crank case oil was found to
activity 6.4 107 disintegrations per hour is
introduced into a patient .After 6 hours ,1.5 cm3 have a total activity of 1.23 103 disintegrations
of blood is withdrawn and found to have activity per second .Find the ;
of 300 disintegrations per hour .Estimate the (i) Half-life of 54
26 Fe .
volume of blood in the patient .
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 (ii) Average mass of iron worn off the The causes of dissipation of energy by nuclear
ring per day ,assuming that all the radiation are
metal removed from the ring (i.) Ionisation of atoms in the detector e.g
accumulates the oil . in ionisation chamber and G.M. Tube
Data (ii.) Excitation of atoms without removal
54
of orbital elections e.g. in scintillation
(i) From 26 Fe ,molar mass M =54g
counter.
Given mass ,m = 15g
Nuclear radiation detectors include ;
Number of atoms originally ,
1. Diffusion cloud chamber.
mN A 2. Expansion/Wilson cloud chamber .
No 
M 3. Ionization cloud chamber .
15 g  6.02 10 23 atoms 4. Geiger-muller tube
No  IONISATION CHAMBER
54 g
N o  1.67  10 23 atoms Radiation source
Air at
Initial activity , Ao  3.7  10 dis/second 5
atmospheric
Using Ao   N o gauze pressure
ln 2
But   Cathode(m
T1
2 etallic can)
ln 2
Ao   No
T1
2
Anode(thin
T1 
 ln 2   N A
o metal rod)
2 Ao
…
0.693 1.67 10 23
T1  insulator E.H.T
2 3.7 105
 3.13  1017 sec onds
Mode of action
(ii) Activity expected after 100 days , When ionising radiation enters the chamber
 t
A  Ao e through the mica window, it ionises the neutral
2.221018 100 243600 s  gas atoms. Ion pairs are produced as a result of
A  3.7  105 e
collision with the gas atoms.
A  3.7  105 dis / second The positive ions produced drift to the cathode
and the negative ions to the anode.
Activity of oil = 1.23 1023 dis/second This causes an ionisation current to flow which
Total mass of the ring = 15 g is amplified and measured with the micrometer.
A A high voltage is set to a value that a constant
Mass worn off = oil  m current , I flows. In this setting, the energy
A
3 (intensity) of the incoming radiation is
1.23 10
  15 g  0.04986 g proportional to I.
3.7 10 5 A graph of ionisation current I against voltage V
Average mass worn off per day = has the following features.
mass worn off
time of use C
I (  A)
0.04986 g
  5  10 4 g / day
100days A B
Is

DETECTORS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

The requirement for the detection of any nuclear O
radiation is that it must dissipate energy in the V(V)
detector. Features of the graph
Region OA:
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 The applied voltage is low. The positive ions will give a false impression of an arrival of
and electrons produced by collisions of another ionising particle in the chamber. This is
incoming radiation with the neutral gas atoms prevented by using a quenching agent like
have a high chance of recombining since their bromine.
velocities are low. The current produced is During the quenching process, an electron
proportional to the voltage. from the bromine molecule is transferred to the
Region AB (Saturation region): positive argon ion neutralising it. In this way a
All ions pairs produced per second travel and tube is made to receive next ionising particle.
reach the respective electrodes. This results in The number of pulses per unit time (counter
constant current or saturation current Is = ne. rate) corresponds to the activity of the source of
In this region, the energy lost by the incoming radiation.
particles is proportional to Is. This is the region N.B: In a G.M tube the time taken by the
in which the ionisation chamber is normally positive ions to travel to the cathode is known as
operated. the dead time.
Region BC (Gas amplification): A graph counter rate against applied voltage
Due of the high voltage, the electrons produced
by ionisation of the neutral gas atoms, acquire current D
sufficient energy to cause ionisation themselves
(secondary ionisation). This results in rapid B C
multiplication of ions in the chamber, and hence
the rise in ionisation current.

THE GEIGER MULLER TUBE (GMT) O A

voltage
EXPLANATION
Diagram Below a certain value of p.d known as
threshold voltage, no counts are recorded at
all .This because the number of ions produced
per second is not enough to produce sufficient
current which can result in a pd of sufficient
magnitude to be detected.This explains the flat
line OA .
Between A and B, magnitude of pulse
developed in the tube depends on the initial
ionisation of the tube and energy of the incident
particles.The ionizing current increases with
small increase in p.d but not large enough to
take to draw all the ions to their respective
electrodes .
Between B and C, the plateau region, the
counter rate is almost constant. This is the region
when the tube is said to be normally
S- Radiation source operated .Ionizing current is constant
When the radiation enters the tube through the (saturated).Quenching is more efficient in this
thin mica window, it causes ionisation of the region.
argon atoms. Beyond C, the current increases rapidly with
The free electrons produced are accelerated with small increase in voltage. Due to incomplete
high energy and they also cause more ion pairs quenching one incident particle may start a
by repeated collisions. whole chain of pulses.
When the electrons reach the anode, the pulse Functions of the parts of GMT tube
is produced which is amplified and detected by a (i) Thin mica window ;It allows easy
rate meter. entry of ionizing particles in the
The positive ions in the chamber are GMT .
accelerated towards the cathode and if these ions (ii) Argon gas at low pressure ;When
reach the cathode, they will cause secondary atoms of argon collide with the
discharge(production of negative ions), which neutral gas atoms ,ion pairs are
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 formed .When the pressure is low ,the Time activity of the isotope is given by
gas molecules are much further apart ( A  Ao ) .
and ions move with minimum NOTE: Background count rate is the reading of
interference to the electrodes i.e the a GMT due to ionizing radiations entering it
low pressure inside enables the ions from cosmic rays and substances such as old
move to their respective electrodes plants in the environment .
with little interference . THEORY
(iii) Halogen gas mixed with argon ;The Let a GMT window of area Aw be a distance ,d
mixture forms a quenching agent
which prevents secondary ionization . from a source of radiation as shown .
NB; Quenching agent is a mixture of argon
and halogen gas whose molecules absorb the
energy of positive ions arriving at the
cathode to prevent secondary ionization
(production of secondary electrons). Aw S
d Surface on
(iv) Anode in form of a wire; It increases
the strength of the electric field GMT which
intensity. radiation falls
COMMON TERMS IN GMT
1. SECONDARY IONISATION; Is the
production of electrons at the cathode by Area of sphere on which the radiation falls
the positive ions arriving there .  4 d 2 .
2. AVALANCHE; Is the production of Count rate
large number of first moving –ion pairs

 area of GM window   total ctivity
as a result of violent collisions between  area of sphere 
the electrons and the atoms of the gas ,as
the electrons move to the anode . Aw
  total activity
3. DEAD TIME;Is the time taken by a GM- d2
tube without responding to the next Worked example
ionizing particle entering /that enters. 1. A GMT is placed 10 cm from 1.0g of
OR ; is the period during which the tube Radon -222 . If it records 75 counts per
does not respond at all to the arrival of an second and that its window has area 5
ionizing particle . cm2 .Calculate ;
4. RECOVERY TIME; Is the time taken (i) Total activity of the source .
for the electric field between the cathode (ii) Half-life of 1g of the source .
and anode to recover after a discharge Data
has occurred . (i) d  10cm  0.1cm
5. SPACECHARGE : Is a collection of Area of sphere  4 d 2
particles with a net charge occupying a
 4  0.1  1.256  101 m 2
2
region in free space or in a device .
QN: Explain why alpha particles are used in Area of GM-window
GM –tube but not gamma rays .  5cm2  5 104 m2
Solution A
Alpha particles are massive and carry a big Count rate  w  total activity
As
positive charge .They can easily slow down thus
increasing the chances of coming in contact with 5 10 4
75  A
the atoms of the gas .This increases the number 1.26 10 1
of ions per millimeter ,hence causing high 75 1.26 10 1
ionization . A
5 10 4
How a GMT is used to determine the activity of
A  1.884  10 4 s 1
a radioisotope .
(ii) Using A   N
Background count rate is measured and recorded
as Ao.
The GM window is made to face the substance
whose activity is required and count rate ,A is
measured .
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 Number of There two types:
mN A (1) Diffusion cloud chamber
N
M Perspex cover
Cotton
1g  6.02 10 23 atoms
atoms N  soaked with
222 g volatile liquid
N  2.71 10 21 atoms S
light
A chamber
Decay constant ,  
N
4 Black Dry ice/solid
1.884 10
 21
 6.95 10 18 s 1 metallic base CO2
2.7110
Sponge to
ln 2 0.693
T1   provide to
Half-life , 2  6.95  1018
lagging
T1  9.97  1016 sec onds
2
How a GMT is used to measure half-life . Structure
Background count rate is measured first and It consists of a Perspex chamber with cotton wool or
recorded.(it comes from cosmic rays and felt soaked with alcohol.
substances like old plants) The top part of the chamber is at room temperature
Radiation from a source whose half-life is while bottom part of the chamber is maintained at a
required is directed into a GM-tube and count very low temperature (of about -50oc) by dry/solid
rate of the source measured and recorded . CO2 and this creates a temperature gradient between
The time activity of the source is obtained by the top and the bottom .
subtracting background count rate (Ao) from the Mode of operation
count rate(A) of the source . Alcohol vaporizes in the warm upper part of the
Time activity  A  Ao . chamber. It diffuses towards the cold part of the
chamber.
The time activity is recorded in equal time Above the cold metal base, there will be a layer of
intervals of 30 seconds . air super saturated with alcohol and water vapour.
A graph of time activity is plotted against time . The shield surrounding the radioactive source is
removed. The radiation from S ionises the air
Time
molecules. The ions provide nuclei for
actvity
condensation and their paths are seen by means of
the intense light directed in the chamber.
The tracks of the ions can be photographed .
The length and thickness of the tracks is a measure
of degree of ionization and hence can be detected .
time The shape of the tracks is a shown below .

The time taken by original activity to reduce to

half its original value is its half-life .
EXERCISE Alpha Beta Gamma
A point source of alpha particles is a nuclei particles particles rays
95 Am placed 75 cm in front of a GMT whose
241

s
window area is 3.0 cm2 .The counter linked to
the GMT records 5.4 104 counts per N.B: - The alpha particles produce bright
minute .calculate ; straight tracks as it is the most ionizing .The
(i) Number of disintegrations per second alpha particles are heavy ,so they collide with
of the source . more air molecules to form ions.
(ii) Half-life of 2.0 103 kg of the source .
(ans: A= 2.12 107 s 1 ,half-life - Beta -particles proceed along tortuous
= 1.65 1014 s ) tracks because they are light and are easily
deflected by collision with atoms.
CLOUD CHAMBERS - γ-rays give rise to diffuse ionisation.
(2) Expansion cloud chamber
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 1
Unified atomic mass unit ,1U   (mass of 1
camera 12
atom of carbon-12) .
1
Glass 1U  1.99 1023 g  1.66 1023 g
12
plate But 1kg = 1000g
S Therefore ;
Saturated
alcohol vapour 1.66  10 24
light 1U  kg
1000
Dark pad
1U  1.66  10 27 kg
The electron volt  eV 
The electro volt is defined as the kinetic energy
piston acquired by an electron when accelerated by a
p.d of 1 volt .
S- source of the radiation K .E  eV
Mode of operation K .E  1.6  1019  1  1.6  1019 J
A small quantity of alcohol is poured on the dark
pad attached on the piston .Alcohol evaporates  1eV  1.6  1019 J
and the vapour fills the chamber . NUCLEAR FISSION
The piston is moved down quickly making the This is the process by which a heavy unstable
vapour inside undergo an adiabatic expansion . nuclide splits to form light nuclei followed by
The air cools down as a result. release of energy .
Dust nuclei in the chamber are carried away by A nuclear fission reaction involves bombarding
drops falling on them making the air inside dust of the heavy nucleus with a highly energetic
free and super saturated . particles such as neutrons.
Ionizing radiation from S ionizes the air to form In most nuclear fission reactions, neutrons are
ions which act as centres of condensation . used to induce a reaction because of being
The chamber is illuminated by light and a neutral and so they can easily penetrate the
photograph taken using a camera shows trails nucleus.
that represent the paths of ionizing particles . Example:
If the particles are alpha ,the paths are short thick When uranium-235 is bombarded by a neutron .
235 1 144 90 1
straight trails; for beta particles ,the paths are 92 U  0 n 56 Ba  36 Kr  2 0 n  energy
long straggy lines and for gamma rays ,the paths Such a reaction where one neutron produces
are short cloudy trails . more neutrons is called a chain reaction and can
NUCLEAR ENERGY be used to produce atomic bombs .
KEY TERMS: NUCLEAR FUSION
Unified atomic mass unit (U) This is the combining of two or more light nuclei
1
th
to form a heavy nucleus with emission of energy
This is the mass which is equal to   of the e.g the fusion of two deuterium nuclei to
 12 
produce helium .
mass of carbon-12 atom . 2 2 4 1
1 H 1 H  2 He  0 n  energy
It has a value equal to 1.66 10 27 kg .
High temperatures are required in nuclear fusion
THEORY ;
to provide the nuclei with the necessary energy
1 mole of carbon-12 has mass of 12g and the
to overcome their mutual electrostatic repulsion.
number of atoms in 1 mole of any element is
N.B :A fission reaction normally gives more
equal to Avogadro s constant
energy than a fusion reaction .
i.e( 6.02 1023 atoms ) Einstein’s mass- energy relation
 6.02 1023 atoms of carbon-12 has mass 12g . If the mass of the closed system changes by an
 12  amount of m, the energy of the system changes
1 atom of carbon-12 has mass  23 
g
 6.02 10  by an amount, E  mc 2 , where c is the speed
= 1.99  10 23 g . of light in a vacuum. The above relation is
Einstein’s mass- energy relation.
For a given mass, there is energy released.

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Recall that 1U = 1.66x10-27kg.  mass of nucleons   2 p  2n
If the mass changes by 1U, then the energy
 2 1.0073U   2 1.0087U 
changes is 1.66 10 27 3.0 10 8 
2

 4.0320U
 1.494 1010 J
But 1eV  1.6 1019 J
 mass of nucleus, 4
2 He   4.0015U
Mass
1.494 10 10
1U  eV defect ,
Then 1.6 10 19
m   mass of nucleons    mass of nucleus 
1U  931MeV
m  4.0320U  4.0015U
Mass defect  m 
m  0.0305U
This is the mass equivalence of energy required
to split up the nucleus into its constituent But 1U  1.66 10 27 kg
nucleons . m  0.0305 1.66 1027 kg
 mass of protons   mass of  m  5.063 1029 kg
 mass defect     
 and neutrons   nucleus  Binding energy , E  mc 2
Alternatively ,Mass defect is the difference
B.E   5.063 10 29  3.0 108 
2

between total mass of separate nucleons and

total mass of the nucleus . B.E  4.557 10 12 J
Binding Energy  1 
The protons and neutrons of an atom are called Also 1J   19 
eV
nucleons. The energy needed to take all the  1.6  10 
nucleus a part so that they are completely 4.557 10 12
B.E  eV
separated is called the binding energy of the 1.6 10 19
nucleus.  2.848  10 7 eV
Hence from Einstein’s mass- energy relation, it
follows that the mass of the individual nucleons  2.848  101  10 6 eV
is greater than that of the nucleus in which they B.E  28.48MeV
are together. The difference in mass is a measure BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON :
of binding energy. This is the ratio of the binding energy to the
Definition :Binding energy is the energy number of nucleons .
required to split the nucleus into individual The number of nucleons(protons + neutrons) =
nucleons . mass number of the nucleus .
OR: This is the energy released when nucleons Binding energy per nucleon =
come together to form a nucleus . binding energy
Example number of nucleons
Find the binding energy of a helium nucleus
28.48MeV
4
2 He given that:   7.12MeV
4
Mass of 4
2 He  4.0015U A graph of binding energy per nucleon against
Mass of proton , 11 p  1.0073U mass number .
Mass of a neutron , 10 n  1.0087U
1U  1.66 10 27 kg
Data
Number of nucleons = number of protons+
number of neutrons
 2   4  2   4 =mass number
To form a helium nucleus ,2 protons and 2
neutrons are needed .
4
2 He  2 p  2n

Explanation

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The binding energy per nucleons of elements of difference in mass is the measure of
the periodic table varies with mass as shown binding energy .
below. 2. During nuclear fusion ,total mass of
The higher the binding energy per Nucleon, the thecombining nuclei is greater than the
more stable the nucleus. mass of the nucleus formed and the
Thus the binding energy per nucleon is the difference in mass is the measure of the
measure of stability of the nucleus . binding energy .
The nuclides in the middle of the graph have the UNEB 2008
highest binding energy per nucleon and hence Explain why a high temperature is required
the most stable ,so these need the most energy to during fusion of nuclides .
disintegrate . Data
Very small nuclei are unstable because of the In order for fusion to occur , the nuclei must
large surface energy .Small nuclei for which have high kinetic energy so as to overcome their
number of protons is equal to the number of electrostatic repulsion forces .But the high
neutrons are more stable than those whose temperature is attainable at high
protons are not equal to their number of temperature .Hence high temperature is needed
neutrons .This explains the presence of spikes . during fusion .
Medium sized nuclei are the most stable because General calculations on Binding Energy .
nuclear forces are saturated .This explains the 1. Calculate the energy liberated when
maxima of the curve. helium nucleus 42 He is produced by
The peak occurs at approximately the 56Fe
fusing two deuterium nuclei 12 H .(Give
nucleus which is therefore one of the most
stable nuclei. your answer in MeV).
Summary of key points Mass of 24 He  4.004U
1. Binding energy per nucleon increases to 2
1 H  2.015U
higher peaks for light nuclei but the
1U  1.66 10 27 kg
highest peak is obtained for a stable
nucleus of iron-56 . DATA
2 2 4
2. For heavy nuclei ,binding energy per 1 H  1 H  2 He  energy
nucleon decreases but remains almost 2.015U  2.015U  4.004  m
constant . Mass defect ,
3. Atoms of high atomic mass have a m  4.03U  4.004U
tendency to disintegrate since they are m  0.026U
unstable .
 m  0.026  1.66  10 27kg
Qn :Explain how energy is released during m  4.316  10 29 kg
fission and fusion using the graph above . Binding energy  mc 2
Data
  4.316  10 29 3.0  108 
2
During fission ,a heavy nucleus  A  56  splits
to form two lighter nuclei of greater binding  3.884  10 12 J
energy per nucleon .The total mass of the two Using 1eV  1.6 1019 J
light nuclei is less than the mass of the heavy 3.884 10 12
parent nucleus .The difference in mass accounts B.E  eV
for the energy released . 1.6 10 19
During nuclear fusion ,two light nuclei = 2.428 107 eV
 A  56  ,combine to form a heavier nucleus of  2.428  10  106 eV
greater binding energy per nucleon .The total  24.28MeV
mass of the bigger nucleus is less than the sum
of the two light nuclei .The difference in mass is 2. Find the binding energy per nucleon of
26 Fe given that ;
56
accounted for by the energy released.
NOTE: Mass of 1 proton =1.007825U
1. During nuclear fission ,thetotal mass Mass of 1 neutron =1.008665U
ofthe separate nuclei is less than the (1U = 931MeV)
mass of the original nucleus and the Data

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 56
Fe is a nucleus with 26 protons and mass  avogadro ' s number
26 N
(56-26)=30 neutrons molar mass
Total mass of nucleons = 26p+30 n 1g  6.02 1023 atoms
 26 1.007825U   30 1.008665U  N  2.562 1021 atoms
235 g
 56.4634U Total energy = N  E
Mass of nucleus , 2656 Fe  56.0U (we  2.562  10 21  3.274  10 11 J
considered mass number since the actual
 8.387  1010 J
value was not given)
4. The radioisotope 60 Co decays to 60 Ni
Mass by emission of a   particle and two
defect ,   photons .The half-life of 60 Co is
m   mass of nucleons    mass of nucleus  5.27years .
m  56.4634U  56.0U (i) Calculate the maximum energy
(in MeV) of gamma radiation
m  0.4634U given off per second .
But 1U  931MeV (Energy relation) (ii) Find the power of radiation
Binding energy
emitted by 5g of 60 Co .
 0.4634  931MeV  431.4254 MeV
binding energy Mass of 60 Co =59.9338U
Binding energy per nucleon  60
Ni =59.9308U
mass number
0
431.4254 1 e  0.0005U
 MeV
56 1U  1.66 10 27 kg
 7.704025MeV DATA
3. UNEB 2011 (i)
A typical nuclear reaction is given by 60
Co 60 Ni  10 e  2  energy
235 1 95 139 1 0
92 U  0 n  42 Mo  57 La  2 0 n  7 1 e 59.9338U  59.0308U  0.0005U  0  m
Calculate the energy released by 1g of uranium . Mass
1 0
0 n  1.009U , 1 e  0.00055U ,
m  59.9338U  (59.9308  0.0005)U
Mass of 95 defect ,
139 m  0.0025U
42 Mo  94.906U , 57 La  138.906U
235 But 1U  1.66 10 27 kg
U  235.044U ,1U  1.66  1027 kg
92

DATA m  0.0025 1.66 1027 kg

Mass of reactants  4.15 1030 kg
 235.044U  1.009U  236.053U Using Binding energy = energy released
Mass of products =  mc 2
94.906U  138.906U 
 (4.15 103 )  3 108   3.735 1013 J
2
2(1.009U )  7(0.00055U )
 235.83385U But 1eV  1.6 1019 J
Mass defect , 3.735 10 13
m   236.053  235.83385  U B.E   2.334 10 6 eV
1.6 10 19
m  0.21915U B.E  2.334MeV
Binding energy = energy released Thus the maximum energy of gamma radiation
 mc 2 given off is 2.334MeV .
(ii) Power = activity  total energy .
 (0.21915  1.66  1027 )kg   3  108 
2
But activity , A   N
 3.274  1011 J  P  N  E
Since there is just on atom of uranium in the ln 2
 , T1  5.27  365  24  60  60 s
equation above ,it follows that ; T1 2

1 atom of uranium  23592 U  releases

2

  4.18  109 s 1
energy , E  3.274 1011 J
Total number of atoms in the given mass of 1g is

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 m NA TOPIC 2 : PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
N /EMISSION
M
5 g  6.02 10 23 atoms This is the ejection of electrons from a metal
Number of atoms , N 
60 g surface when electromagnetic radiations of
N  5.02  10 22 atoms frequency greater than the threshold frequency
Power of the radiation of that metal falls on it .
4.18 10 9  5.02 10 22  3.735 10 13 Js1
= K.Emax
 7.88  10 2 W Incident
Exercise radiation
1. (a) Define the following ;  Ejected electron
(i) Binding energy
(ii) Binding energy per nucleon o
(iii) Mass defect 
(b) The following is part of uranium -238 decay
I II
series 238 234 234
92U  90Th  91 Pa Metal interior
Name the particle emitted at each stage (I) and
(II) .
(C) calculate the energy (in MeV )liberated WORK FUNCTION , o
when a helium nucleus , 24 He is produced by This is the minimum amount of energy required
fusing two deuterium nuclei , H . 2
1 to remove an electron from the bulk of a metal
Mass of , 24 He =4.004U interior to its surface against the attractive
forces of the positive ions .It is given by
c
2
1 H =2.015U o  hf o , but f o 
o
1U=1.66 1027 kg
hc
2. Consider the following nuclear equation  o 
235 1 133 0
92 U  0 n  x
y
A  40 R  610 n
(i) Determine the value of x and y . Where f o - threshold frequency , o  threshold
(ii) What is the importance of this
wavelength
reaction ?
3. (a) Define the following terms ; c  speed of light in
(i) Isotopes
vacuum/air  c  3.0  108 m / s 
(ii) Unified atomic mass unit
(iii) Radioisotopes
(iv) A nuclide h  Planck’s constant
(b) calculate the binding energy per
nucleon of 2656 Fe nucleus ,
 6.63 10 34
Js or 6.6  1034 Js 

Mass of Definition of key terms:

1 1
0 n  1.008665U , 1 p  1.0072U ,
0 1. Threshold frequency , f o ; This is the
1 e  5.4858 10 4 U , 56
Fe  55.9349U ,
minimum frequency of the incident
1U  931MeV radiation on a metal surface below which
no photoelectric emission occurs
regardless of the intensity of the incident
4. (a) Describe the structure and mode of radiation .
operation of a cloud chamber .
2. Threshold wavelength , o : This is
(b) List two hazards cause by radiation .
5. (a) (i) With the aid of a labeled ray maximum wavelength of incident
diagram ,describe the operation of a Geiger radiation on a metal surface above which
Muller tube . no photoelectric emission occurs
END regardless of the intensity of incident
radiation .

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 Emin  o (does not escape from surface)
3. Intensity of radiation :This is the
number of radiations reaching the metal Emin  hf min
per second .
4. Instantaneous emission ; This is the c c
immediate release of electrons from a But f   f min 
 max
metal surface once the threshold
frequency is reached . So , f min  f o ,the threshold frequency
EINSTEIN’S EQUATION OF
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION max  o ,threshold wavelength
According to Planck ‘s theory , energy of
incident radiation is directly proportional You can now review the definitions above to
to frequency . understand better .
E f
 E  hf QUANTUM THEORY TO EXPLAIN
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT.
(energy of
incident It states that electromagnetic radiation is emitted
1 2
K.Emax = mv max in discrete separate packets called photons .
radiation)E= 2
hf A photon is a tiny packet of electromagnetic
radiation carrying energy .
 Ejected electron
Each photon carries an amount of energy known
o  hfo as Quanta given by E  hf where h is Planck’s

constant , f is the frequency of electromagnetic
radiation .
Metal interior
N.B: Quanta is a tiny packet of
electromagnetic energy carried by a photon .
According to
Einstein , Each photon interacts with only one electron in
 max .kinetic  the metal liberating all its energy or none of it .
 energy of   
   work   energy  When the photon energy (quanta) is less than
 incident    function    of ejected 
 radiation    work function of the metal ,the photon is
   
 electron  rejected and no electron is emitted .
E  o  K .Emax
If the photon energy is greater than the work
1 function of the metal ,the photon is absorbed
 hf  hf o  mv 2 max
2 and an electron is emitted .

This is Einstein’s equation EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Where;
h-Planck’s constant
f- frequency of incident radiation.
fo – threshold frequency
Vmax – velocity of photo electron ejected .
Explanation of key terms:
To eject an electron ,minimum energy required
= work function

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 Mercury radiation zinc
vapour lamp
Zinc plate

Ultraviolet
radiations
Gold leaf
electroscope
Gold leaf
electroscope earthing
Ultraviolet and infrared radiation are directed in
Ultra violet rays from a mercury vapour lamp are turns into a zinc plate which is attached to a gold
allowed to fall on a small sheet of freshly leaf electroscope as shown in the figure
cleaned zinc which is connected to a negatively above .Explain what happens when :
charged electroscope .
(i) Ultraviolet radiation falls on the zinc
The gold leaf gradually collapses . plate .(2mks)
(ii) Infrared radiation falls on the zinc
This means that zinc plate and the electroscope
plate .(1mk)
have lost charge (electrons).
(iii) The intensity of each radiation is
The implication of this is that photoelectric increased. (2mks)
emission has taken place . Data
(i) If U.V radiation falls on the zinc
EXPLANATION OF ABOVE plate attached to a positively charged
OBSERVATION electroscope ,there is no change in
divergence of the gold leaf .This is
The emitted photoelectrons do suffer because the emitted electrons are
electrostatic repulsion due to the negative charge attracted back by positive charge on
on the zinc plate .Consequently ,there is a zinc plate and thus no loss of charge .
reduction in the negative charge that causes a If the electroscope is negatively
reduction in the negative charge that causes charged ,the emitted electrons from
reduction in the divergence of the gold leaf. zinc plate are repelled
electrostatically and decrease in
N.B: If the gold leaf electroscope is
divergence of the gold leaf is seen .
positivelycharged and the radiation falls on the
If the electroscope had no
zinc plate, it remains divergent .This is because
charge ,electrons are ejected from the
the emitted electron s on the plate when U.V
zinc plate ,the gold leaf would
radiation falls on it are attracted back by the
rise .This is because electrons from
positive charge on GLE .
the gold leaf and brass plate move to
UNEB 2010 the zinc plate to replace the lost
electrons .Hence electroscope
acquires a positive charge due to
electron deficit.
(i) No effect is observed because the
frequency of the infrared is below the
threshold frequency of zinc. Hence it
can not eject the electrons from the
zinc plate no matter how the radiation
is .
(ii) The number of electrons emitted per
second from the zinc plate increases
with increasing intensity so long as
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 the radiation has sufficiently high f .Electrons would do not absorb energy
frequency . which is less than the work function
- For U.V , when electroscope is function o =h fo, of the metal .Therefore
negatively charged ,the leaf photons of energy less than work function
collapses faster and for a neutral are rejected and remain in the metal .
body ,the leaf will rise at higher UNEB 2001
rate Also no change occurs on the (i) Write down the Eintein’s
leaf divergence for positively photoelectric equation .(2marks)
charged electroscope . Data
- For infrared ,nothing is observed 1
as its frequency is below the hf  o  mv 2 max
threshold . 2
Where,
LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT h-Planck’s constant
- For a given metal ,there is minimum
frequency of the incident radiation below f- frequency of incident radiation.
which no photoelectric emission occurs
irrespective of the intensity of the incident fo – threshold frequency
radiation .
Vmax – velocity of photo electron ejected .
- The photocurrent(the number of electrons
emitted per second ) is directly proportional (ii). Explain how the equation in (i) above
to the intensity of incident radiation . accounts for the emission of electrons from
- The photoelectrons are emitted with kinetic surfaces illuminated by radiation .
energy which increases from zero to a
maximum with frequency of incident Data
radiation but independent of the intensity .
- There is no time lag between irradiation Radiation consists of discrete packets of energy
and emission of photoelectrons provided called photons each of energy ,E = h f ,where f –
the incident radiation has high enough is the frequency of incident radiation .This is
energy. according to quantum theory .
EXPLANATION During photoelectric effect ,the energy of one
As per theory ,radiation is emitted ,and photon is absorbed by only one electron .The
absorbed in discrete amounts called electron will escape if the energy it has
quanta .so each quanta of light (photon) absorbed is enough to overcome the forces
interacts with only one electron liberating binding it to the surface of the metal .
all is energy or none to it .Hence the number
of photoelectrons emitted per second is Before escaping ,the electron must give up an
directly proportional to the incident amount of energy equal to the work
radiation photons falling on the surface per function , o of the metal surface .
second (i.e the intensity of the radiation)
When the photon energy (hf )is greater than If the photon energy (h f) is greater than work
the work function o needed to overcome function ,the electrons will acquire some kinetic
the attraction of the nucleus ,an electron will energy after leaving the metal surface whose
be emitted from the surface . maximum is given by K .Emax  hf  o .
If hf< o ,no photoelectric emission occurs.
So as f increases ,also kinetic energy of the APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC
electrons also increases . EMISSIO N
UNEB2000 QN 8b(ii) 1. Operation of automatic security lights .
Explain why light whose frequency is less 2. Operation of automatic doors .
than the threshold frequency can not cause 3. Operation of automatic security alarms
photoelectric emission? i.e when an intruder blocks passage of
Data electrons between cathode and anode ,the
According to quantum theory ,radiation is alarm is switched on and security is
absorbed or emitted in discrete packets of alerted.
energy called photons with energy, h 4. Used in photo voltaic cells
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Worked examples But
o  hf o
1. Ultra-violet light of wavelength
3.3 108 m is incident on a metal .Given 34.408 10 17
fo   6.648  1016 Hz
that the work function of the metal is 6.63 10 34
3.5e V .Calculate the maximum velocity The threshold frequency 6.648 1016 Hz
of the liberated electron . 3. Violet light of wavelength 0.4  m is
Data incident on a metal of threshold
  3.3 108 m , h  6.63 1034 Js , wavelength 0.65 m .Find the maximum
o  3.5eV  3.5 1.6 1019 J , vmax  ? speed of emitted electrons.
Data
1 2 o  0.65 106 m ,   0.4 106 m
K.Emax = mv max
2 vmax  ?
E= hf
hc hc 1 2
  mv max
 Ejected electron  o 2

o  hfo 2hc  1 1 
 vmax    
m   o 

2  6.63 1034  3 108   1 1 

1    6 
hf  o  mv 2 max 9.1110 31
 0.4 10
6
0.65 10 
Using 2
= 4.199 1011  6.48 105 m s 1
c
But f 
 4. A 100m W beam of light of wavelength
4.0 107 m falls on a Caesium surface
hc 1 2
 o  mv max of a photocell .
 2 (i) How many photons strike the
6.63 10 34  3 10 8 Caesium surface per second .
 3.5  1.6  10 19 
3.3 10 8 DATA
1
 9.11 10 31 v 2 max Power ,P= 100 10 3W  0.1J s 1
2

vmax  3.46  106 m s 1 Wavelength ,   4.0 107 m

Energy of each photon , E  hf

2. When light of wavelength 4.50 nm falls
on a certain metal ,electrons of maximum
hc 6.63 1034  3 108
kinetic energy 0.76e V are emitted .Find E 
the threshold frequency of the metal .  4.0 107
Data E  4.95 1019 J
  4.50 109 m , h  6.63 1034 Js,
power ( Js 1 ) P
K .Emax  0.76 1.6 10 19 8
J , c  3 10 ms 1 Number of photons ,  
photon energy (J ) E
using ,
hc 0.1J s 1
 o  K .Emax 
 4.95  1019 J
hc  2.02  1017 photons per sec ond
o   K .Emax

6.63 10 34  3 108 (ii) If 80% of the photons emit
 9
  0.76  1.6  10 19  photoelectrons ,find the resulting
4.50 10
photocurrent .
o  4.408  10 17 J
Data

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80% of photons emit electrons, 6. When light of frequency 5.4 1014 Hz
falls on a metal surface ,electrons of
n  80% of photons
kinetic energy 1.2 1019 J are emitted .If
80 the same metal is illuminated with light
n  2.02  1017
100 of frequency 6.6 1014 Hz ,electrons of
n  1.616  1017 electron per sec ond kinetic energy 2.0 1019 J are
emitted .Calculate Planck’s constant .
Photocurrent , I  ne Data
Using E  o  K .Emax ,
I  1.616  1017  1.6  1019
Case 1: hf1  o  K .E1 ...................(i)
I  25.9mA
Case 2: hf 2  o  K .E2 ............(ii )
(iii) (i)-(ii)
Calculate the kinetic energy of
each photoelectron if the work h( f1  f 2 )  K .E1  K .E2
function of the Caesium is 2.15e
V. 1.2  1019  2.0  1019
h
From; 5.4  1014  6.6  1014
E  o  K .E max h  6.67  1034 Js
K .Emax  E  o
7. Light of frequency 5.0 1014 Hz liberates
hc
  o electrons of kinetic energy 2.311019 J
 from a metal surface. Find the
6.63 10 34  3 10 8 wavelength of light which liberates
   2.15 1.6 10 19 
4.0 10 7 electrons of kinetic energy
 1.51 10 19 J 8.93 1019 J .( h  6.6 1034 Js )
Data
5. Light of wavelength 150nm incident on Case 1: E  o  K .Emax
a sodium plate of work function 2.0e hf  o  K .E max
V .Calculate ; o  hf  K .Emax
(i) Energy of incident light .
(ii) Threshold frequency .  (6.6  10 34  5.0  1014 )  (2.31 10 19 )
(iii) Velocity of emitted electrons .  9.9  10 20 J
Data
(i) Energy of incident radiation , Case 2 :
hc E  o  K .Emax
E  hf 

E  9.9  10 20  8.93  10 19
6.63  1034  3.0  108
E E  9.92  10 19 J
150  109
Using
E  1.326  1018 J hc
(ii) Threshold E  hf 

frequency ,
 6.6 10 34  3.0 10 8
fo  o E
h 9.92 10 19
2.0 1.6 10 19 E  1.996  10 7 m
 34
 4.8 1014 Hz Exercise
6.63 10
1. Light of frequency 6 1014 Hz is
1
(iii) Using E  o  mv 2 max incident on a metal surface and the
2
emitted electrons have a kinetic energy of
2
31 
vmax  1.326  10 19  3.2  10 19  2 1029 J .Calculate;
9.1110
(i) Work function of the metal.
 1.486  10 6 m s 1 (ii) Threshold frequency of the metal.

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 2. Calculate the maximum speed of the
photoelectrons by a Caesium surface
when irradiated with light of
wavelength 484nm,if the work function
of caesium is 3 1019 J .
3. A photoemissive metal has threshold
wavelength of 0.45μm.Calculate the
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
when light of wavelength 0.35μm falls
on this metal.
4.

THE PHOTOCELL
Diagram

Glass envelope

NOTE:
cathode 1. Cathode C ,originally negative is
anode
connected to the positive terminal of
battery so as to receive th e emitted
electrons.
2. Anode ,A ,originally positive is
connected to the negative terminal of the
terminals battery .
When ultraviolet light is directed to fall
When radiations fall on a on the cathode .
photocell ,electrons are emitted and The cathode emits electrons which are
causes a current to flow through the received by the anode and the micro
device and it begins to operate . ammeter records current flowing .
Circuit symbol The p.d between cathode and anode is
varied using a potential divider until no
electron moves from the cathode to the
anode .
The potential difference between C and
A A is noted from the voltmeter and is
C called stopping potential .
Definition : Stopping potential is the
maximum potential difference applied
Photocells can be used in solar panels ,solar to cathode and anode to stop the most
watches ,calculators ,switches to open doors ,can energetic electrons emitted from cathode
be connected to automatic switch to switch on to reach the anode .
light . Thus
eVs  K .Emax
MAXIMUM KINETIC ENERGY AND
STOPPING POTENTIAL 1 2
eVs  mv max
2
Study the set up below . UNEB 1998
Describe with the aid of a diagram
how the stopping potential of a metal
can be measured .

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 hf  hf 0  eVs
hf hf o
So ,  Vs  
e e
h  hf 
Vs    f   o 
e  e 

Comparing with equation of straight

line , y  mx  c

If a graph of Vs is plotted against f ,it gives a

straight line with ;

h
Gradient/slope , s 
e
hf o
Vs  intercept , c 
e
set up
The intercept on the frequency axis is the
Procedure threshold frequency , f o .
The anode is made more negative relative to the
cathode . Vs V 
White light is made to shine through a filter to
obtain monochromatic beam of radiation which
is directed to thermal cathode , C whose 0
stopping potential is required . fo
f  Hz 
If the frequency of incident radiation is greater C
than the threshold frequency for the metal,
photoelectrons are emitted and are attracted by
the anode ,hence a current flows . EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY EINSTEIN’S
EQUATION FOR THE PHOTOELECTRIC
The p.d across the photocell is obtained by EMISSION .
moving the jockey , J along potential divider
until no current flows(no deflection of
microammeter) .

The reading , Vs of the voltmeter is taken and

this is the stopping potential .
MODIFICATION OF EINSTEIN’S
EQUATION
From Einstein’s equation ,

hf  hf o  K .Emax

But in electric field , K .Emax  eVs ,where e -

electron charge , Vs  stopping potential .

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 Procedure If light of power P and energy E falls on a metal
surface so that n electrons are emitted ,then ;
The anode ,A is made more negative with
respect to the cathode .(see terminals of battery). Power = number of electrons  energy
Radiation of known frequency from a hc
spectrometer is made incident on the cathode C P=n E , but E  hf 

of the photocell and emits electrons by
photoelectric emission . nhc
P
Electrons are then attracted by the anode and the

micro-ammeter gives a deflection indicating If n electrons cause a current ,I to flow per
flow of current . second ,then ;
The potential divider is varied until the micro- Charge = current  time
ammeter gives no deflection .
Q  I t
The p.d , Vs of the voltmeter is noted and
recorded and is the stopping potential . But t =1 s ,and Q = ne

Measurement of Vs is repeated for other  Q  I  ne

frequencies , f of the radiation .  I  ne

(This is achieved by shining white light on a Example

photocell through a series of different colour
1. Light of wavelength 250nm falls on a
filters for different frequencies)
metal surface with power of 10 m
A graph of Vs against f is plotted . W .Find;
(i) Number of emitted electrons per
second .
Vs V  (ii) Current which flows .
Data
(i) P  10  10 3W ,   250  10 9 m
nhc
0 P
fo 
f  Hz  P
n
C hc
0.01 2.5 10 7
A straight line graph is obtained which verifies n
6.6 10 34  3 108
h h  n  1.26  1016 electrons
Einstein’s equation ; Vs    f   f o  .
e e  (ii) Using
I  ne
How to obtain Planck’s constant.
I  1.26  1016  1.6  1019
The slope ,s of the graph is obtained . I  2.02  103 A
The Planck’s constant , h  s  e . 2. In a photocell, light of wavelength
4.5 105 cm and rating 20m W is
Possible questions ; incident on a cathode. If 60% of the
liberated electrons reach the anode per
1. Describe an experiment to determine second .Calculate the registered current .
threshold frequency of a metal . DATA
2. Describe an experiment to determine
4.5 105
Planck’s constant .  m  4.5 107 m
NUMBER OF ELECTRONS 100
EMITTED ,CURRENT ,AND P  20 103W
POWER OF A RADIATION

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 P Using
n
hc E  o  K .E max
2.0  102  4.5  107 K .Emax  E  o
n
6.6  1034  3  108 hc
  o
n  4.5  1016 electrons liberated 
Electrons reaching the anode 6.6 10 34  3 108
   3.04 10 19 
60 2 10 7
n   total liberated electrons
100 K .Emax  6.86 10 19 J
60 Using
  4.5  1016
100 eVs  K .Emax
 2.7  1016 electrons 6.86  1019
Registered Vs 
1.6  1019
I  n  e
Vs  4.2875V
current ,  2.7  1016  1.6  1019
Alternatively use ; hf  o  eVs
 4.32  103 A
3. Light of frequency 4.0 1014 Hz and 5. The work function of tungsten is 4.49e
intensity 4Wm-2 is incident on an area V .Ultraviolet radiation of wavelength
0.02m2 of photo cathode. Calculate; 250 nm falls on the surface .Calculate ;
(i) Power of the incident light. (i) The cut off wavelength of photo
(ii) Number of liberated electrons . emission .
DATA (ii) The stopping potential .
Data
energy per sec ond (i)
Intensity =
area o  4.49  1.6  10 19 J  7.184  10 19 J
power   250  10 9 m ,
Intensity =
area
cut-off wavelength , o  ?
Power = intensity area hc
o 
= 4  0.02  0.08W o
hc 6.63  1034  3  108
BUT o  
o 7.184  1019
P  nhf o  2.769  107 m
P Thus the cut-off wavelength
n
hf is 2.769 107 m
0.08 (ii) Using
n
6.6 1034  4 1014 hc
 o  eVs
n  3.03 107 electrons 
6.63 10 34  3 10 8
4. Light of wavelength 2 107 m is 9
  7.184  10 19   1.6  10 19 Vs
250 10
incident on a metal of work function 1.9e
V. Calculate the potential that can stop
7.72 10 20
motion of electrons from the cathode to Vs   0.4825V
anode? 1.6 10 19
Data Thus the stopping potential is 0.4825V .
  2  10 m , o  1.9  1.6  1019 J
7 END
TOPIC 3: THE ATOM

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An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus Main observations:
surrounded by a negatively charged particles
called electrons . 1. Most of the alpha particles pass through
the foil undeflected .
RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL 2. A few particles were scattered through
EXPERIMENT . small angle .
3. Very few particles are deflected through
Rutherford investigated the structure of atom angles greater than 90o.
using scattering of alpha particles by a thin films
of gold . RUTHERFORD’S CONCLUSIONS
Experiment :Scattering of alpha particles 1.If the gold foil atoms were completely
solid ,no alpha particle would penetrate to the
other side of the foil .
2.Most of the space inside the atom is empty
since the majority of alpha particles pass through
the gold foil un deflected .
3.The scattering of the alpha particles is due to
head on collision of the alpha particles which are
positively charged with the atoms of gold .
4.The few deflections through obtuse angle are
due to repulsion by the positive charge of gold
nucleus .
Summary

Procedure
A thin piece of gold is placed perpendicular to
some source of alpha particles .
Using a collimator ,a narrow spot beam of alpha
particles is made incident on the thin gold foil . Rutherford’s model of the atom .
Whenever a particle hits the screen ,a flash of 1.An atom consists of a positive charge confined
light is produced, though faint. to the centre where most of the mass is
concentrated.
The faint flash of light on the screen is called
scintillation . 2.Electrons orbit around the nucleus like planets
do round the sun .(i.e follow elliptical path)
The experiment is carried out in a dark room so
that the scintillations are observed through a 3.It is the electron cloud that accounts for the
microscope . volume of the atom .
The screen is rotated about the metal foil and the
number of scintillations in various positions in
equal time intervals are counted and the angular
dependence of the scattering is also determined .
The apparatus must be evacuated so that the
alpha particles are not prevented from reaching
the screen through collision with air molecules .

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RUTHERFORD’S FAILURES (Kinetic energy of alpha particle) = (electrostatic
energy of nucleus-alpha particle system)
1. Much as electrons revolve round the
nucleus ,they do so in only certain 1 2  Z Au e  Z e 
allowed orbits and when they are in these mv 
2 4 o bo
orbits ,they do not emit
radiations .Rutherford failed to explain
Z Au Z e 2
this . bo 
2. Electrons can also jump from one orbit 2 o mv 2
of energy ,say E2 to another of lower
energy ,say E1 and the difference is Worked examples
emitted as one quantum of frequency , f
A beam of alpha particles of energy 4.2MeV is
given Planck’s equation of , incident normal to gold foil. What is the closest
E2  E1  hf .Rutherford failed to distance of approach by the alpha particles to the
explain this. nucleus of gold atom ?(Atom number of gold =
79)
CLOSEST DISTANCE OF APPROACH OF
AN ALPHA PARTICLE TO THE NUCLEUS Data
An alpha particle directed onto the nucleus is Z Au  79 , Z   2
deflected through a large angle and the smallest
distance alpha particles can reach the nucleus is
referred to as the closest distance of approach of
the alpha particles to the nucleus . Z Au Z e 2
bo 
2 o mv 2

Z Au Z  e 2
bo 
1 
4 o  mv 2 
2 

Z Au Z e 2
bo 
4 o  K .E
79  2  1.6 10 19 
2

bo 
4  8.85 10 12  4.2 10 6 1.6 10 19 
bo  5.4  10 14 m

2. UNEB 2001 QN 9(b)

Expression for closest distance of approach
Show that when an alpha particle collides head
on with an atom of atomic number Z ,the
Z e
closest distance of approach to the nucleus , bo
 Z Au e
Ze 2
Speed ,V is given by bo  where e – electronic
bo  o mv 2
charge ,  o  is the permittivity of free space , m
is mass of the alpha particles and v is the initial
z  proton number of alpha particles  4
2 He  velocity of the particle .(06 marks)
Data
Z Au  proton number of gold nucleus

( Z e)  total charge of alpha particles

( Z Au e)  total charge of gold atom (nucleus)

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 2e 4. An alpha particle of mass 1.6  1027 kg
 Ze
passes at a distance 5.0 1012 cm from
Speed ,V the nucleus of a gold atom of atomic
bo number 80.Calculate the velocity .
Data

The kinetic energy possessed by the alpha Electrostatic P.E = K.E

1
particle  mv 2 ,where v is the velocity of alpha 2 Ze 2 1
2  mv 2
particle . 4 obo 2

The electrostatic potential energy of alpha 1 (2 Ze 2 ) 2

v2   
particle and the nucleus of the atom at closest 4 o bo m
 2e  Ze 
9 109  2  80  1.6 10 19 
2
distance of approach is given by 2
4 obo v2  
14
5 10 1.6 10 27
At closest distance of approach ,the   particles  v  3.04  10 m s 1
7

is instantaneously at rest and its initial kinetic

energy balances the electrostatic potential at this THE BOHR ATOM
point .Thus
A Bohr atom is an atom whose centre (nucleus)
2
1 2 2 Ze is surrounded by electrons moving in circular
mv 
2 4 o bo orbits and when in these stable orbits ,the atom
does not radiate.
Ze 2
bo 
 o mv 2 Bohr’s postulates

3. A beam of alpha particles of energy 1. Electrons can revolve round the nucleus
4.2MeV is incident normally on a gold in certain allowed orbits and when in
foil .If the distance of closest approach is these orbits ,they don’t emit any
radiations.
5.4 1012 cm ,find the atomic number of
2. An electron can jump from one orbit of
the gold atom .
higher energy E2 to that of lower
Data
Electrostatic P.E = K.E of alpha particle . energy E1 and radiation is emitted of
2 Ze 2 1 frequency , f given by E2  E1  hf .
 mv 2
4 obo 2 3. The angular momentum of the electrons
But h
are a whole number multiples of
1 2 2
mv  K .E  4.2MeV where h is Planck’s constant .i.e
2
nh
 4.2  10 6  1.6  10 19 J  6.72  10 13 J mvr 
1 2
 9  109 .BOHR’S POSTULATE APPLIED TO
4 o HYDROGEN ATOM
2 Z 1.6 10 19   9 10 9
2

 6.27  10 13 Consider an electron of mass ,m and charge ,e

bo revolving round the nucleus of an atom with a
but bo  5.4  10 12  10 2  5.4  10 14 m velocity , v and in an orbit of radius ,r as shown .

6.27 10 13  5.4 10 14

Z
2  9 10 9  1.6 10 19 
2

Z  78.75  79
Therefore the atomic number of the gold
atom is 79 .
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 r
W   Fdr


r e2 
  dr
 4 r 2
 o 
2
e r

4 o 
r 2 dr

r
e 2  1 

4 o  r  
Expression for kinetic energy of the electron .
The potential energy of the electron is the work
The nucleus of the atom has a charge equal in done
magnitude to that of an electron .thus by
Coulomb’s law ,electrostatic force exerted on an e 2
atom is given by ;  P.E  ..................(2)
4 o r
e2
F1  ................(i ) TOTAL ENERGY , En
4 o r 2
 kinetic   potential 
Centripetal force on the electron directed  total energy     
towards the nucleus is also given by  energy   energy 
e 2 e 2
mv 2 En  
F2  ..................(ii ) 8 o r 4 o r
r
e 2
En  ..............(3)
mv 2 e2 8 o r
Equating : 
r 4 o r 2
If h is a Planck’s constant , n is an integer
e 2 called principal quantum number ,then according
mv 2  to Bohr’s Postulates ,
4 o r
 angular   h 
Thus the kinetic energy of the electron is given   
1 2 1  e2   momentum   2 
by , K .E  mv    h
2 2  4 o r  mvr 
2
e2 nh
K .E  ................(1) mvr 
8 o r 2

Expression for the potential energy of the nh

v
electron . 2 mr

Potential energy is equivalent to the work done The kinetic energy of the of the electron is given
in moving an electron from infinity to electron by ;
an orbit of radius with the nucleus as its
centre .The small work done in moving an 1
K .E  mv 2
electron a small distance r in the electron 2
cloud is given by 1  nh 
2

 m 
W  F r 2  2 mr 
2
1  nh 
K .E    .................(4)
8m   r 

Equating (1) and (4)

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 e 1  nh 
2 (b) The total energy ,E of an electron in
   an atom may be expressed as
8 o r 8m   r 
  mq 4 
n 2 h 2 o En   2 2 2  ,
r ...................(5)  8n h  o 
 me 2
(i) Identify quantities m ,q ,n
Substituting r into energy equation (3) and h in this
expression .(2mks)
e   me 2  Guide
En   
8 o  n 2 h 2 o  m-is the electron mass
1   me  4
En    q-is the electron charge
n 2  8h 2 o2 
1 n- is principal quantum number
 En  2
n h-is Planck’s constant .
NOTE: En is negative because electrons are (ii) Explain the physical
bound to the nucleus of the atom , so work must implications of the fact that E
be done to remove the electron from the atom to is always negative .(2mks)
infinity where energy is considered to be zero.
Guide
This work is done against the attraction binding
the electrons in the atom . Electrons are bound to the nucleus and therefore
work must be done if electrons are to be
Bohr’s assumptions;
removed from the atom.This work is done
1. Each electron moves in a circular orbit is against the nuclear attraction binding the
centred on the nucleus . electron to the atom .Thus it is negative.
2. The necessary centripetal force is
2. UNEB 2014 QN8
provided by the force of attraction
(a) State Rutherford’s model of atom .
between the positively charged nucleus
Guide
and negatively charged electrons .
-The positive charge of the atom and nearly all
Failures of Bohr’s postulates
its mass are concentrated in a very small volume
1. It can only explain spectra for simpler at the center .
atoms with few electrons such as
- Electrons are in motion in elliptical paths
hydrogen .
round the nucleus .
2. It can not explain the fine structure of
spectral lines of hydrogen . - The volume of the atom is accounted for by the
3. It says electron orbits are circular yet electron cloud.
they are elliptical .
(b) Explain the failures of Rutherford’s
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS model and how Bohr’s model
addresses the failures .
1. UNEB 2002 QN.8(a)
(a) What is meant by Bohr atom ?(1mk) Guide
Guide
A Bohr atom is an atom with a small FAILURES:
centrally located positive nucleus
around which electrons revolve only 1.An electron orbiting the nucleus is constantly
in certain allowed orbits and while in changing direction and hence
these orbits ,they do not emit accelerating .However in classical physics,
radiations. charges undergoing acceleration emit
electromagnetic radiations continuously and
consequently lose energy .This implies that the
electron will spiral into the nucleus and the atom
would collapse and stop to exist in a short

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time .But the atom is in a stable structure and
Rutherford’s model does not explain stability of n E
the atom .
n4 E4
2. As the electrons are continuously accelerating n3 E3
round the nucleus ,then a continuous emission Infrared (Paschen series)
spectra should be emitted by the atom .But the n2 E2
experimental results show that it is atomic Visible light (Balmer series)
transmission line spectra that occur.
Bohr’s address of the failures. E1
Ultraviolet (Lymann series)
-Electrons can revolve around the nucleus only n 1
in certain allowed orbits and when in they are in
these orbits they do not emit radiations. The lowest energy level E1 is called ground
state .
- When there is an electronic jump from one
orbit to energy E2 to lower energy E1 ,the The energy required to just remove the electron
energy difference is emitted as one quantum of from an atom in its ground state to infinity  E 
electromagnetic radiation of frequency f where
where it has no influence of the nucleus is called
E2- E1 =h f and h is Planck’s constant .
ionization energy ( Eion ).
3. UNEB 1999 QN 9(b)
State Bohr’s postulates of the hydrogen Eion  0  E1
atom .(see notes)
ENERGY LEVELS OF A But E1  13.6eV
HYDROGEN ATOM
Eion  0   13.6eV
According to Bohr’s model of the
atom ,electrons are arranged in permitted orbits Eion  13.6eV
of defined amount of energy .These orbits are  13.6  1.6  10 19  2.18  10 18 J
known as energy levels of the atom .
EXAMPLES
The levels can be represented by horizontal lines
arranged one above the other to form an energy 1. UNEB 2001 QN 10(a)
level with each line indicating a particular (i) What is meant by emission line
energy value . spectra?

An electron can jump from one energy level to Data

another by gaining or losing electrons .All levels
This is the result of exciting ,substantially
have negative values because energy of an
independent atoms .It consists of a series of
electron at rest outside an atom is taken to be
separate lines which have well defined
zero.
wavelength on a dark background .
The hydrogen spectrum is obtained by using
The lines originate from electron transition
different numbers n when determining energy
within the individual atoms by the electrons
levels .
jump from a higher energy level to a lower
The lowest energy level is obtained when n=1 . energy level .

The ultraviolet series are obtained n = 1 . The frequency of the radiations emitted is got
from hf  E n  E m , where n  m .
The visible spectrum is obtained for energy level
corresponding to n =2 (ii) .
The infrared spectrum is obtained when n =3 .

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 region of the electromagnetic
E  0eV spectrum in which it lies .
E4  0.81eV
E3  2.77eV Data
(i) The energy that could just ionize the
E2  4.87eV hydrogen atom is the first ionization
energy .
E1  21.47eV 1
mu 2  0  E1
2
The figure above shows some of the energy 1
 9.11 10 31 u 2  (0  13.6 )  1.6  10 19
levels of neon .Determine the wavelength of the 2
radiation emitted in an electron transition from 13.6 1.6 10 19
E4 to E3 .In what region of the electromagnetic u
0.5  9.1110 31
spectrum does the radiation lie?
u  2.186  10 6 m s 1
Data
(ii)
hf  E4  E2
hc
 E4  E2 hc
 E  E1 

hc
 6.6 10 34  3 108
E4  E2  0   13.6  1.6 10  19 

6.6 10 34  3 108 25
wavelength ,   1.989 10
 0.81   21.47   1.6  10  19 
2.176 10 18
  6.31 10 7 m   9.141 10 8 m
Thus the minimum wave length is
The radiation falls in the visible light
9.141 108 m .
region .(since n=2)
It lies in the ultraviolet region of the
2. The diagram below shows some energy
electromagnetic section .(n=1)
levels of the hydrogen atom .
3. UNEB 1999 QN9(c )
The energy levels of the hydrogen atom
are given by
E  0eV
E5  0.55eV 21.7  10 19
En  joules ,where n takes
E4  0.85eV n2
on the values 1,2,3 ,……….
E3  1.5eV (i) Use this result to account for the
occurence of emission and
absorption line spectra.
E2  3.4eV (ii) Find the shortest wavelength of
radiation which can be emitted by
the hydrogen atom .
E1  13.6eV Data
(i) When atoms of an element e.g
hydrogen are excited due to some
form of heat from a frame or
(i) Calculate the speed of an electron
electricity ,electron transitions may
which could just ionize the hydrogen
occur to higher energy levels .These
atom .
make atoms unstable since energy
(ii) Minimum wavelength of the
has increased .Electrons transition
hydrogen spectrum and state the
may occur to a vacancy left on the
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 lower energy levels and a radiation of electron may fall to a lower energy level ,though
definite wavelength or frequency . definite stages .Each electron transitions involve
A line is therefore formed on the the emission of electromagnetic waves whose
spectrum ,appearing light on a dark frequencies depend on the difference in energy
background .The line are separated between the two energy levels involved .Since
which gives evidence that energy the frequencies are definite for a given
levels of the atoms are separated. material ,it implies energy levels are discrete .
These lines is what constitutes the
emission spectra . END
An atom’s energy can only change by
a discrete amount .If a photon of
hc TOPIC 4 :THE ELECTRON
energy hf  is just enough to

excite the atom such that an electron By the study of charge to mass ratio i.e specific
can jump to one of the higher energy charge , J.J Thompson was able to establish the
levels . the photon will be absorbed . nature of the electron .The electron is now
The intensity of incident radiation is known to have a mass of 9.11 10 31 kg and
reduced since it has lost a photon .A charge of 1.6 1019 C .
dark line on a white background is
observed whose frequency is that of ELECTRON MOTION
the absorbed photon .Such lines is
what constitutes the absorption A free electron can move when in an electric or
spectra . magnetic field and the laws of mechanics can be
(ii) Consider a transition from n   to applied to this kind of motion .In this way ,we
are able to establish information about ;
n 1 .
hf  E  E1 (i) Their speed
hc ( 21.7 10
  19 (ii) The specific charge
 0 (iii) Nature of their path .
1
2

hc Speed of electron

21.7 10 19
6.6 10 34  3 108 cathode
 anode
21.7 10 19 e
u
  9.166  10 8 m 
m
Thus the shortest wavelength of radiation which  +
can be emitted is 9.166 108 m . V
Accelerating
4. UNEB 2008 QN 8
(a) What is meant by a line spectrum?(02 p.d
marks)
Data e  electron ch arg e
Line spectrum is a spectrum which comprises the m  mass of electron
discontinuous lines produced by excited atoms u  velocity of electron
and ions as electrons fall back to lower energy V  accelerating voltage
level .
(b) Explain how line spectra accounts for the Work done on the electron = eV
existence of discrete energy levels in W  eV
atoms .(04 marks)
Data But work done = kinetic energy of the electron .
Atoms of a particular element always give 1 2
radiations(line spectrum) of definite frequencies mu  eV
2
(or wavelengths) in an excited atom. An
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 2eV
u Curved
m Straight line
path
MOTION OF ELECTRON IN MAGNETIC P +
FIELD

Magnetic field e u

  m
e v   Q 
 Straight path
m e screen

F While in the field ,
F  v

y-axis

In the magnetic field ,the electron experiences a

force which is always perpendicular to the F
direction of motion .If the electron moves at a uy  0 y
e u
constant speed ,it experiences a resultant force 
F  Bev …… .(i) m ux  u x-axis
E
The speed of the electron remains constant and
it experiences a force which is always
x
perpendicular to the tangent of the path at any
given point .This indicates that the path is
circular and the force is always directed towards
the centre of the path .
Suppose the electron experiences a force ,F
Therefore , the centripetal force required for this towards a point ,P when its horizontal
mv 2 displacement ,x and vertical displacement ,y
circular motion is F  ..............(ii )
r for time t in the field .
Equating (i) and (ii) gives , The force F  eE …………(i)

mv 2 ,where E –electric field intensity .

Bev 
r From Newton’s second law ,
Radius of the path , F  ma............(ii)
mv 2 Equating (i) and (ii)
r
Bev
mv eE  ma
r
Be eE
a
m
MOTION OF ELECTRON IN ELECTRIC
FIELD . Where m – electron mass , e- electron charge a-
acceleration
Consider an electron entering a region of an
electric field . As the electron enters the field ,it moves
vertically but horizontally initially .

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 1 This is because in accordance to Fleming’s left
By applying s  ut  at 2 hand rule , they experience a magnetic force ,
2
F  Bev at right angles to their direction of
Vertically ; travel and the field .so the force will provide the
centripetal force .
 eE 
:  s  y , u y  0m s 1, a y  (ii) Explain whether a similar path
 m 
would be followed if a uniform
1  eE  electric field is substituted for the
so, y  0  t    t 2
2 m  magnetic field .
1  eE  Data
y    t 2 ...............(i )
2 m  The electrons will experience an electric force ,
F  Ee in the direction opposite to that of the
Horizontally ,speed is constant .
magnetic field .The force makes the electrons to
dis tan ce describe a parabolic path .
: speed , u 
time (b) Electrodes are mounted at opposite
x ends of a low pressure discharge tube and
u
t a potential difference of 1.20k V applied
x between them .Assuming that the
 t  ...............(ii ) electrons are accelerated from
u
rest ,calculate the maximum velocity
Substituting (ii) into (i) gives , which they could acquire . (specific
electron charge , e  1.76  1011 Ckg 1 )
1  eE   x 
2 m
y    
2  m  u  Data
1  eE  2
y  x 1
2  mu 2  mu 2  eV
2
Where e ,E ,m , u are constants . 2eV
u
m
 y  k x 2 ,so this shows that the path of
electron in electric field is parabolic . e
u  2  V
m
V
NB: Recall , E  , where V- p.d between the u  2  1.76  1011  1.2  10 3
d
plates , d- separation of the plates . u  2.06  10 7 m s 1

1  eV  2 2. UNEB 1997 QN 9
y  x
2  mdu 2  A stream of singly ionized magnesium
atoms is accelerated through a p.d of 50V
WORKED EXAMPLES and then enters a region of uniform
magnetic field of flux density
1. UNEB 2006 QN 9
2.08 102 T .Calculate the mass of the
(a)
ions .
(i) A beam of electrons having a
Data
common velocity enters a
uniform magnetic field in a The kinetic energy is provided by the
direction normal to the accelerating p.d ,
field .Describe and explain the
subsequent path of electrons . 1
mu 2  qV
Data 2
,
The electrons do describe a circular path . 2qV
u
m

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Where V- accelerating voltage , q – charge of Electric force = magnetic force
ion .
qE  Bqv
In the magnetic field ,the centripetal force is B 300
provided by the magnetic field . v   500 m s 1
E 0.6
mu 2 Therefore the velocity of the ions is 500 ms-1
 Bqu ,where r is the radius of the circular
r
path . (ii) Describe the motion of the ions in the
region TR .
Bqr Data
u
m
The path of the ions in the magnetic field is
circular and perpendicular to the magnetic
2qV Bqr
So  field .It is therefore due to the magnetic field that
m m provides the centripetal force .
Squaring both sides and making m subject
gives ,
4. UNEB 1998 NOV QN 8
 B 2r 2  An electron accelerated by a p.d of
m q
 2V  1000V passes through a uniform electric
field intensity ,E , crossed with a
m
 2.08 10   0.24  1.6 10
2 2 2 19
uniform magnetic field of flux density
2  50 0.3T .If the electron emerges un
26 deflected .Calculate the electric field
m  3.8972  10 kg
intensity ,E .
3. UNEB 2000 QN10 . DATA
(a) What is meant by specific charge of an V  1000V , E  ? , B  0.3T
ion? For no deflection ,
DATA electric fore = magnetic force
Specific charge is the ratio of charge to eE  Beu
mass of the ion . E  Bu..................(i )
(b) But electron speed , u got from
1 2
mu  eV
2
P S1 Q 2eV
u
 m
+  
  2  1.6  10 19  1000
  u
9.11 10 31
T S2 R u  1.874  107 m s 1
Substituting u into equation (i)
E  Bu  0.3 1.874  10 7
Positive ions of same charge are directed gives
through slits S1 into the region PQRST in fig . E  5.62  10 6 NC 1
above .There is a uniform electric field of
intensity 300NC-1 between the plates PT and 5. UNEB 2002 QN 9
QR. A uniform magnetic field of flux density An electron gun operation at 3 103V is
0.6T is directed perpendicularly out of the used to project electron into the space
plane of the page as shown above . between two oppositely charged parallel
plates of length 10 cm and separated by
(i) Calculate the velocity of mass of the ions 5 cm .Calculate the deflection of the
which go through slit S2. electrons as they emerge from the region
Data

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 between the charged plates when the 1.6 10 19 110 3  (10 10 2 ) 2
y
potential difference is 1103V .
2  9.1110 31  5 10 2  3.246 10 7 
2

DATA
Accelerating p.d ,V = 3000V , y  1.61 10 2 m
1 Thus the electrons are deflected by
Kinetic energy of electron , mu 2  eV
2 1.61 102 m upwards from the initial horizontal
So, initial velocity of the path .
2  1.6  1019  3000 6. UNEB 2004
u
electron , 9.11 1031
u  3.246  107 m s 1 A beam of electrons is accelerated through a
potential difference of 2000V and is directed
mid-way between two horizontal plates of 5.0
cm and a separation of 2.0 cm. The potential
y-axis
difference across the plates is 80V .
(i) Calculate the speed of the electrons
as they enter the region between the
plates .
F (ii) Explain the motion of the electrons
uy  0 y
e u between the plates .
 (iii) Find the speed of the electrons as
m ux  u x-axis
E they emerge from the region between
the plates .
Data
X= 10 cm (i) Suppose the electrons enter the
region between the plates with
From Newton’s second law , speed ,u .
ma  eE 1
 mu 2  eV
eE 2
a , vertically
m 2eV
u
P.d between plates , V  1103V m
1 2  1.6  1019  2000
Horizontally, using s  ut  at 2 u
2 9.11 1031
:  s  x, u x  u , a x  0, t  t 
u  2.65  107 m s 1
x  ut (ii) As electrons move between the plates,
x they describe a parabolic path .
 t  .................(i)
u At any time t ,the horizontal component of
Vertically , velocity vx is constant i.e in this direction, it
 eE  is 2.65 10 7 m s 1 because no net force acts
:  s  y , u y  0, a y  , t  t
 m  in this direction .However, the vertical
1 component v y changes with time because
y  0  t  a yt 2
2 there is a net vertical force , F = E e , and
1  eE  V
y   t 2 E  in this direction .
2 m  d
1  eE   x 
2 (iii) ..
y    
2  m  u 
eEx 2 V
y ,but E 
2mu 2
d
eVx 2
So deflection , y 
2mdu 2

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 v 
  tan 1  y 
 vx 
 1.325  106 
 tan 1  7 
 2.9o
 2.65  10 

EXERCISE
1. A beam of positive ions is accelerated
through a p.d of 1103V into a region of
uniform magnetic field of flux density
0.2T .While in the magnetic field , it
moves in a circle of radius 2.3
cm .Derive an expression for the charge
Using v  u  at to mass ratio of the ion and calculate its
q 2V
Horizontally ; value .(Ans:  2 2  9.5 107 C kg 1 )
m Br
:  ax  0  2. A beam of electrons is accelerated
through a potential difference of 500 V .The
vx  u x  0  t
beam enters mid-way between two similar
vx  2.67  10 7 m s 1 parallel plates to length10cm and are 3 cm
apart .If the potential difference across the
Vertically , plates is 600V ,find the velocity of an electron
as it leaves the region between the plates .
: v y  u y  a y t (Ans: v  2.96  10 7 m s 1,   63.3 o )
F eE
v y  0  a y t , but a   THE ELECTRON GUN
m m
x It essentially consist of hot cathode(emitter of
and t 
u electrons) at one end and an anode in form of a
 eE   x  metal cylinder opposite to it .
 vy     
 m  u  The cathode and the anode are kept at a high p.d
relative to each other .All the electrons are
V enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope .
Where E 
d
Vex Fluorescent screen
vy 
dmu
Spot of
80 1.6 1019  5 102 light
 31 cathode anode
2 102  9.1110  2.65 107
 1.325 106 m s 1

Speed , electrons

v  vx 2  v y 2 6.3V

v  2.65 10   1.325 10 

7 2 6 2

2  3k V
v  2.65  10 4 m s 1
…..
 + vacuum
Direction
E.H.T

OPERATION :

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A cathode is heated from a 6.3 V source and
emits electrons by thermionic emission . Fluorescent screen

The electrons are accelerated to a high speed by Cathode

a high voltage (2  3k V) from an E.H.T supply . rays
cathode anode
The electrons pass through the anode and strike
the screen at the end of the bulb where they give
up their kinetic energy and cause it to
fluoresce(give out light) .
The electron beams produced in this way can be
subjected to a number of other experiments in Low
modified electrons guns in order to study the voltage
properties of electron beams .It is important to
note that electron guns find wider applications in …..
many electronic devices where electron beams  + vacuum
are required . E.H.T

Examples :
The filament is heated by a low voltage
1. The display unit of a television(uses supply .
Cathode Ray Tube ,CRT) . The cathode produces the electrons by
2. Display unit of a computer(monitor). thermionic emission .
3. Cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) The emitted electrons are accelerated by
One of the modified electron guns used the high potential difference between the
to study the movement of electrons is cathode and the anode .
called the Maltese Crosstube. It is used These electrons produce a glow when
to show that electrons travel in a straight they collide with the screen and give up
line . their energy.
N.B: Streams of electrons (electron beam) It is this beam of fast moving electrons
moving from cathode to anode at speed from the cathode which constitutes a
are called Cathoderays . beam of cathode rays .
Topic 5:CATHODE RAYS N.B: The screen is coated with a
Cathode rays are streams of fast moving fluorescent material which causes the
electrons . screen to glow .
Production of cathode rays
UNEB 2007 PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS
Describe with the aid of a diagram the
production of cathode rays . - They travel in straight lines .
Data Justification : They cast a sharp shadow
of a maltase cross on the fluorescent
screen.
- They have a negative charge.
Justification: This is because they are
deflected by magnetic field in a direction
that proposes that they have negative
charge when Fleming’s left hand rule is
applied .
They are also deflected toward the
positive pate in an electric field .
- They cause fluorescence in some
substances like glass .
- Produce X-rays when they strike matter .
UNEB 2007 .:State and justify two
properties of cathode rays.

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 EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT CATHODE
Vacuum
RAYS TRAVEL IN STRAIGHT LINE
filament
UNEB2012 QN 8a(ii) Anode cylinders
Y X
With the aid of a diagram ,describe an
C G
experiment to show that cathode rays do travel
in straight line . L e
Guide
F
Fluorescent screen
Maltase cross
Sharp
shadow  
cathode anode
EHT EHT

Graphite coating
electrons
6.3V
C- cathode G- grid L- low voltage F- fluorescent
screen ,e- electron beam
MAIN FEATURES OF A C.R.O
2  3k V (a) THE ELECTRON GUN
….. Cathode(C) - Emits electrons by thermionic
 + vacuum
emission .
E.H.T Evacuated Grid ( G)- controls the number of electrons
glass tube passing through the anode to the screen .It also
controls the brightness of the spot on the screen .
Procedure Anodes – Accelerate the electrons along the tube
A maltase cross tube is used. and focuses the electron beam into a small spot
It consists of a hot cathode and a hollow on the screen .
cylindrical anode enclosed in an evacuated glass (b) THE DEFLECTING SYSTEM
envelope coated with fluorescent material on the X-plates- These are vertical plates providing a
inside of the bulb . horizontal p.d .So they deflect electron beam
The anode is connected to a high voltage supply horizontally .
(2  3k V) so that the electrons from the cathode Y-plates – These are horizontal plates providing
are accelerated along the tube in a divergent a vertical p.d .So they deflect the electron beam
beam. vertically .
Most electrons by-pass the anode and create a (c ) THE FLOURESCENT SCREEN
shadow on the screen . Fluorescent screen – It emits light when
This suggests that the rays are travelling in the energetic electrons bombard it .
straight lines from the cathode towards the Graphite coating – Provides a path for
screen . collecting secondary electrons to the earth .It
also shields the electron beam from ex
THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE external electric fields by providing
(CRO) equipotential surface .
USES OF A C.R.O
- Displaying wave forms .
- Measuring voltage for both a.c and d.c .
- Measurement of phase voltage between
two a.cvoltages .
- It is also used as a computer output
device .
- Measurement and comparison of
frequencies .
Possible question :
UNEB 2004
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 (a) Describe with the aid of a labeled  Electric force = magnetic force
diagram, the main features of a
C.R.O . (8 marks) eE  Beu
(b) State two uses of a C.R.O . (1 mark)
Where u- is electron speed , E- electric field
Advantages of a C.R.O over a
intensity .
voltmeter.
- It can not be damaged by overloading . E
- It does not draw any current from the u ..............(i)
B
circuit whose p.d is to be measured thus
giving accurate values of p.d . Suppose the electron left the cathode with zero
- Since the electron beam act as a speed and was accelerated by a p.d ,V in
pointer ,it has negligible inertia and vacuum ,then
therefore deflects instantaneously .
SPECIFIC CHARGE OF AN ELECTRON 1 2
This is defined as the ratio of charge to mass of
mu  eV .............(ii)
2
the electron .It is known to be 1.76 1011 C kg 1 .
Substituting (i) into (ii) gives ;
e 1.6 1019 C
  1.76 1011 C kg 1
m 9.111031 kg 2
1 E
EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE m    eV
2 B
SPECIFIC CHARGE , e e E2
m
 .................(iii )
1. LABORATORY METHOD m 2 B 2V
Set up
If the p.d between the plates Y1 and Y2 is V
Vacuum
X1 and distance of separation is d , then
 EHT
V
C
E
Y1 d
  e V2
O 
6.3V 2 2

A   So , m 2d B V
e V
 
V Y2 X m 2d 2 B 2
…
 EHT X2 Thus knowing V ,B ,d then specific charge can
be calculated .
C- cathode A- anode V- accelerating
voltage 2. THOMPSON’S EXPERIMENT
The coils provide a horizontal deflection
on the beam while the plates provide a
vertical deflection of electrons .
METHOD
The electrons are emitted thermionically at the
cathode and are accelerated to the anode in the
absence of the electric and magnetic fields .The
electrons strike the fluorescent screen at O .
A magnetic field of known flux density B is
applied along the axis of the Helmholtz coils
X 1 and X 2 so as to deflect the beam to point X .

An electric field is simultaneously applied and

adjusted such that the beam goes back to the
original point O .

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 V
E is got from E  where d is the distance of
d
separation of the deflecting plate .
CHARGE ON THE ELECTRON
This was done by different people but their
results agreed .
Faraday used the chemical approach and
Millikan used a physical approach .
(a) FARADAY’S APPROACH
In electrolysis , 1 mole of ions in any
substance is liberated by a charge of
9.65 104 C .
The number of ions in any 1 mole of any
substance is 6.02 1023 .This is
Avogadro’s constant N A .
Assuming that every ion has the same
charge during electrolysis ,it follows that
Electrons are produced thermionically by a hot each ion carries a
filament and are accelerated towards the anode Faraday ' s cons tan t
charge , e 
and pass through it . avogadro ' s cons tan t
9.65 10 4
When both electric and magnetic fields are e  1.6 10 19C
zero ,the electrons reach the screen at X and 6.02 10 23
produce fluorescence. It therefore appears that the natural unit
of charge i.e the charge on the electron
If the velocity of the electrons on emerging from has this value .
the anode is u, then (b) MILLIKAN’S APPROACH
Millikan used an oil drop to estimate
1 charge of an electron .
mu 2  eV
2
e u2 The principle
  ..............(i)
m 2V Very small drops charged either positively or
negatively are observed falling through air under
Where V –is the accelerating voltage . the influence of gravity .They are seen either
The magnetic field is switched on deflecting the rising or being held stationary by an electric
beam to Y .The electrons are brought back by field .
use of electric field E that is suitably adjusted . The apparatus
The value V of the p.d is obtained .
Hence magnetic force = electric force
Beu  eE
E
u ...............(ii)
B
So putting (ii) into (i) gives

e E2

m 2VB 2

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 F- Viscous drag
U- upthrust
W- weight of the drop .
If at terminal
velocity ,acceleration , a  0m s 2 ,then
F U  W

By Stoke’s Law , F  6 av1.............(i )

Where   is coefficient of viscosity

a  radius of the drop

v1  terminal velocity of the drop in air .

M-travelling microscope
U  weight of air displaced
V-variable voltage
If   is the density of air ,then
P ,Q- metal plates
4
Method U   ra3 g …………(ii)
3
A tiny drop from the spray(atomizer) finds its
way between the metal plates P ,Q across which
4
And W   a3  g..............(iii) where   is the
an electric field can be applied. 3
density of oil .
The chamber is brightly lit and the drop is
observed through a microscope where it appears Using U  F  W
as a pin-point of light.
4 3 4
 a  g  6 av1   a3  g
Its velocity is found by timing its fall through a 3 3
known distance by means of a scale in the eye
piece of the microscope . 4
6 av1   a3      ...............(iv)
3
D
i.e terminal velocity , vt 
t Also making a the subject in (iv) ,
1
V  9 v1  2
The electric field , E  ,where V  P.d a ……………..(v)
d 
 2g (   ) 
between the plates PQ , d- separation of plates .
If the drop gains charge q and an electric field is
Theory
applied to oppose gravity ,
Millikan first determined the terminal velocity of
the oil drop falling freely through air under the FE
influence of gravity . F U

F U v2 Spherical oil
drop in air

v1 Spherical oil W
drop in air
Then at terminal velocity , a  0m s 2 and v2 is
W
the new terminal velocity ,which is now reduced
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because of electric field force opposing gravity EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
on the drop  i.e v2  v1  . 1. UNEB 1997 QN9
(a) Describe briefly the steps involved in
The force on the drop due to electric field the determination of the charge of an
is FE  qE , where E –is the electric field electron by Millikan’s oil drop
intensity . experiment .(07 marks)
Diagram :see in notes
New viscous drag , F  6 av2 ,
Set up the apparatus as shown above .
F  FE  U  W With both plates P and Q earthed ,the movement
FE  W  U  F  of the oil drop is observed by using a low power
microscope with a calibrated eye piece to
4 4
qE   a 3  g   a 3 g  6 av 1 measure its terminal velocity v1 as it falls
3 3
through air under gravity between plates P and
4
qE   a 3 g       6 av 2 .......(vi) Q.
3
Using a second oil drop ,it is charged with
Substituting equation (iv) into (vi) gives charge q using X-rays and apply an electric field
E using a variable p.d to oppose gravity .
qE  6 av1  6 av2
qE  6 a (v1  v 2 )...........(vii) The drop is observed using the microscope to
measure its terminal velocity v2 as it falls from P
Substituting for a using equation (v) gives , to Q.
1
 9 v1  2 The charge on the drop is calculated from
qE  6    v1  v2 
 2   g 
1
1
6  9 v1  2

q     v1  v2  6  9 v1 2
E  2   g 
q    v1  v2 
E 2   g 
If upthrust is negligible , then U  0    0
Where   density of oil .
1
6  9 v1  2
  density of air .
q  2 g   v1  v2 
E  
g  acceleration due to gravity
Using the above experiment ,the value of charge
q obtained was found to be a simple multiple of V
E  electric field intensity, got from E  (V-
1.6 1019 C .Millikan concluded that the charge d
on electron or basic unit of charge was P.d between the plates , d- separation between
1.6 1019 C . the plates )

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN The procedure is repeated for several drops and

q is determined.
- Use a constant temperature oil bath to
prevent convection currents and variation The highest common multiple of q gives the
of air viscosity . electronic charge .
- Use non-volatile oil to prevent Precautions taken :
evaporation which would otherwise alter
the mass of the oil drop . - Use a constant temperature oil bath to
ASSUMPTIONS prevent convection currents and
- Stoke’s law holds . variation of air viscosity .
- Oil drops are identical . - Use non-volatile oil to prevent
- The temperature is constant (isothermal evaporation which would otherwise alter
conditions) mass of the oil drop.

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 (b) A spherical oil drop of radius With the field off ,a drop of oil of
2.0 106 m is held between two mass 4.0 10 14 m s 1 between the
parallel metal plates across which a plates .
p.d of 4500V is applied .The When a potential difference of 1.5 k
separation of the plates is 1.5 V is applied across the plates ,the
cm .Calculate the charge on the drop drop rises with constant velocity of
if the density of the oil is 880 kg m- 8.0 10 5 m s 1 .How many electron
3
.(04 marks) charges are there on the
drop ?(Assume air resistance is
proportional to the velocity of the
+ drop and neglect air resistance ).
FE V= 4500V DATA

d  1.5cm CASE 1 :Without field

W
-
U=0N F
v1  4.0  104 m s 1
Density of oil drop ,   880kg m 3

Radius of drop , a  2.0 106 m

W
V
Electric field intensity , E 
d  weight = viscous force

 4500  mg  6 a v1 ,where 6 a  k , constant .

E  2 
NC 1
 1.5  10 
mg  k v1
For the drop to be stationary ,the weight of the 1.0 10 14  9.81  k  4.0 10 10 
drop must balance with the force due to electric
field across the plates . k  2.4525  10 10

(since no additional information is given about CASE 2: With the field on, the drop rises
up thrust and viscous drag ,assume they are implying viscous force is now downwards
negligible in this case )
N.B: Viscous force is the friction force due to
W  FE motion of a body in a fluid .It acts in a direction
opposite to the motion of a body(say, the oil
4 3
 a  g  qE drop) in the fluid(say ,the
3
4 a 3  g Air in this
So ,  q  case) .
E
4  2 10 6   880  9.81
3

q FE
4500
1.5 10 2
v2   8.0  10 5 m s 1
q  9.643  10 19 C V  1.5  10 3V
d  12  10 3 m
2. UNEB 2011 QN8
(a) In the determination of the electron W F  k v2
charge by Millikan’s method ,
potential difference of 1.5k V is
applied between the horizontal plates
12mm apart . A negative is attached to the velocity v2to cater
for opposite direction of motion .

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So , in the eye piece of a low power microscope .That
FE  mg  k v 2 D
is v  .
qE  mg  k v 2 t
V  3. UNEB 2005
q    mg  k v 2
d
In the measurement of electron charge by
q
 mg  k v2  d Millikan’s apparatus ,a potential difference
v of 1.6kV is applied between horizontal plates

q
110 4

 9.81  2.45 10 10   8.0 10 5  12 10 3 14 mm apart.
3
1.5 10 With the potential difference switched off ,an
q  6.2784  10 19
C oil drop is observed to fall with constant
velocity of 4.0 10 4 m s 1 .
q  ne
q 6.2784 10 19 When potential difference is switched on ,the
But n   drop rises with a constant velocity of
e 1.6 10 19
n  3.921  4 electrons 8.0 10 5 m s 1 .If the mass of the oil drop is
1.0  1014 kg ,find the number of electrons
So there are 4 electrons in the drop . charge on the drop .(assume air resistance is
proportional to the velocity of the oil drop and
(b) Explain why ; neglect upthrust due to the air. )
(i) In Millikan’s experiment the
apparatus is surrounded with a CASE 1 :Without field
constant temperature bath .(03
marks)
U=0N F
Data v1  4.0  104 m s 1
The constant temperature enclosure helps to ;
1. Eliminate convectional currents between
the plates that would interfere with the W
movement of the oil drop .
2. Eliminate the variation of the viscosity  weight(W) = viscous force(F)
of air due to non- uniform temperature .
(ii) Low vapour - pressure oil is used .
V
d
 1 .5  1 0 3V
 1 2  1 0  3
m
,where 6 a  k , constant .
Guide
This is in order to reduce the problem of  mg  k v1
changing mass for the oil drop due to mg
evaporation.
k  ..............(i)
v1
(c) In Millikan’s experiment ,the
radius ,r of the drop is calculated
9 v FE
from r  where  is the
2 g
viscosity of air and   is the v2   8.0  10 5 m s 1
V  1.6  10 3V
density of the oil .Identify the symbol
v and describe briefly how it is
d  14  10 3 m
measured . (02 marks) mg F  k v2
Data
v is the terminal velocity of the drop and it is
measured by timing the fall of the oil drop
through a known distance,D by means of a scale

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 mg  k v2  FE
U FE
mg  k v2  qE
1  mg  
q  mg    v2 
E  v1  
mg  v2  W
q 1  
E  v1 
So at equilibrium ,
V
But E  , W  U  FE
d
4 3 4
 r  g   r 3 g  qE
mgd  v2  3 3
q 1  
V  v1  Where   density of oil
1.0  1014  9.81 14  103   8.0  105 
q
1.6  103 1  4  104    density of air responsible for the upthrust
 
on the drop .
q  6.87  10 19 C Given
q  ne   1.8 105 Nsm1 , r  9.2 107 m,
q 6.87  10 19   800kg m3 , E  4.0 104Vm1 ,   1.29 kg m3
But since n  
e 1.6  10 19 4 3
 r      g  qE
n  4.3  4 3
Therefore 4 electrons are emitted . 4 r 3 g     
q
3E
4. UNEB 2010 QN 8
4   9.2 107   9.81 800  1.29 
2
In Millikan’s oil drop experiment ,a q
charged oil drop of radius 9.7 107 m 3  4 104
and density 800kg m 3 is held stationary q  6.386 1019 C
in an electron field of intensity
4.0 104Vm1 . But ,
(i) How many electron charges are q
on the drop? (04 marks) n
(ii) Find the electric field intensity e
that can be applied to move the 6.386  1019
n
drop with a velocity of 1.6  1019
0.005m s 1 upwards(density of air n4
= 1.29 kg m-3 ,coefficient of
(ii) ..
viscosity of air = 1.8 105 Nsm1 ).
(04 marks)
Data U FE
(i) Case 1 :since it is at rest ,then there is
no viscous force because if depends on
velocity .So the forces acting are the v  0.005 m s 1
electric force , upthrust and weight.
F
W

U  FE  W  F

5. UNEB 2003
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 (i) Explain how Millikan’s experiment Where vt  terminal velocity
for measuring the charge of the
electron proves that charge is 1.5 10 3 m
quantized . vt   1.34  10 4m s 1
11.2 s
Guide
Equating (i) and (ii)
Millikan measured the charges on hundreds of
drops.He found that the charges are always qV
integral multiples of 1.6 1019 C which meant  6 r vt
d
that electric charges never exist in fractions of 6 r vt  d
this amount and that the magnitude of the charge q
V
is 1.6 1019 C .Hence this established the
quantization of electric charge . 1
 9 vt  2
(ii) Oil droplets are introduced into the But from r=  
 2 g 
space between two flat horizontal
plates, set 5.0 mm apart .The plate 1

voltage is then adjusted to exactly  9 1.8 10 5 1.34 10 4  2

r 
780V so that one of the droplets is  2  900  9.81 
held stationary .Then the plate
voltage is observed to fall a measured r  1.11 10 6 m
distance of 1.5 mm in 11.2s .Given
6 1.8  105 1.11 106 1.34  104  5  103 
the density of the oil used is 900 kg q
m-3 and the viscosity of air is 980
19
1.8 105 Nsm1 .Calculate the charge q  3.2  10 C
of each droplet . Therefore the charge on each droplet is
3.2 1019 C .
Data
POSITIVE RAYS
  900kg m 3 ,  1.8  10 5 Nsm 1
Positive rays are a stream of positive ions
produced by passing electrons from a hot into
U=0 FE
gas or stream of vapour.
N d  5  103 m
Differences between cathode rays and positive
V  780V rays .

W Cathode rays Positive rays

They have a They have a positive
negative charge charge
They move at a very They move at a
For equilibrium ,
high speed lower speed
 weight(W) = viscous force(F) They have a small They have a large
mass mass
4 3 They slightly affect They don’t affect
 r  g  qE
3 photographic plate photographic plates
4 3 qV They are less They are more
r g  ..............(i ) ionising ionising
3 d
They have a constant Their specific charge
CASE 2: When p.d is off , specific charge depends on the
source
Weight of the drop=viscous drag They are They are deflected to
deflected to a smaller extent
4 3 greater extent because they are
 r  g  6 r vt …………….(ii)
3 because of their massive
smaller mass

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Determination of charge to mass ratio of a q v
 .................(ii )
positive ion using Bain bridge spectrometer . m B2 r

Positive ion from Substituting (i) into (ii)

+ source
q E
Slit, S1 
m B1 B2 r
Slit, S 2
So if E , B1 , B2 and r are known, the specific
 B1   }Area of cross q
Photographic  electric and charge of the ions can be determined .
plate magnetic field m

Slit , S 3 END
2r
  TOPIC 6: X – RAYS

X-rays are electromagnetic radiations of very
 short wavelength produced when fast moving
 B2 Deflecting electrons are stopped by a hard metal target .
Path of ions chamber
NB: They were called X –rays because their
nature was unknown by then .
B- magnetic flux density PRODUCTION OF X – RAYS
E- electric field intensity X-RAY TUBE
A stream of positive ions is directed through the
slits S1 and S 2 .In the region between
S 2 and S3 ,a cross electric and magnetic fields are
applied .
For equilibrium , (magnetic force on the ion )=
(electric force on the ion )

B1qv  qE
E
v ..............(i),
B1

Where v –is the velocity of the particle .

Ions passing through S3 have same velocity.So

the region of cross electric and magnetic fields is
a velocity selector .

Beyond S3 ,the ions pass through a uniform

The filament is heated by a low voltage and
magnetic field of intensity B2 ,they are deflected
electrons are emitted by thermionic emission .
in a circular path of radius ,r and hit a
photographic plate . The ejected electrons are focused on the target
by focusing cap of the cathode and then
The magnetic force = centripetal force accelerated by a high voltage (EHT) connected
across the terminals of the cathode and anode .
mv 2
B2 qv 
r On striking the target ,most of the energy (about
99%) of the electrons is converted to heat energy
but a small percentage (1%) is converted to X-
rays .
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The heat energy at the target is removed by the directly proportional to this accelerating p.d but
cooling fins . intensity remains constant . i.e
Little or no energy is lost by the electrons on K .E  V
their way to the target because of the vacuum .  K .E  eV
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS Where K.E – is kinetic energy .
1. UNEB 2005 QN8 V –is the accelerating p.d .
(a) (i) Draw a labeled diagram of an X-
ray tube . e- is the electron charge .
(ii) Use the diagram in a(i) to
describe how X –rays are produced . 1 2
If K .E  mu ,
2. UNEB 2004 QN 10 2
Explain briefly the mechanism of
thermionic emission . 1 2
mu  eV
DATA 2
When a metal is heated ,the few loosely
attached electrons to each atom acquire Where m- electron mass
energy which increases the kinetic
u – speed of the electron .
energy of each electron to a value
sufficient enough to overcome the WORKED EXAMPLES
attraction by the nucleus hence escaping
from the surface. This is referred to as 1. UNEB 1998 (NOV)QN8b.
thermionic emission . An X- Ray tube is operated on a p.d of
Definition :Thermionic emission is the 100k V .Calculate the highest possible
process by which electrons are ejected frequency of the photons .
from a heated metal surface . Data
Energy changes that take place during V  100  10 3V , f  ?
X-ray production .
hf  eV
Electrical energy from a low a.c voltage  heat 1.6 10 19 100000
energy from the filament  kinetic energy of f 
6.6 10 34
moving electrons  heat energy in the target .
f  2.4  1019 Hz
Properties of x –rays 2. UNEB 1998 (MARCH) QN9(d)
Electrons of energy 75k V are stopped by
- They travel in straight lines . the target of an X-ray tube .Calculate the
- They cause ionization of gases . minimum wavelength of the X-rays
- They travel at speed of light . produced .
- They readily penetrate matter and are Data
absorbed by very dense elements like V  75  10 V , min  ?
3

lead.
- They can cause photoelectric emission . hf max  eV
- They affect photographic films . hc
 eV
- They carry no charge . min
- They can cause fluorescence .
hc 6.63 10 34  3 108
min  
PENETRATING POWER OF X-RAYS eV 1.6 10 34  75 103
This is the extent to which the ejected electrons min  1.6575  10 11 m
penetrate matter (target) . HARD AND SOFT X-RAYS

It is controlled by the p.d between the terminals The X-rays with high penetrating power and
of the cathode and the anode which determines short wavelength are known as hard X-
the amount of kinetic energy with which rays .They are used to destroy cancer cells .
electrons strike the anode .The kinetic energy is
X-rays with long wavelength and less
penetrating power are known as soft X-rays.
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They are used in X-ray photography for human UNEB 2004 QN9(b)
body . Explain how intensity and penetrating
power of X-ray tube would be affected
INTENSITY OF X-RAYS by ;
(i) Filament current .(2 mks)
It is power transmitted per unit area .It is
Guide
controlled by the filament current .The filament
current determines the number of electrons When the filament current is increased ,the
striking the target per second . intensity of the X-ray beam increases .This is
because filament current controls the number of
The greater the filament current ,the greater the
electrons hitting the target .
number of electrons striking the target per
second hence the greater the The intensity of X-rays produced increases
intensity .Penetrating power remains constant . although the penetrating power remains
constant .
UNEB 2000 QN .8(c)
(ii) The high tension potential
Explain how the intensity and penetrating power
difference across the tube .(2mks)
of X-Rays produced by an X-ray tube can be
Guide
varied . (see notes)
The penetrating power or quality of X-rays is
UNEB 1997 QN 10(a)
determined by the speed attained by the
(i) How do X-rays differ from   electrons .It increases with the potential
particles? difference across the X- ray tube .

Guide Note :

X-RAYS   particles Apart from the cooling fins , liquids such as oil
-formed as a result -formed as a result or water circulating in channels can be used to
of change in energy of spontaneous cool the anode .
of an atom decay of the nucleus. X-RAY TUBE
-are far more - have low
penetrative to penetrating power .
matter .
-are not electrically -are positively
charged . charged .
(ii) Distinguish between X-ray
production and photoelectric
effect .(2mks)
Guide
- In photoelectric
emission ,electromagnetic radiation is
incident on the metal surface which
releases electrons and little energy is
produced .However, for X-ray
production ,fast moving electrons strike
the metal producing X-rays
(electromagnetic radiations) and a lot of
heat is generated in the
target .Therefore ,photoelectric emission
is the reverse of X-ray production . 1. UNEB 2004 QN 9(c)
- The production of X-rays is due to
When a p.d of 60k V is applied across an X- ray
conversion of kinetic energy of fast
tube ,a current of 30m A flows .The anode is
moving electrons while photoelectric
cooled by water flowing at a rate of 0.060 kgs-
effect is due to emission of electrons
1 .If 99% of the power supplied is converted to
when they absorb sufficient energy .
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into heat at the anode ,calculate the rate at which An X-ray tube is operated at 20k V with
the temperature of the water rises .(specific heat an electron current of 16 m A in the
capacity of water =4200 Jkg 1 K 1 ) . tube .Estimate ;
(i) Number of electrons hitting the
Data target per second .
Data
p.d across X-ray tube (accelerating
voltage ) ,V  60 103V Accelerating p.d,V= 20 103V

Power supplied , P  IV Current , I  16 103 A

P  60000  30  10 3 I
n
 1800W e
16 10 3
Power lost as heat  99% of supplied power  19
 1.0  1017 electrons per sec ond
1.6 10
99
 1800W  1782W
100
(ii) Rate of production of heat ,
(heat gained per second ) assuming 99.5% of the kinetic
energy of electron is converted .(2
Mass of water flowing per
mks)
second , m  0.060kg s 1 Data
 heat lost by anode   heat gained by water  Power supplied = IV
   
 per sec ond   per sec ond 
 (20  10 3  16  10 3 )W
1782  mc
1782 Power lost as heat (rate of production of heat) 
   7.07 o c s 1
0.060  4200 99.5% of supplied power .

2. UNEB 1994 99.5

   20 103 16 103 W
In an X-ray tube ,99% of the electrical 100
power supplied to the tube is dissipated  318.4W
as heat .If the accelerating voltage is 75k
V and power of 742.5W is dissipated as 4. UNEB 2007 QN 10(d)
heat ,find the number of electrons The p.d between the cathode and the
arriving at the target per second . (05 anode of an X –ray tube is 5.0 104V .If
marks) only 0.4% of the kinetic energy of the
Data electron is converted into X  rays and
Let n = number of electrons arriving at the rest is dissipated as heat in the target
the target per second . at a rate of 600 W ,find the ;
99% of supplied power = power (i) Current that flows .
dissipated as heat DATA
Supplied power , Pin  IV  75  103 I
99 Accelerating p.d V  5.0 104V
So ,  Pin  Plost as heat
100 (i) Accelerating p.d , V  5.0 104V
99
 75000 I  742.5
100 Power lost as heat  600W
Current , I  0.01A
99.6% of power supplied = power lost as heat .
I 0.01
n  99.6
But e 1.6 1019  IV  600
 6.25 1016 electrons per sec ond 100
3. UNEB 2008 QN 8(e) 0.996  5 104 I  600
I  1.21106 A
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 As a result ,there is electron transition from
(ii) Speed of the electrons striking the higher energy shells to the vacancy in the K-
target . shell. An X-ray photon is then emitted whose
Data energy is equal to the difference between the
1 energy levels and this results in K-series or lines .
Using eV  mu 2
2 A transition that results into an electron ending
2eV in the L-shell results into the L-series .These are
Electron speed , u 
m the characteristic X-ray lines .
UNEB 2005
2  1.6  1019  5.0  104
u
9.11 1031 Sketch a graph of intensity versus wavelength of
u  1.33  104 m s 1 X-rays from an X-ray tube and describe the main
features.
Assignment
Guide
1. UNEB 2014 QN 9(d)
1. Prominent lines :When fast moving
3
An X-ray tube operates at 1.5 10 V and the electrons collide with the target
atoms ,they dislodge one of the interior
current through it is 1.0 103 A .Find the ;
electrons of the target atoms ,say K-
(i) Number of electrons crossing the electron .This leaves a vacant space in K-
tube per second shell which is filled by an electron from
.(ans : 6.25 1015 electrons per L ,M or N (higher energy level) .This
leads to the emission of an X-ray
second )
photon .These have definite frequencies
(ii) Kinetic energy gained by electron
forming the X-ray spectrum with
traversing the tube .
prominent lines e.g K , K  , L etc .
(ans: 2.4 1022 J ) 2. Continuous/ background spectrum :This
is due to bombarding electrons that do
ORIGIN OF CHARACTERISTIC X-RAY not dislodge an atomic electron and are
LINES FROM ATOMIC THEORY suddenly decelerated by impact with
matter from a velocity u1 to u2 for
example.
The decrease in kinetic energy of the
electron is transferred into an X-ray
photon of frequency f given by
1
 
hf  m u12  u2 2 where u1 is greater
2
than u2 .A continuous spectrum is
emitted and extended indefinitely to the
long wavelength (short frequency) end .
3. Cut –off wavelength  min  or frequency
 f max  .
At very high voltages ,its possible for the This is as a result of bombarding
bombarding electrons to penetrate deep into the electrons suffering a head-on collision
atom and knock out an electron from the inner with one target atom in a single
filled shell(K-shell) . encounter .The electron loses all the
kinetic energy in form of an X –ray
The knocked out electron can either be ejected photon whose frequency is given by
completely out of the atom or occupy any of the 1
higher unfilled shells .This puts the atom in an hf  mu12 .
2
excited state and therefore unstable . NOTE:

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 1. The minimum wavelength (or cut-off - Used to investigate the broken bones in
frequency) is obtained by altering the X-ray photography .
accelerating p.d . HEALTH HAZARDS OF X-RAYS.
2. The wavelength of prominent lines - Prolonged exposure destroys body tissues,
are changed by altering the target damage blood cells and eye sight.
metal since these lines are - They produce genetic changes (mutations)
characteristic of the metal . in subsequent generations .
3. A photon is a packet of energy Differences between X-rays and cathode
carried by electromagnetic radiation . rays .
X-RAYS CATHODE RAYS
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE WAVE -Are - are fast moving
NATURE OF X- RAYS . electromagnetic electrons
waves
Lead slits crystal -move at speed of - are slower
light compared to X-
rays
Monochromatic
-they eject electrons -they produce X-
x-rays from matter. rays on striking
matter .
-they have higher -they have low
Photographic plate penetrating power . penetrating power.
-can not be -deflected by
deflected by electric and
electric and magnetic fields.
A narrow beam of monochromatic X-rays is magnetic fields .
made incident on a crystal of dimensions
comparable to the wavelength of X-rays.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION.
Analysis shows that a central dark spot
surrounded by a pattern of other smaller dark BRAGG’S LAW X-RAY DIFFRACTION
spots is formed .This shows that X-rays are
diffracted confirming their wave nature . It states that “When beam of monochromatic
X-rays is incident on a set of atomic
Reasons why X-rays are electromagnetic planes ,constructive interference occurs when the
waves . path difference is a multiple of wavelength of the
waves .”
- They give a line spectra .
- They eject electrons from matter by Condition for X-ray diffraction to occur .
photoelectric emission and other methods
i.e they ionize gases . It occurs when X-ray radiation with wavelength
- Their method of production involve comparable to atomic spacing are incident upon
accelerated charged particles. a crystalline sample of the material .
INDUSTRIAL USES OF X-RAYS DERIVATION OF BRAGG’S LAW .
- Used by fine artists while analyzing the
painting to find out whether the
paintings are genuine or imitated . Incident X- Reflected X-
- Used to detect cracks which are invisible ray beam ray beam
to the eye in metal castings and welded
joints .
- Used to detect defects in motor tyres  O
- Used to study structure of crystals. P1
BIOLOGICAL USES OF X-RAYS . d  
- Used in medical examination of the A d C
human body to detect the complicated P2
organs . B
- Used to treat cancer and other malignant
growth in the human body .
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P1 ,P2- atomic planes 2. UNEB 2013 QN 9(d)
Derive an expression for Bragg’s law of
Consider a beam of monochromatic X-rays X-ray diffraction in crystals .(4marks)
incident on a crystal .A small fraction of the
incident X-rays is scattered by each atom in the ATOMIC SPACTING IN CRYSTALS.
plane .
Consider an ionic crystal of potassium chloride .
The scattered X-rays undergo constructive
interference in directions for the angle of
incidence,  is equal to the angle of reflection . Cl  K+
Path difference ,  =AB + BC
d
But triangle ABO, K+ Cl 
AB
sin   K+ Cl 
BO
AB d
sin   Cl 
K+
d d
AB  d sin 
Also from triangle OBC , Let M= molar mass of potassium chloride .
BC M
sin   Mass of an ion pair  K  Cl   , m 
BO NA
BC
sin  
d Let  be density of the ion pair .

BC  d sin  mass
Volume of the ion pair , V 
So path density
difference ,
m
  d sin   d sin   2d sin  ............(i) V

For constructive interference , Path difference M
  n ……………………(ii) V
N A
Equating (i) and (ii) gives
Volume of one ion (either K+ or Cl-
2d sin   n .This is Bragg’s law , 1 M  3
)    d ……………….(i)
2  N A 
where n is the order of diffraction ,  is Bragg’s
angle( or glancing angle ) .
M
Hence atomic spacing d  3 .
Note : 2N A
1. For maximum order of diffraction ,
Also recall from Bragg’s law , 2d sin   n
nmax ,then sin   1    90o .
So 2d  nmax  n
d  ................(ii)
2. For maximum wavelength , max then 2sin 
n  1 and sin   1 Substituting (ii) into (i) gives
 2d  max
3
 n  1  M 
Possible questions     
 2sin   2  N A  
1. UNEB 2001 QN10(c) .
State Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction .(1 Activity : Make density  the subject .
mark)
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WORKED EXAMPLES planes in sodium chloride( NaCl )
crystal .The first order diffraction beam
1. UNEB 2004QN 9(d) is obtained at glancing angle of
Calculate the atomic spacing of sodium 10.2o.Find the spacing between
chloride if the relative atomic mass of consecutive planes and the density of
sodium is 23.0 and that of chlorine is sodium chloride .(Na =23 , Cl =35.5 )
35.5 .(density of sodium chloride = Data
2.18 103 kg m 3 ) n  1,   11010 m ,  10.2o
Data
Molar mass of molar mass , M   23  35.5 g mol 1
M  (23  35.5) g mol 1 M  58.5 103 kg mol 1
NaCl
M  58.5 103 kg mol 1 Using Bragg’s law ;
n  2d sin 
Volume of 1 mole of
mass 58.5 10 3 3 1 1 1010
  m d  2.824  1010 m
NaCl density 2.18 10 3 2sin10.2o
 2.68  10 5 m3 1 M  3
Volume of one ion   d
2  NA 
But 1 mole of NaCl has 6.02 1023 molecules . M

Volume occupied by 1 molecule of NaCl (2- 2 N Ad 3
2.68 10 5 0.0585
atoms)   4.4725 10 29 m3 
2  6.02 10 23   2.824 10 10 
23 3
6.02 10
The volume associated with each atom ,   2.157  10 3 kg m 3
Thus the density of sodium chloride is
4.4725 10 29 2157 kg m-3.
V  2.24  10 29 m 3
2 3. UNEB 1998 MARCH 9(e)
A monochromatic beam of X-rays of
So ,
wavelength 2.0 1010 m is incident on a
d3 V set of cubic planes in a potassium
chloride crystal .The first order
d  3V diffraction beam occurs at glancing angle
1 18.5 o .Find the density of potassium
d   2.24  10 29  3
chloride if its molecular weight is 74.55 .
d  2.814  10 10 m or d  2.814 A o (06 marks)
DATA
Alternatively ,   2.0 1010 m , n  1,  18.5o ,
Using
M  74.55 103 kg mol 1
M
d3 Bragg’s law ;
2N A 
2d sin   n
1 2d sin18.5o  1 2.0 1010
 M  3
d   d  3.152 1010 m
 2N A  1
1  M  3

 58.5 10  3 3 Using d   

d  23 3   2N A 
 2  6.02 10  2.18 10 
d  2.814  10 10 m

2. UNEB 2001
A beam of X-rays of wavelength
11010 m is incident on a set of cubic

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 M 5. A monochromatic beam of X-rays of
d3  wavelength  is incident at glancing
2N A
angle  on atomic planes of a metal
M
 crystal of mass m(g) .Show that for nth
2 N Ad 3 order diffraction ,density of the crystal is
74.55 10 3 m sin 3 
 3 .
2  6.02 10 23  3.152 10 10  125 N A  n 
3

  1.977  103 kg m 3 Data

m
Method 2 Mass of N A molecules  kg
1000
Now 74.55 g of KCl contains 6.02 1023 atoms . m
Mass of 1 molecule 
1000 N A
1 molecule (2 atoms) weighs
From Bragg’s law , 2d sin   n
 74.55 103 
 23 
kg n
6.02  10 d 
  2sin 
But volume , v  d 3
1  74.55 103 
1 atom weighs    kg  n 
3

2  6.02 1023  v 

 2 sin  
Volume of one mass
Density ,  
V  d3 volume
atom ,
 n 
3
  3.152  10 3   3.132  10 29 m3
3
m
 
1000 N A 8sin 3 
mass
So density of sodium chloride ,  
volume m 8sin 3 
 
1000 N A  n 3
74.55 103
 m sin 3 
2  6.02 1023  3.132 1029 
125 N A  n 
3
 1.977 103 kg
Exercise
1. The closest spacing between the
4. UNEB 2003 QN 9(c) planes of ions in the crystal of
A monochromatic X-ray beam of sodium chloride is 2.82 107 m .The
wavelength 1.0 1010 m is incident on a first order diffraction of
set of planes in a crystal of spacing monochromatic beam of X-rays
2.8 1010 m .What is the maximum order occurs at an angle of 15.8o .Find the
possible with these X-rays . wavelength of the X-rays .
Data (Ans: 1.536 107 m )
2. X-rays of wavelength 1.0 1010 m
2d sin   n are diffracted from a set of planes of
2d sin  potassium chloride .The first order
n
 diffraction maximum occurs at
n is maximum when sin   1 28o31 .Calculate the inter planar
2d spacing .
 nmax 
  20 
o

Note : 15 20   15  
o
2  2.8  1010  60 
nmax 
1.0  1010 Ao  1010 m
 5.6  6
This is because n assumes integral
values .
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 1
The kelvin is the fraction 273.16 of the
SECTION B: HEAT
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
Heat is a form of energy which is transferred water.
from a region of high temperature to a region of
In order to set up a temperature scale, one selects
low temperature.
some physical property, whose value changes
TOPIC 1: THERMOMETRY with different degree of hotness. This property is
called thermometric property .
A thermometer is a device designed to measure
temperature of a substance. Definition: Thermometric property is a physical
measurable property which varies linearly and
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness continuously with temperature and is constant at
of a body. constant temperature.
Or Temperature is the measure of the average Different thermometers use different
kinetic energy of molecules of a substance. thermometric properties which vary differently
with temperature.
Temperature scales:
Examples of thermometric properties used in
A scale of temperature is one which can be used different thermometers;
to measure the degree of hotness or
temperature.There are two types of temperature 1. Length of a liquid column ( a liquid – in
scales,namely; – glass thermometer) .
(i) Celsius scale ;The fixed points are 2. Electrical resistance of a wire (platinum
the lower fixed point (ice point) and resistance thermometer).
upper fixed point(steam point).
Lower fixed point is the temperature 3. The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas
of pure melting ice at standard volume (constant – volume gas thermometer).
atmospheric pressure.It taken to be
4. Volume of the fixed mass of the gas at
0oc .
constant pressure (constant – pressure gas
Upper fixed point is the temperature
thermometer).
of steam above pure boiling water at
standard atmospheric pressure. It is 5. E.M.F of a thermocouple (thermocouple
known to be 100oc. thermometer).
N.B: FIXED POINTS are unique
temperatures at which particular 6. Wave lengthof electromagnetic radiation
physical events are expected to emitted by a hot body (Pyrometers; optical
occur with certainity. pyrometer and total radiation pyrometer).
(ii) Thermodynamic /kelvin scale;The
fixed points are absolute zero and
triple point of water . Qualities of a good thermometric property
Absolute zero is the temperature at
which molecules of a substance have i. It should vary continuously and linearly
minimum kinetic energy(lowest with temperature changes.
possible energy).
Thus absolute zero is the lowest ii. It should change considerably for a small
possible temperature that can be change in temperature.
reached on a kelvin scale. It is known
to be 0K . iii. It should vary over a wide range of
Triple point of water is the temperatures.
temperature at which pure ice, pure iv. It should be accurately measurably over a
water and pure water vapour co-exist wide range of temperature of fairly
in thermodynamic equilibrium.Its simple apparatus.
value is 273.16K.
Definition of the kelvin

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 v. Each value of thermometric property Examples of Celsius scale defined on different
should correspond to one and only one thermometer
value of the temperature.
1. Liquid in- glass thermometer
UNEB 2004 (Thermometric property is length, l. ),
What is meant by : 2. � =
�� −�0
× 1000C
�100 −�0
(i) Thermometric property.
(ii) Triple point of water. 3. Resistance thermometer ( Thermometric
property is resistance, R)
Establishing of a temperature scale
R  R0 
1. Celsius scale   100 0C
R100  R0
A thermometric property ,say X is
4. Constant pressure gas thermometer
selected.
(Thermometric property is volume, V)
The values, �� of the thermometric
property at ice point (lower fixed point)
V  V0 
  100 0C
is measured and recorded. V100  V0

The value,�100 of the thermometric 5. Constant volume gas thermometer

property at steam point (upper fixed point) (Thermometric property is pressure, P)
is obtained and recorded.
P  P0 
The value,�� of the thermometric   100 0C
P100  P0
property at unknown temperature � is
obtained and recorded. 6. Thermocouple thermometer
A graph of the thermometric property (Thermometric property is electromotive
reading X against temperature T is force, E)
plotted. It is similar to the following. E  E0 
  100 0C
E100  E0
X

�100 C 2. Thermodynamic/Kelvin scale

KEY POINTS TO NOTE:
B - This is the fundamental temperature scale in
�� science and uses the Kelvin, K as the SI unit
of temperature. It uses the triple point of
�� A water as the standard fixed point.
- Triple point is the temperature at which
0 θ 100 T pure water, pure melting ice and saturated
vapour pressure exist in equilibrium.
- The temperature of the triple point of water
is given the value 273.16K.
- Let Xtr be the thermometric property at the
triple point of water and XT the
Slope of AB = slope of AC thermometric property at the unknown
temperature, T. Then
�� − �0 �100 − �0
=
�−0 100 − 0 ��
�= × 273.16�
���
X� − �0
�= × 100 - The magnitude of a degree, on the Celsius
�100 − �0 scale is equal to the magnitude of a degree
Thus the unknown temperature inoC can be on the thermodynamic scale.
calculated.
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- If θ denotes temperature on the Celsius - The substance should have a property
scale, and T the temperature on the which varies continuously with
thermodynamic scale then, T= (θ + temperature.
273.16)K - The substance should have a property
Steps to establish a Kelvin /thermodynamic which is measurable over a wide range of
scale temperature.
(ii) State why scales of temperature
A thermometric property is selected, say X based on different thermometric
properties may not agree.
The value ��� of the thermometric property is
Data
measured at triple point of water.
This is because different
The value �� of the thermometric property is thermometers have different
measured at unknown temperature T. thermometric properties which vary
differently with temperature. They
The unknown temperature is obtained from only agree at fixed points because
�
� = � × 273.16�. they are calibrated to give same
���
readings at fixed points.
TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
UNEB 2018
1. Liquidin glass thermometers
Describe briefly how to determine the lower and
The thermometric substances normally used upper fixed points for an uncalibrated liquid-in-
are ; glass thermometer.

- Mercury Data
- Coloured alcohol
Bulb of thermometer is immersed in the pure
Thermometric property used is length ,L of melting ice.
thermometric liquid in the narrow capillary
Level of mercury column falls and remains
tube.
constant.The level where column remains is
EXAMPLEUNEB 2011 marked.This is the lower fixed point.

With reference to a liquid in glass Bulb of thermometer is immersed in steam

thermometer, describe the steps involved in above the boiling water.
setting up a kelvin scale of temperature.
Level of mercury column rises and remains
Data constant at same level.

Length ��� of liquid column is measured at The level where mercury column is constant is
triple point of water. marked. This is the upper fixed point.

Length �� of liquid column is measured at Inaccuracies of the liquid in thermometer

unknown temperature T. include;

The unknown temperature is obtained from i. Non-uniformity of the bore of the

� capillary tube.
� = � � × 273.16�.
��
ii. Gradual creep of the zero due to the
UNEB 2015 shrinking of the bulb long after
manufacture.
(i) State four desirable properties a
material must have to be used as a iii. The mercury in the stem is not all the
thermometric substance. same temperature when taking a
Data measurement..
- The substance should have a property
which vary linearly with temperature. Advantages of the liquid in glass thermometer
- They are simple, cheap and portable.
- They give direct readings of temperature.
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 2. Constant volume gas thermometer. 1. They have a wide range of temperature (-
2700C to 15000C).
The thermometric property used is the
pressure,P of a gas at constant volume. 2. They are very accurate.
Set up 3. They are sensitive to any change in
temperature.
Corrections that need to be made before use
- The bulb should be made of hard glass
such as pyrex to reduce thermal
expansion.
- The manometer tubes should be widened.
- The dead space should be narrowed.
sources of error
These include.
i. The temperature of the gas in the ‘dead
The thermometer property is the pressure of the
space’ is different from that of the gas in
gas
the bulb.
The bulb is immersed in an ice – water mixture.
ii. Thermal expansion of the bulb.
Time is allowed for the air inside the bulb to
assume the temperature of the bath. The open iii. Capillary effects at the mercury surfaces.
tube is moved downwards to bring the mercury
level in the left hand limb to the constant volume For accurate work, H2 or He or N2 gases are used.
mark. The gas thermometers are used as a standard to
calibrate other more practical thermometers.
The difference, h0 in the mercury levels in the
two arms is measured. Disadvantages of the constant volume gas
thermometers
The pressure of the gas is obtained from �0 =
� + ℎ0 ,where H is the atmospheric pressure. - They are bulky

The bulb is immersed in steam above pure - They are slow to respond
boiling water.
- They do not give direct reading.
Open tube is moved to bring the mercury in the
left hand side to the constant volume mark. The - Expensive to make.
difference h100 between the mercury levels is - Can not be used to measure temperatures
measured. at points, only temperature of the air
The pressure �100 = � + ℎ100 is obtained. surrounding the bulb.

The bulb is then immersed in the system whose 3. The electrical platinum resistance
temperature is required. thermometer
Resistance thermometers are usually
The difference in mercury levels, hθ is made of platinum .The wire is wound on
determined . two strips of mica arranged cross
wire .The ends of the coil are attached to
The pressure �� = � + ℎ� is obtained. a pair of leads, for connection to metre
bridge or Wheatstone bridge.
The unknown temperature
P  P0 
   100 0C
P100  P0

Advantages

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 METHOD 1:Using metre bridge

Copper
strip G
l1
A

Platinum coil

.
AB is a uniform resistance wire mounted on a
uniform metre rule 1m long.
The resistance thermometer is placed in a funnel
with crushed ice and set up is left for some time.
The switch is closed and a balance point is
obtained by adjusting the resistance box.
(At balance point, the galvanometer shows no
deflection)
The resistance �0 of platinum wire at ice point
�
(0oC) is determined from �0 = �1 �.
2

The platinum resistance thermometer is

transferred to a beaker containing water which is
gradually heated to boiling point.
The new balance point is obtained and the
resistance �100 at steam point (100oC) is
calculated.
The finally platinum coil is then immersed in
water at unknown temperature,� and resistance
�� is obtained.

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The unknown temperature is obtained from
galvanometer
R  R0 
   100 0C
R100  R0 G

The range of the platinum resistance

thermometer
The thermometer has a wide range of -2000C to
1200oC. Cold junction

Advantages of the electrical resistance

� Hot junction
thermometer
1) The main advantage of the electrical
Ice-water
resistance thermometer is that it is very
accurate. This is so because it is possible
to measure resistance accurately. The thermometric property is the emf ,E .
2) They can be used over a fairly wide If the temperature of one junction is raised above
range of temperature. the other junction, the galvanometer G shows a
3) It is used to measure steady temperatures. deflection implying that anemf has been
generated.
Disadvantages of the electrical resistance
thermometer The magnitude of the emf varies with the
temperature difference between the two
1) A long time is needed for the junctions. This is the basis of measurement of
thermometer to assume the temperature it temperature using a thermocouple.
is required to measure owing to the large
heat capacity. This means that a long How to measure temperature on Celsius scale.
time is needed for making an observation. The test junction is immersed in a steam bath at
2) The thermometer cannot be used to one atmosphere pressure and the corresponding
measure temperature at a point. thermoelectric emf E100 measured.

Note: When calibrated against constant volume The test junction is immersed in the system
thermometers the resistance R of platinum is whose temperature is required. The
found to vary with Celsius thermometer θ corresponding thermoelectric emfEθ is measured.
according to �� = �0 1 + �� +
 E 0
��2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1) The unknown temperature,   100   C
 E100 
Where R0 is the resistance of the platinum at 00c
and α and  are constants. The values of R0, α N.B: The emf at 0oC is 0V.
and  for a given platinum resistance
thermometer can be found by measuring its How to measure temperature on Kelvin scale .
resistance at the ice point, steam point and
The test junction is placed in a system at triple
unknown temperature and inserting the values
point of water.Thermoelectric emf��� .
into equation (1).
The test junction is placed in a system at
unknown temperature �.The thermoelectric emf
4. Thermocouple thermometer. �� .

The unknown temperature is obtained from � =

��
�
× 273.16�.
��

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 Advantages of a thermocouple If the image of the hot body is brighter than the
filament, the filament will appear dark on a bright
1) Wide range of temperature i.e. -2500c to background .This implies the hot body is hotter than
15000c the filament.
2) It has a small heat capacity, hence it can If the filament appears brighter on a dark
be used to measure rapidly changing background ,then the filament is hotter than the hot
temperatures. body. Current through the filament is adjusted until
the filament “disappears”. At this point they have the
3) It can measure temperatures at a point.
same temperature.
4) They are cheap and easy to construct.
The ammeter A, calibrated to read temperature in
5) It can be used for measuring low degrees centigrade, will give the temperature of the
temperatures since the emf generated is hot body.
small.
UNEB 2017
Disadvantages of thermocouple
Describe with the aid of a labeled diagram the
Each thermocouple requires separate calibration.operation of an optical pyrometer.
GUIDE(refer to diagram above)

5. Radiation pyrometers DRAW DIAGRAM

A radiation pyrometer is an instrument used to OPERATION;

measure the temperature of a body by the
The filament is focused on the eyepiece and the
radiation that the body emits. They are best
objective lens focuses the hot body so that the image
suited for measuring temperatures above 10000c .
of the hot body lies in the same plane as the filament.
Radiation pyrometers are of two types;
Light from the hot body and the filament is passed
i. Total radiation on pyrometer; These
through the red filter and viewed by the eyepiece.
respond to both visible and infrared
radiation Current is adjusted until the filament and the hot body
are equally bright.
ii. Optical pyrometer; These respond only
to visible radiation. The temperature of the hot body is then read from the
ammeter calibrated in degrees Celsius..
Optical pyrometer
W WORKED EXAMPLES:
A typical optical pyrometer is the disappearing
filament pyrometer. This consists of a refracting1. In a constant volume gas thermometer the
telescope having a tungsten lamp filament at thefollowing observations were recorded on a day when
focus of its objective as shown below. the volumetric reading was 760mmHg.

Reading in Reading in
the closed the open limb
limb (mm) (mm)

Bulb in melting 126 112

ice

Bulb in steam 126 390

Bulb at room 126 157

temperature

A hot source is focused using objective lens such that Calculate the room temperature.
its image lies in the same plane as the filament.
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 DATA 
R  R0 1     2 
P0  H  h0  
R100  R0 1  100  100    2

 760  112  126   R 1  300  300   

2
R300 0

P0  746mm  R  R 1  300  300     R

2
R300 0 0 0
P100  H  h100   R  R 1  100  100     R
2
R100 0 0 0
 760  390  126 
 1024 mm
P  H  h   R  R0 
      100
 760  157  126   R100  R0 
 791mm
 R  R0 
    300   100
Using  R100  R0 
P  P0 
  100 0C
P100  P0

   100
R0 300  300  
2

R 100  100   
2
791−746 0
�= × 100 C =16.18 C
0 o
1024−746

 
300 1.3  10  2  300  1.33  10 6
2
   100

100 1.3  10 2
  100  1.33  10 
2 6

3. The resistance of platinum thermometer   306 0 C

is 5.7, 5.5, 5.2 at boiling point,
unknown temperature, θ, and at the 4. The resistance of a platinum wire at triple
freezing point of water respectively. point of water is 5.16Ω .What will its
Determine the unknown temperature in resistance be at 100oC?
θ°C.
Data DATA
��
R100  5.7 �= × 273.16�.
���
R  5.5
�
R0  5.2 100 + 273 = × 273.16
5.16

R=7.05Ω.
R  R0 5.5  5.2 0.3 5. UNEB 2007
   100   100  60 0 C
R100  R0 5.7  5.2 0.5 The resistance �� of platinum wire varies
with temperature �oC as measured by the
constant –volume gas thermometer
according to the equation:
�� = 50.0 + 0.17� + 3.0 × 10−4 �2 .
3. The resistance Rθ of a platinum (i) Calculate the temperature on the
thermometer at a temperature at a temperature platinum scale corresponding to
θ0C on a gas thermometer is 60oC.
(ii) Account for the difference
R  R0 1     2 where   1.3  10 -2 K 1 ,   1.33  10 6 K 2 between the two values and the
R0  resistance at 0 0 C state the temperature at which
they agree.
Data
Calculate the temperature of the resistance (i) Given �� = 50.0 + 0.17� +
thermometer when temperature on the gas 3.0 × 10−4 �2 .
thermometer is 300 C.0
�60 = 50.0 + 0.17 × 60 + 3.0 × 10−4 × 602 =
61.28Ω.
DATA
�100 = 50.0 + 0.17 × 100 + 3.0 × 10−4 ×
1002 = 70Ω.
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�0 = 50.0 + 0.17 × 0 + 3.0 × 10−4 × 02 = � = �∆�……………………………(i)
50Ω.
Specific heat capacity(c) is the quantity of heat
R  R0  energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg
  100 0C mass of as body by 1k. Its S.I unit is Jkg-1K-1.
R100  R0
61.28−50 �
�= × 1000C � = �∆�
70−50

Thus � = 56.4oC � = ��∆�……………………………

…(i)
(ii) Gas thermometer recorded 60oC
while platinum resistance Equating (i) and (ii)
thermometer gives 56.4oC for the
�∆� = ��∆�
temperature of the same given
body at same time.The two values Thus � = ��
are different because the different
thermometers use different
thermometric properties which do
not keep in step with each other
as temperature changes(i.e vary
differently with temperature).
They only agree at fixed points.
EXERCISE 1
1. If the resistance Rt of the element of a
resistance thermometer at a temperature of t°C
on the ideal gas scale is given by Rt= Ro(1 +At +
Bt2), where Ro is the resistance at 0°C and A
and B are constants such that A = - 6.50x103B,
What will the temperature on the scale of
resistance thermometer when t = 50.0°C?
(50.4°C)
2. The resistance of a platinum resistance
thermometer is 4.00Ω at the ice point and 5.46Ω
at the steam point. What temperature on the
platinum resistance of 9.84Ω? (400°C)
3. The resistance of platinum wire at the triple
point of water is 5.16Ω. What will its resistance
be at 100°C? (7.05Ω)
4. The pressure recorded by a constant volume
gas thermometer at a kelvin temperature T is
4.80 × 104 Nm-2 .Calculate T if the pressure at
the triple point of water is 4.20 × 104 Nm-2 .
(312K)
TOPIC 2: HEAT CAPACITY AND
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Heat capacity(C) is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of any mass of
a substance by 1K.Its unit is JK-1
�
� = ∆� where Q is
quantity of heat ,∆�-temperature rise
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 Assuming no heat losses,
Electrical energy = heat gained by the metal
block
��� = �� �2 − �1 .

MEASUREMENT OF SPECIFIC HEAT

CAPACITY OF A SOLID
(a) Electrical method

K battery

V
thermometer
heater

lagging

Metal block

Two holes are drilled into a metal Thus from the above equation,specific heat
block(solid whose specific heat capacity is capacity,c of the metal solid can be obtained.
required);one to accommodate the heater and
the other to accommodate the thermometer. ASSUMPTIONS MADE

The mass,m of the metal block is found. - The small amount of heat gained by the
thermometer and the heater is negligible.
Some mercury is put in holes to ensure good - There is no heat loss to the surroundings.
thermal contact . - The volume of the metal solid is constant.
The initial temperature ,�1 of the block is Comment on the accuracy of the
recorded from the thermometer. experiment

The set up is arranged as shown above.A The method is inaccurate since the value of c
suitable steady current is switched on by obtained is greater than the actual value. This
closing the switchK as the stop clock is is due to the fact that some heat is lost to the
started. surroundings and thus more heat is supplied
than expected to raise the temperature of 1kg
The voltmeter reading ,V and current by 1K.
reading ,I are read.
(b) Using method of mixtures
When the temperature rises by about 10K the
switch is opened ,stop clock stopped and the
time t is read and recorded.
The highest reading �2 on the thermometer is
also noted.

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 thermometer

thermometer
lid
stirrer

water
solid

calorimeter
lagging

A calorimeter is weighted empty and its mass,

mc recorded.
Precaution
The calorimeter is then half – filled with water
and weighted again to determine the mass of  Ensure that the specimen does indeed
water mw added. reach the temperature θ3

The temperature θ1 of the water and calorimeter  The specimen must be transferred into
is measured after thorough stirring. the calorimeter as fast as possible but
carefully so as to avoid splashing water
The mass ms of the specimen solid is determined. out of the calorimeter.
The specimen is heated to a temperature, θ3.  The calorimeter must be placed on
insulating stands in a constant
The specimen is then quickly transferred into temperature jacket.
the water in the calorimeter.
 The calorimeter must be highly polished
The temperature θ2 reached by the mixture is
on the outer surface and the jacket on the
determined.
inner surface to reduce heat loss by
Continuous stirring during the mixture must be radiation.
ensured.
 The lid reduces heat flow by convection.
Assuming that all heat lost by the specimen is
gained by the calorimeter and the water, then  Stirring while the temperature of the
mixture is raising must be ensured.
ms cs  3   2   mw cw  2  1   mc cc  2  1 
Cooling correction in the method of mixtures
Where cs= Specific heat capacity of the In the method of mixtures in determining
specimen, specific heat capacity, a hot body is placed in a
cw = Specific heat capacity of water, liquid at lower temperature. Consequently, the
temperature of the liquid rises above that of the
cc = Specific heat capacity of material of surroundings. In the process, heat is lost to the
the calorimeter surroundings. The observed final temperature is
lower than it would have been if no heat is lost
 m c  mc cc  to the surroundings.
Thus cs   w w  2  1 
 ms  3   2  

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 θ(oc)

C B D

Δθ is the cooling correction

The rubber bung is removed from the boiling
θ2 is the observed temperature of mixture water and is quickly transferred into the
calorimeter.
θ2 1 is the true final temperature of mixture
The temperature θ, of the mixture is recorded
The cooling correction is the small temperature every half minute until the temperature of the
added to the observed final temperature of the mixture has fallen by about 1oC below the
mixture to compensate for heat lost to the observed maximum temperature �2 .
surroundings, while the temperature of the
mixture was rising. A graph of temperature θ against time is
plotted.(see figure above )
OR: Cooling correction is the number of
degrees celsius that should be added to the Draw it here .
maximum temperature of the mixture to cater
for heat lost to the surroundings. Line AB is drawn through the top of the curve
parallel to the temperature axis and CD further
A cooling correction is normally carried out along the curve. The areas A1 and A2 are
when determining specific heat capacity of a bad estimated by counting the squares on the graph
conductor, such as rubber, by method of paper. Cooling correction is therefore,
mixtures. A 
   1 q
Obtaining a cooling correction for a poor  A2 
conductor of heat:
Thus the correct value of specific heat capacity
A known mass ,mw of water is placed in a of the solid is
calorimeter of known mass mc.
A thermometer is placed into the liquid .
cs 
mc cc  mwcw  2    1 
The temperature θ1 of water is recorded. ms  3  ( 2   ) 

A rubber cork is weighed and its mass ms UNEB 2015 :

recorded.
Explain clearly the steps taken to determine
The cork is placed in boiling water and left in for
sufficiently long time for it to attain the the cooling correction when measuring the
temperature θ3 of the boiling water. specific heat capacity of a poor conductor by
the method of mixture

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 The new mass per second ,m2 of the liquid is
measured in same time.
(c ) CONTINUOUS FLOW METHOD
I2V2 = m2c(θ2 - θ1) + h………. (ii
Determination of specific heat capacity of a
liquid by the continuous flow method. NOTE: That the rate of loss of heat to the
surroundings is the same in both experiments
since the excess temperature above the
surroundings is the same.Th liquid flowing out is
collected in same time as in the first experiment.
Hence; equation (i) – equation (ii)
�1�1 −�2 �2
�=
(�1 −�2 )(�2−�1 )
.

Advantages of the method

1. The temperatures are measured are
steady and therefore can be determined
accurately by using platinum resistance
thermometer.
3. The heat capacity of the apparatus does
Platinum resistance thermometers are used to not have to be known.
record the inflow temperature �1 and outflow
temperature �2 of the liquid . 4. According correction is eliminated by
repeating the experiment.
The liquid is allowed to flow at a constant rate.
Switch k is closed .The liquid is heated until 5. Since temperatures are steady, small
temperatures registered by thermometers are temperature differences can be used.
steady and values of temperatures θ1 and θ2 Hence the method can be used to
respectively are then recorded. investigate the temperature dependence
of the specific heat capacity of a liquid.
The liquid is collected at the outlet in a
previously weighed beaker for a measured time, Disadvantage
t.
1. A large quantity of liquid is required.
The Mass of liquid flowing out per
�
second ,m1= �1 (where M1 is mass in kg of 2. Only limited to liquid
liquid collected) is obtained.
The ammeter and voltmeter reading I1 and V1 Worked examples
respectively are recorded.
1. In a continuous flow experiment, 3.6 x 10-3
I1V1 = m1c(θ2 – θ1) + h…….(i) m3 of the liquid flows through the apparatus in
10 minutes. When electrical power is supplied to
Where c is the specific heat capacity of liquid, h the heating coil at rate of 44W, a steady
is the rate of heat loss to the surroundings. difference of 4K is obtained between the
To eliminate the heat lost to surroundings, the temperature of the out-flowing and the in-
experiment is repeated with a different rate of flowing liquid. When the flow rate is increased
liquid flow. to 4.8 x 10- 3 m3 of the liquid in l0 minutes, the
electrical power required to maintain the
The current flowing is adjusted by varying the temperature difference is 58W. Find the
rheostat so as to keep θ1 and θ2 constant.
(i) Specific heat capacity of the liquid,
The new ammeter and voltmeter reading I2 and
V2 respectively are recorded. (ii) Rate of loss of heat to the surrounding,

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(consider the density of the liquid to be 800kgm- observed to increase to 22.5oC. Find the
)
3
specific heat capacity of copper.
Data
Data
mc  0.30kg , ms  0.56kg ,
ρ= 800kgm-3, t = 10 x 60 = 600s
cc  3.8 x10 2 Jkg 1 K 1 ,
In first experiment ,
mw  0.50kg ,  2  100 0 C ,
P1= 44W , Δθ= 4K V1 = 3.6 x 10-3m3 cw  4.2 x10 3 Jkg 1 K 1
Mass of liquid collected per second , 1  15 C ,  3  22.5 C
ms cs  2   3   mw cw  2  1   mc cc  2  1 
mass V1 800  3.6  10 3
m1     4.8  10 3 kg / s
time t 600
 m c  mc c c 
c s   w w  3   1 
 m s  2   3  
P1  m1c  h
cs 
 
0.5 x 4.2 x10 3  0.3 x3.8 x10 2 22.5  15
 3.83 x10 2 Jkg
44  4.8  10 3  c  4  h 0.56100  22.5
h  44  0.192c.......... .......... ..(i )

In the second experiment ASSIGNMENT

P2  58W ,   4 K , V2  4.8  10 3 m 3 1. In a continuous flow experiment it was

found that when the applied p.d was
Mass of liquid collected per 12.0V, the current was 1.54A, the rate of
second , flow of liquid of 50g per minute caused
V2 800  4.8  10 3 the temperature of the inflow to differ by
m2    6.4  10 3 kg / s 10°C with temperature of inflows. When
t 600
the p.d was increased to 16.0V (the
P2  m2 c  h current of 1.6A) a rate of flow of 90.0g
per minute was required to produce the
58  6.4  10 3  c  4  h same temperature difference as before.
h  58  0.256c.......... .......... ..(ii ) Find the specific heat capacity of the
liquid and the rate of heat loss.
Equating (i) and (ii) gives;
44  0.192c  58  0.256c
0.064c  14
2. In continuous flow calorimeter for
c  218.75 Jkg 1 K 1 measurement of specific heat capacity of
a liquid, 3.6 x 10-3m3 of liquid flow
(ii) Rate of loss of heat to the surrounding through the apparatus in 8 minutes.
When electrical energy is supplied to the
h=58−0.256 c
heating coil at the rate of 54W, a steady
h=58−0.256 ×218.8 difference of 4K is obtained between the
temperatures of the outflow and inflow.
h=2W When the flow rate is increased to 4.8 x
10-3m3 of liquid in 8 minutes, the
electrical power required to maintain the
2. A copper calorimeter of mass 0.30kg temperature difference is 68W. Find the;
contains 0.50kg of water at a temperature (i) Specific heat capacity of
of 15oC. A 0.56kg block of copper at a the liquid
temperature of 100oC is dropped into the (ii) Rate of loss of heat.
calorimeter and the temperature is
(Density of the liquid = 800kgm-3)
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 5. A copper calorimeter of mass 50g contains
100g of a certain liquid. The initial temperature
3. An electric drill takes 300s to make a is 20°C. A heater of negligible heat capacity is
hole in a piece of brass of man 9.5kg and immersed in a liquid and operated at 1.5A, 7.5V
the average power delivered from the for exactly 5minutes. After this time, the
mains in 45w. temperature is recorded as 28.5°C. Subsequently,
(i) Calculate the amount of energy the temperature falls steadily to reach 28°C after
used in drilling the hole. 2 minutes. Calculate:
(ii) If 80% of the energy supplied to
the drill is used to raise the (i) The corrected temperature rise.
temperature of the brass.
(ii) The specific heat capacity of the liquid.
Calculate the average temperature rise.
State any assumption made. NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

(S.H.C of brass = 390JKg-1K-1). Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of
heat loss by a body is directly proportional to its
4. In a determination of the specific heat excess temperature over that of the surroundings
capacity of rubber, by the method of under conditions of forced convection of air.
mixtures, this data was obtained
��
∝ � − �� .
Mass of calorimeter = 44.70g. ��

Where θ = Temperature of body.

Mass of water in the calorimeter = 70.33g
�� = temperature of surrounding
Initial temperature of the rubber stopper =
96.5°C.
The temperature of the mixture was read
and recorded every minute and the following
results were obtained

Time 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
(mm)

Temp. of 30.5 34.5 35.5 36.0 36.5 36.3 36.0 36.0 35.9 35.6 35.4
the
mixture

i) Plot a graph of temperature of the

mixture versus time
ii) Use the graph to determine the cooling
correction.
(0.6K)
iii) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
rubber.
( 1.28x103Jkg-1k-1)
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x 103 JKg-
k )
1 -1

(Specific heat capacity of copper = 3.8x 102 JKg-

K )
1 -1

(Mass of rubber stopper = 27.05g).

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 ��
From the graph, we can say that ��
∝ � − �� .
Experiment of verify Newton’s law of cooling.
From � = ��∆�

dQ mcd

dt dt
where m is mass of liquid ,c is the specific heat
capacity
�� ��
Hence ��
∝ ��
∝ � − �� ,

Thus rate of heat loss is directly proportional to

A calorimeter is filled with hot water initially at the excess temperature ,which verifies Newton’s
the temperature of about 90°C is placed in an air law of cooling.
draught near a window and its temperature θ
measured every ½ a minute.
A graph of temperature against time, t is
plotted and is called a cooling curve.
temperature

∆θ
θ
∆t

ΘR

t(s)
Where θR is the room/surrounding temperature
Tangents are drawn at different points of the
∆�
curve and the slope, � = ∆� of the tangents as
the rates of fall of temperature are determined

A graph of rate of temperature fall against

excess temperature ,(θ-θR) is plotted.

Rate of
temperature
��
fall, ��

Excess temperature

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UNEB 2008 QN6 heat, large calorimeter are normally used to
reduce loss of heat to the surrounding.
Describe an experiment to verify Newton’s
law of cooling. TOPIC 3: LATENT HEAT
GUIDE Latent heat is the quantity of heat required to
change the state of substance without change in
Hot water is placed in a calorimeter that is temperature.
standing on an insulating surface and is put in a
draught .The temperature,� of the water is Example: During Melting
recorded at a half minute intervals.
When a solid is heated, the amplitudes of
The room temperature �� is also measured and vibration of the atoms increase. Then the
recorded. amplitude of vibration exceeds article fraction of
the atomic spacing, the regular arrangement of
Plot a graph of temperature against time.(see the atom in the solid collapses and the liquid is
graph above) said to melt. At the melting point, the solid and
liquid form exists in thermal equilibrium with
Tangents are drawn at various temperatures � on
each other. The energy required to break the
the curve and their slopes determined. These
bonds holding the atom in a rigid lattice is the
slopes give the rate of temperature fall.
latent heat of fusion.
A graph of rate of temperature fall against excess
SPECIFIC HEAT OF FUSION.
temperature � − �� is plotted.
This is the quantity of heat energy required to
A straight line is obtained implying that the rate
change 1kg of a solid into liquid at constant
of heat loss is directly proportional to the excess
temperature.
temperature.(see graph above)
Note: If the solid has to be given energy to melt
Key points.
it, then that energy must be given out when the
In general, the above relation is given by; liquid freezes.

�� Determination of specific latent heat of fusion

= �� � − �� of ice by the method of mixtures.
��
where A= surface area of body losing heat, k is a
constant which depends on the nature of the
surface.
The mass of body is proportional to its volume.
The rate of heat loss however is proportional to
surface area of the body. Therefore, the rate of
fall at temperature is proportional to ratio of
surface to volume of body.For bodies of similar Small chips of ice are added one by one and the
shape, the ratio of surface area to volume is water stirred until each piece has melted before
inversely proportional to any linear dimension the next is added. When the temperature of the
water as fallen by as much as the water was
surface area 1
 above room temperature, the final temperature θf
Volume linear dim ension is measured and recorded.
If the bodies have surfaces of similar nature, the The calorimeter and contents are weighed again
rate of fall of temperature is inversely and the mass mi of ice added, calculated.
proportional to linear dimension. A small body
cools faster than a large one. A tiny baby should Heat lost by the water and calorimeter in cooling
be more thoroughly wrapped up than a grown from �1 to θf is (McCc + MwCw) (θ1– θf)
man. In calorimeter, the fact that a small body
cools faster than a larger one i.e the larger the Where Cc and Cw are the specific heat capacities
specimen, the less serious is the rate of loss of of the calorimeter and water respectively.

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Heat gained by ice = mi Lf+ miCwθf ,Where Lf = IVt  m1 L f
latent heat of fusion of ice.
IVt
Lf  , where IV  P
Assuming no heat is lost to the surrounding, m1

( heat gained by water and calorimete r )  ( heat gainedSPECIFIC

to melt ice LATENT
heat gained temperatur e of melted ice )
raiseOF
HEAT
(McCc + MwCw) (θ1 – θf) = mi Lf+ miCwθf VAPORIZATION:
Hence It is the amount of heat required to convert 1kg
M cCc  M wCw 1   f   mi Cw  f  mass of a liquid to vapour without change in
Lf  temperature.
mi
MEASUREMENT OF SPECIFIC LATENT
Determination of specific latent heat of fusion HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF A LIQUID.
of ice by an electrical method.

(a) Determination of specific latent heat of

vaporization of by method of mixtures

Procedures A calorimeter of known mass, mc is half filled

with cold water. The mass mw of the water is
An electric heater of known power ,P is placed determined. The temperature θ1 of the water is
in filter funnel. measured, after thorough stirring. The
Small pieces of ice are packed around the calorimeter is placed a constant temperature
electric heater. jacket as shown above.The temperature θs of the
The heater is switched on for a known time t and steam is recorded. Steam is blown onto the
mass m1 of water collected in the beaker is surface of the water in the calorimeter until a
weighed and determined from the formula: temperature rise of about 30oC is obtained. The
(Mass of melted ice) = (Mass of empty beaker+ temperature θf of the water is measured after
water)−(Mass of beaker) thorough stirring. The calorimeter and contents
The specific latent heat of fusion of ice,�� is are weighed a gain to determine the mass of
calculated from the formula; Pt = mLf steam condensed.
Assumptions;
Heat lost by steam in condensing and cooling to
- All heat supplied by the heater has been a temperature θf is MsLv + MsCw (θb – θf)
absorbed by the ice only. Where θb is the boiling point of water
- No heat is absorbed from the
surroundings. Heat gained by the calorimeter and water =
Assuming no heat losses to the surrounding; (McCc + MwCw) (θf – θ1) ,Where Cc and Cw are
the specific heat capacities of the calorimeter
Electrical energy supplied = energy used to melt and water respectively.
the ice.
Assuming no heat losses to the surrounding.

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(McCc + MwCw) (θf – θ1) = MsLv+ MsCw (θb – Let I2, V2, be the new values of current and
θf ) voltage,

M c C c  M w C w  f   1   M s C w  b   f  Then I2V2 = m2LV + h ……… (2)

Lv 
Ms since the rate of loss of heat is constant as the
temperature excess above the surrounding is
(b) Determination of specific latent heat of constant, from equation (1) and (2).
vaporization by an electrical method
I 2V2  I 1V1
Lv 
m2  m1

Examples,
1. Water in a vacuum flask is boiled
steadily by a coil of wire immersed in
the water. When the p.d across the
coil is 5.25V and the current through
it in 2.58A, 6.85g of water evaporates
in 20minutes. When the p.d and the
current are maintained at 3.20V,
1.57A, 2.38g of water evaporate in 20
minutes. Calculate the specific latent
heat of vaporization of water.
Data
M
 
IV    Lv  h
 t 
6.85 ×10 3
The specimen liquid is heated to boiling point by 5.25 × 2.58  L  h............(i )
20 × 60
the heater as shown above.
2.38 ×10 3
3.20 ×1.57  L  h..............(ii )
The vapour pass through outlet holes down to 20 × 60
the tube and is condensed.
When the apparatus has reached steady state
(with the liquid boiling and the temperatures of Equation (i) – equation (ii)
the apparatus steady), liquid emerging from
Liebig condenser is collected in a previously
weighed beaker for a measured time t. 5.25 x 2.58  3.20 x1.57 
The mass rate m1 of vapour that condenses in   6.85 x10 3   2.38 x10 3  
        L

time t is found. The readings I1 and V1 of the 20 x 60 20 x 60
   
ammeter and voltmeter respectively are recorded.
In the steady state, the electrical energy supplied Hence L = 2.29x106JKg-1
is used to evaporate the liquid and to offset 2. A stream of election each of mass
losses. 9.0x10-31 kg and velocity 2.0×107 ms-
Thus I1V1 = m1LV +
1
strikes 5 × 10-4kg of silver initially
h ………………………………….. (1) at 20oC mounted in a vacuum.
Assuming 106 elections strike the
Where h is the rate of loss of heat to the silver per second, and that all their
surrounding energy in converted into heat which
is retained by the silver, calculate the
The current and voltage are adjusted to obtain a time taken for the silver to melt.
new rate of evaporation. The mass rate, m2 of
vapour which condenses in the same time t is Specific heat capacity of silver
determined. at 20 C = 2.35 x×102 JKg-1K-1,
o

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 melting point of silver = 960oC.
Specific latent heat of fusion of silver =
1.09×104 JKg-1
Data
1
Kinetic energy of the electron= 2
mv2
1
= × 9.0 × 10-31 (2× 107) × 1016Js-1 = 1.8Js-1
2 4. A 600W electric heater is used to
raise the temperature of a certain
Heat required to melt the silver = mc∆θ + ���
mass of water from room temperature
= 5 × 10-4 ×2.35 ×102× (960-20) + (5 ×10-4) × to 80°C. Alternatively, by passing
1.09x104 steam from the boiler into the same
initial mass of water at the same
= 115.9J initial temperature, the same
temperature rise is obtained in the
Let the time taken to melt the silver be t seconds. same time. If 16g of steam was being
evaporated every minute in a boiler,
Electrical energy =heat gained to melt ice find the specific latent heat of
Pt= 115.9 vaporization of steam assuming that
there were no heat losses.
1.8t = 115.9
t = 64.45s
3. In the experiment to determine the
specific latent heat of vaporization, a
current of 1A was flowing per second
with a p.d of 5V and the mass of the
liquid collected in 100s was 0.8g.
When the p.d was increased to 5.4V, Considering the heater, total rate of heat gained
the current was 2A and a mass of when using the electrical heater is
3.6g of liquid was collected in 100s.
Calculate: given by
(i) The specific latent heat of
vaporization of the liquid,
(ii) The rate of loss of heat to
the surrounding.

Exercise

1. An aluminum pail of man 1.5kg

contains 1kg of water and 2 kg of ice at
0°C. If 3 kg of water at 70°C is poured
into the pail, calculate the final
temperature of the pail water.
(Ans 7.9°C) Specific heat capacity of
aluminum = 910 JKg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x103
JKg K-1
-1

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 Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 fusion of ice, neglecting any heat lost to
x 105 JKg-1 the surroundings.
(3.78x105Jkg-1) Use the constants in
2. When electrical energy is supplied at a question 4
rate of 12.0W to a boiling liquid, 1.0x10-2
kg of liquid evaporates in 30 minutes. On
reducing the electrical power to 7.0w,
5.0x10-3kg of the liquid evaporates in the KINETIC THEORY OF LATENT HEAT
same time. Calculate; Why temperature remains constant during
(i) The specific latent heat of change of phase
vaporization of the liquid. During change of phase, energy supplied goes
(Ans 1.91x106JKg-1) into increasing amplitude of oscillation of the
(ii) The power loss of the atoms. The amplitude of oscillation becomes so
surroundings. large that the regular arrangement of the atoms
(Ans 1.4W) collapses. Until the process is complete, the
3.A well lagged copper calorimeter of mass temperature remains constant.
100g contains 200g of water and 50g of ice Significance of latent heat in regulation of
at 0°C. Steam at 100°C, containing body temperature
condensed water at the same temperature is On a hot day, when the temperature is high, a
passed into the mixture until temperature of layer of moisture (sweat) is formed over the
the calorimeter and its content is 30°C. If the body. Evaporation takes place at the surface of
increase in mass of the calorimeter and the body and the temperature of the sweat falls.
contents is 25g, calculate the percentage of The latent heat absorbed by the sweat as it
condensed water in stem. (Ans 25.6%) evaporates is taken from the body so reducing
the body's temperature.
Specific heat capacity of water =
4.2 x103 JKg-1K-1 Why specific latent heat of vaporization is
regarded as a molecular potential
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice
= 3.34x 10 JKg-1
5 During taking in of specific latent heat of
vaporization, there's no temperature rise of the
Specific latent heat of vaporization surrounding. Therefore, all the heat is used to
of water = 2.26x 106JKg-1 overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction
of the liquid to form the vapour where molecules
Specific heat capacity of copper = are farther apart. This energy supplied to break
400JKg K-1 -1
the intermolecular forces is the potential energy
for the liquid hence specific latent heat of
3. An electrical heater rated 500W is
vaporization is regarded as a molecular
immersed in a liquid of mass 2kg
potential.
contained in a large thermos flask of heat
Why specific latent heat of vaporization of
capacity 840Jk-1 at 28°C. Electrical
water is higher at 20°C than at its boiling
power is supplied to the heater for
point (100°C)
10minutes. If the specific heat capacity
The intermolecular forces of attraction between
of the liquid is 2.5x103Jkg-1K-1, its
water molecules are higher at 20°C than at its
specific latent heat of vaporization is
boiling point. This is because at boiling point,
8.4x103JKg-1 and its boiling point is
water molecules have a higher mean speed and
78°C, estimate the amount of liquid
spend less time in the vicinity of each other.
which boils off.
Therefore, the energy required to overcome
(Ans 0.94kg)
attractive forces between molecules at 20°C is
4. Ice at 0°C is added to 200g of water greater than at its boiling point.
initially at 70°C in a vacuum flask. When Why specific latent heat of vaporization has a
50g of ice has been added and has all greater value than that of fusion
melted, the temperature of the flask and At melting, specific latent heat of fusion is taken
content is 40°C. When a further 80g of in by the solid to break the intermolecular forces
ice has been added and has all melted, holding the molecules together in their fixed
the temperature of the whole becomes positions and change into liquid state. The
10°C. Calculate the specific latent heat of molecules are still closer together and
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experience stronger intermolecular forces of
attraction such that specific latent heat of fusion
is relatively small.
However, for vaporization to occur, a large V
amount of energy is still required to separate the
liquid molecules and allow them to move around
independently. Furthermore, some energy is still
required to enable the vapor to expand against
the atmospheric pressure. The energy for these
two operations is supplied as specific latent heat
of vaporization.
Thus, specific latent heat of vaporization has a
greater value than specific latent heat of fusion.
T
TOPIC 4: EXPANSION IN GASES AND
GAS LAWS
The pressure law
Gas laws
The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
1. Boyle’s law: to absolute temperature provided volume is
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely constant.
proportional to volume provided the absolute P
1
temperature is kept constant ,i.e � ∝ �  cons tan t
T
P1 P2

T1 T2

1
�
T
�
�=
�
,where K- is a constant.

P V= constant. Assignment : Describe the experiments to verify

the above laws.
Or P1V1  P2V2

Charles’ law
The volume of fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to absolute temperature provided
the pressure is kept constant.
V General ideal gas law.
 cons tan t
T
V1 V2 Consider a fixed mass of an ideal gas taken
 through the stages shown below.
T1 T2

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P1 ,V1 ,T1 P1 ,V,T2 P2 ,V2,T2

When the gas changes at constant pressure Data

V1 V Initially in A
 ……………………..(1)
T1 T2 PV
nA 
When the gas at constant temperature T2 RT
In B
VP1  V2 P2 ............( 2) 4 Px3V 12 PV
From equation (1) nB  
T2V1 RT RT
V  ...............(3)
T1
After opening
Substitute equation (3) into (2)
60V
NA 
P1V1T2 RT
 V2 P2
T1 60 x3V 180V
NB  
RT RT
P1V1 P2V2
Hence  Given that the number of moles remains constant
T1 T2
n A  nB  N A  N B
PV
There fore  cons tan t PV 12 PV 60V 180V
T   
Rt RT RT RT
PV P  18.5 Pa
Or  nR
T
Where R is called the universal gas constant, and
2. A column of air 10cm long is trapped in a
n the number of moles of the gas
horizontal uniform capillary tube by mercury
PV =nRT is the ideal gas equation . thread 8cm long, one end of the tube being
closed and the other end opened to the
Question: atmosphere. If the atmospheric pressure is
76cmHg, find the length of air when the tube is
1. In an experiment the pressure of a fixed placed vertically with its open end upwards.
mass of air at constant temperature is
10.4kpa.When the volume is halved, When the tube is horizontal
keeping temperature constant, pressure
becomes 19.0Kpa.Discuss the
applicability of the above result in Pa = 76cmHg
verifying Boyle’s law.
10cm 8cm
2. Two cylinders A and B of volumes V
and 3V respectively are separately filled P1 = 76cmHg, V1= 10Acm3, where A is the
with gas. The cylinders are connected as cross section area.
shown with the top closed. The pressure
in A and B are P and 4 P respectively.
When the tap is opened, the common
pressure becomes 60kPa. When the tube is vertical
Pa = 76cmHg
Assuming isothermal conditions, find the value
of P. Tap
8cm

B L cm
A
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 3. The intermolecular forces (repulsive and
attractive) are negligible.
4. The volume of the molecules themselves
P1 =(76 +8)cmHg = 84cmHg, V1= LAcm3, is negligible compared with the volume of the
where L is the length of the air column. container.
Using Boyle’s law 5. The duration of collision (i.e. time the
molecule spends in contact with the wall) is
P1V1  P2V2
negligible compared with the time spent by a
molecule in collision.
76 x10 A  84 xLA
L  9.05cm Derivation of the kinetic pressure of an ideal
gas.
Exercise
Consider a large number N, of molecules of a
1. A narrow uniform glass tube contains air gas each of mass contained in a cubical box of
enclosed by a thread of mercury 15cm long. length l.
When the tube is vertical with the open and
uppermost, the column is 30cm long. When the
tube is inverted, the length of the column
becomes 45cm long. Calculate the value of the
atmospheric pressure. (75cmHg)
2. A Uniform narrow bored tube closed at one
end contains some dry air with is sealed by a
thread of mercury 15cm long. When the tube is
held vertically with the closed end at the bottom,
the air column is 20cm long, but when it is held
horizontally, the air column is 24cm long.
Calculate the atmospheric pressure.
3. Two bulbs A of volume 100cm3 and B 50cm3
are connected to a three way top which enables
them to be filled with gas or evacuated. The
volume of the tubes may be neglected. Initially
bulb A is filled with an ideal gas at 10°C to a
pressure of 3.0 x105Pa. Bulb B is filled with an
idea gas at 100°C to a pressure of 1.0x105Pa.
The two bulbs are connected with A maintained Let c be the resultant velocity of a molecule at
at 10°C at B at 100°C. Calculate the pressure at some instant with components u,v,w a long x,y
equilibrium. (2.45 x 105 Pa.) and z- axis.

c 2  u 2  v 2  w2
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
Consider the molecule colliding with the wall x
Assumptions/postulates made in Kinetic at right angles and then back through distance 2l.
theory of ideal gases
The change in momentum on impact = mu - -
1. Molecules in a container are always mu= 2mu
randomly moving about, continuously colliding
with each other and with the walls of the If t is the time taken for the molecule to more
container. across the cube to the opposite face and back to
2l
the wall X, t 
2. Collisions between the molecules and the u
walls of the container are elastic
Hence the rate of change of momentum at X will
be

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 2mu 2mu mu 2 1
PV Nm c 2
   3
t 2l l
u p 
1  Nm  2
 c
3  v 
hence the force exerted by the molecule on the Nm
wall X, But    density of the gas.
V

mu2
F 1
l P c2
3
mu 2
Pressure on X due to one molecule = 3
l
For N molecules moving with speeds
u1 , u 2 , u3 ...u N , the total pressure exerted on the
wall X is given by C 2 means square value of the velocity of the gas.
2
mu 12 mu 22 mu N
P  3
 3  ...  c2 = root mean square value of the speed of
l l l3
the gas.
3 2 2 2
Pl  mu  mu  ...  mu 1 2 N Interpretation of absolute temperature
3

Pl  m u  u  ...  u 2
1
2
2
2
N  From Kinetic theory
1
But l 3 V  volume of the cube PV  Nm c 2 _________( i )
3

PV  m u12  u 22  ...  u N2  For an ideal gas PV  nRT _________(
ii)

If u 2 is the mean value of the square of the X – From (i) and (ii)
component of velocity
1
nRT  Nm c 2
u12  u22  ... uN2 3
2
u 
N
Nu2  u12  u22  ... uN2 For 1 mole of a gas

HencePV  Nmu22
Since the molecules are moving randomly in the
container, there is no preference for moving n  1, N  N A  Avogadronu mber
parallel to any axes. 1
N A mc 2  RT
3
Hence u 2  v2  w2
2 1 
N A  mc 2   RT
c 2  u 2  v 2  w2 3 2 
1 2 3 R 
c 2  u 2  v 2  w 2  3u 2 mc   T
2 2  N A 
c2
u2 
3
1
But m c 2  mean K.E of translational per
From PV= Nm u 2
2
molecule

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1 2 1270C = 400k
mc  T
2
2
c1 T1
R 
 K b  Boltzmann’s constant c 2 T2
NA 2

5
2 . 09 x 10 273
c 22 400
1 3
mc 2  K bT . c 22  554 . 423 ms 1

2 2

Deduction from Kinetic theory

Avogadro’s hypothesis: Equal volumes of
8.314 gases at the same temperature and pressure
Kb = 23
 1.38  10 23 JK 1 contain the same no. of molecules. Consider two
6.02  10 different gases of equal volume at the same
temperature and pressure.
Gas 1 Gas
But NAm = M = Molecular mass of the gas
2
1
M c 2  RT
3 P,V,m1, P,V, m2,
3RT
c2 
M
3RT c1, N1
C2  c2, N2
M

c2  T

c 12 T1 For Gas1
Hence 
c 2 T2
2 1 2 1 
PV  N1m1c12  N1 m1c12 ...........................................
3 3 2 
For Gas2
Examples
1 2 1 
Calculate root mean square of the molecule of an PV  N2m2 c22  NR  m2 c22 .........................................(
ideal gas at 1270C given that the density of the 3 3 2 
gas at a pressure of 1.0x 105 Nm-2 and
temperature 00C is 1.43kgm-3.
If the two gases are at the same temperature.
1 2
From P  pc 1 1
3 m 1 c 12  m 2 c 22
2 2
31 3  1.0  10 5 Hence
at 0 0 C C12  
1 1.43
2 1  2 1 
p1  1.0  105 N1  m 1 c12   N 2  m2 c22 
3 2  3 2 
1  1.43
2 2
Hence N1  N 2
3 3
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N N   P1  P2 V 
2 1  2 1 
N 1  m1 c12   N 2  m 2 c 22 
1 2 3  2  3  2 
2 1 2 1
 P1  P2 V  N 1  m c 2   N 2  m c 2 
3 2  3 2 
2. Dalton’s law of partial pressures  P1  P2   2  N 1  N 2  1 m c 2 
3 2 
Partial pressure of a gas is the pressure a gas But N 1  N 2 )  N
would occupy if it occupied the whole container
2 1 
alone.  P1  P2   N  mc2 
3 2 
The Dalton’s law states that the total pressure
of the mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the But
partial pressure of the constituent gases.
2 1 
N  m c 22   PV
Suppose a cylinder 3 2 
Hence P1  P2 V  PV
P1, V1,T P  P1  P2
1
P1V  N 1 m1 c12
3 Boyle’s law
2 1 
N1, m1, c1  N 1  m1 c12  From Kinetic theory
3 2 

Gas 1 is removed and replaced by gas 2 1 2 1 

PV  Nmc 2  N  mc 2 
3 3 2 
P2, V, T 1
P2V  N 2 m2 c 22 1 2
3 But mc  T
2
2 1 
N2, m2, c2  N 2  m2 c 22  If the temperature is kept constant, then
3 2 
1
If the two gases are mixed m c 2 is constant
2
P, V,
2 1 2
Hence N  mc  is constant term
3 2 
N, m, c Where m is the
mean mass per molecule Therefore PV = constant

1
PV  Nmc 2
3
2 1 
 N  mc 2  Charle’s law
3 2 
1
If the gases are mixed at constant temperature; From Kinetic theory PV  Nm c 2
3
1 1 1
 m1 c12  m2 c22  m c 2
2 2 2 1 N  2  N  1 
V   mc 2    mc 2 
3 P  3  P  2 

For a fixed mass of gas kept at constant pressure

N
  = constant
P

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But Due to the repulsive forces in real gases,
molecules have a particular volume and hence
1 can not be compressed indefinitely. Surrounding
mc 2  T .
2 each molecule, there is a definite volume called
1 co-volume which can not be occupied by any
V mc 2  T . other molecule, therefore the free volume of
2
Hence V  T movement of the molecule is (V-b) where V is
the volume of the container and b is a factor
which depends on the co-volumes of the
molecules.
Pressure law
Due to the attractive forces, molecules
1 approaching the walls of the container are
From Kinetic theory PV  Nm c 2
3 attracted by the bulk molecules. This would
reduce the momentum of the bombarding
1  N  1  molecules thereby reducing the pressure exerted
p    mc 2 
3  V  2  on the walls. The pressure P exerted at the walls
is less than the pressure in the bulk.
Pressure in bulk = pressure at the wall (P) +
N pressure defect (P1)
For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume =
V
But pressure defect (p1)  (density)2
constant
p1   2
but   m
1 v
But mc 2  T . 2
2 m
1 p1   
 p  mc 2  T v
2
PT 1
For a fixed mass of gas m is constant  p 1 
v2
Real gases and Vander Waal’s forces
a
The general equation of state: As a result p 1  2 where a = constant
v
 Pressure of gas   Free volume of movement 
      nRT
 in bulk   of gas molecules   a
Hence pressure in bulk =  p  2 
 v 
For ideal gases, the attractive forces are ignored From general equation of state;
and the pressure in the bulk of the gas is equal to a

the pressure P at the walls, and since the  p  2 v  b  nRT  ()
repulsive forces are ignored, the volume of the  v 
molecules themselves is also ignored hence the
free volume of movement of the molecules is This is Vander Waals equation of real gases.
equal to the volume V of the container. P-V sketches for a gas Which obeys Boyle’s
Hence the equation of state of an ideal gas is law and Vander Waals forces

PV = nRT
For real gases, the following assumptions of the
Kinetic theory have to be modifies
i. Intermolecular forces are negligible.
ii. The volume of the molecules themselves
is negligible.
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 pressure. This is because liquids are
incompressible.
NOTE:
(1) Critical temperature (T2) is the maximum
temperature required to liquefy a gas. OR critical
temperature is the temperature above which a
gas can't be liquefied no matter how great the
pressure may be.
(2) Critical pressure (P2) is the minimum
pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical
temperature.
(3) Critical volume (V2) is the volume occupied
by one mole of a gas at its critical temperature.
summary
A = Unsaturated vapour.
i. At high temperatures, experimental
B = Liquid and saturated vapour. isothermals (curves) , are similar to
those in (i) and (ii). Therefore real gases
C = Liquid state. behave as ideal gases at high
temperatures.
D = Gaseous state.
ii. As the temperature is reduced, the
Analysis
isothermals in (ii) change in shape. The
The graph above shows that gases can only isothermals in T2 has an inflexion at C
liquefy if compressed at temperatures below the which corresponds to the critical point of
critical temperature. a real gas and this is similar to that in
figure (iii).
T2 is the critical temperature.
Vander Waals equation roughly applied
Isotherm at T1 shows the behavior of a real gas at to real above their critical temperature
temperatures below the critical temperature, (it
can liquefy when compressed). iii. Below the critical temperature, the
isothermals in figure (ii) differ from
Isotherm at T3, shows the behavior of a real gas those in figure (iii) e.g. region AB in (ii)
at temperatures above the critical temperature, (it implies that pressure increases with
obeys Boyle’s law and can't be liquefied). volume which is practically impossible.
Therefore Vander Waals equation does
not hold for real gases below their
critical temperature.
P - V sketch graph for a real gas undergoing
below its critical temperature
At A, the substance is in gaseous phase. In State and explain the conditions under which
region AB, there's unsaturated vapour which real gases behave as ideal gases.
fairly obeys Boyle’s law. That is, as pressure
increases gradually, volume also decreases At high temperatures, the intermolecular forces
according to Boyle’s law. of attraction for real gases are so weak such that
they become negligible thus behaving like ideal
At B, liquefaction begins. In region BC, the gases.
vapour is saturated. That: is, pressure remains
constant as volume reduces. At C, liquefaction is At very low pressures all real gases obey
complete. In the region CD, the entire vapour PV=RT just like ideal gases.
has turned into liquid and there's a very small
change in volume for a fairly large increase in Therefore, for a particular container, the gas
molecules will then be few (since pressure is low)
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and much further a part. This implies that the (i) calculate the amount in mole of nitrogen
volume of the gas molecules becomes negligible present.
compared to the volume of the container
(ii) Calculate the ms speed of nitrogen
Differences between real gases and ideal gases. molecules at a temperature of 300k. (molar mass
of N2= 0.028kgmol-1)
Real gases Ideal gases
- Intermolecula - Intermolecula (-
r forces exist r forces are PV  nRT
and are negligible 0 . 5  10 5
 0 . 23  n  8 . 314  300
significant
- Volume of its - Volume of its 11500
n- 
molecules is molecules is 24942
significant negligible n  4 . 62 moles
compared to compared to
the volume of the volume of (ii)
the gas the gas 1
M c 2  RT
- Velocity of its - Velocity of its 3
molecules is molecules is 1
not constant constant since  0 . 028  c 2  8 . 314  300  3
3
due to intermolecula 2 8 . 314  300  3
intermolecula r forces are c 
r forces negligible 0 . 028
- Doesn't obey - Obey Boyle's c- 2  267235 .7
boyle's law law
c 2  527 ms 1

Examples
1. Helium gas is contained in a cylinder by Exercise
a gas – tight piston which can be
1. Calculate the root mean square speed at 00C
assumed to move without friction. The
of (i) hydrogen molecules and (ii) oxygen
gas occupied a volume of 1.0 x 10-3 m3 at
molecules assuming 1 mole of a gas occupies a
a temperature of 300K and a pressure of
volume of 2 x 10-2 m3 at 00C and 105Nm-
1.0 x 105 pa. Calculate the number of 2
pressure. Assuming helium molecules have a
helium atoms in the container.
1ms-1 speed of 900ms-1 at 270C and 105 Nm-2
Data
pressure, calculate the ms speed at (i) 1270C and
PV = nRT 105Nm -2 pressure. (ii) 270C and 2 x 105Nm-2
pressure.
2. Two vessels of capacity 1.0l are connected by
1.01105 1.0 103  n  8.314  300 a tube of negligible volume. Together they
n  0.0405moles contain 3.4 x 10-4kg of helium at a pressure of
8cmHg and temperature 270c. Calculate the
1 mole of helium contain 6 x 1023 pressure developed in the apparatus if one vessel
atoms is cooled to 00c and the other heated to 1000c,
assuming that the heat capacity of each vessel is
0.0405moles of helium contain
unchanged. (1.12x105Pa)
3. A container of volume 1.0l contains a mixture
6 1023  0.0405 2.4 1022 atoms of 5g of nitrogen and 5g of hydrogen gas at 293k.
Calculate
i. The partial pressure exerted by each gas.
2. A volume of 0.23m3 contains nitrogen at a
(6.08x106Pa, 4.34x106Pa)
pressure of 50 x 105 pa and temperature 300k.
Assuming that the gas behaves ideally, ii. The root mean square speeds of the gas

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(molar masses of H2 and N2 are 2 and 28 V2

respectively) W   pdv  area under P - V curve

V1
4. Air may be taken to contain 80% nitrogen
molecules and 20% oxygen molecules of relative P
molecular masses 28 and 32 respectively.
Calculate.
i. Ratio of partial pressure of each in
air.(0.25) v2

ii. Ratio of mean square speed of Oxygen to W   pdv

that of nitrogen molecules in air (0.875) v1

V1 V2
V

TOPIC 5 :Thermodynamics 1st law of Thermodynamics

Work done by an expanding ideal gas When a quantity of heat, ∆Q is supplied to a gas,
that heat may be used by the gas to expand and
Consider a volume V of the gas confined in a do work, ∆W or it may be used to increase the
cylinder by a frictionless piston internal energy of the molecules, ∆U.
Hence ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W ……………1st Law of
thermodynamics

P ,V
-∆Q = energy removed from system
-∆W = means gas is being compressed hence
work done on the gas
+∆W = gas does work, there is an expansion
A force F must be applied to keep the volume of +∆U = internal energy increases
the gas constant.
-∆U = internal energy reduces.
Suppose the gas is allowed to expand to (V+∆V)
at constant pressure, the work done by the gas is Internal energy
∆W = F∆x, Where ∆x is the distance moved
through by the piston. For real gases, the internal energy of the gas is
due to the kinetic energy component and the
But F = PA , where A is the cross sectional area potential energy component.
of the piston.
∆W = PA∆x kinetic.energy  T
But A∆x = ∆V (change in volume) potential.energy  V

∆W = P∆V An ideal gas has no intermolecular forces so its

internal energy has no potential energy
Hence for finite expansion from a volume V1 to components so the internal energy of an ideal
a volume V2, the work done is gas is independent of its volume and only
depends on its temperature.
Hence, for ideal gases  U   T

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 Molar heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) Consider one mole of a gas heated at constant
pressure such that its volume increase from V1 to
The amount of heat required to change the V2 and the temperature changes by ΔT.
temperature of 1 mole of a gas at constant
pressure by 1 Kelvin

Q p
C p 
nT
Q p  nC p  T
or  Q p  mc p T

When n = number of moles, ∆T = change in

temperature.
Molar heat capacity at constant volume (Cv)
The amount of heat required to change the
temperature of mole of a gas at constant volume Q p  U  PV
by 1 Kelvin.
But  PV  PV2  V1 
∆Qv = nCv∆T Q p  Cv T  PV2  V1 
From the 1st law of thermodynamics Q p  C p T ............(ii )

∆Qv = ∆U + P∆V C p T  Cv T  PV2  V1 

ΔW = PΔV = 0 (since ΔV = 0)

Hence ∆Qv = ∆U
∆U = nCv ∆T. Using the ideal gas equation PV  RT

The volume expansion of a metal at constant PV1  RT

pressure is very small compared to that of a gas. PV2  R T  T 
So the external work done is very small. Hence it
Hence  P V2  V1   RT
follows that there is not much difference
between the Specific heat capacity of metal at
Equation (ii) becomes
constant pressure and constant volume.
C p T  C v T  RT
C p  Cv  R
Relation between Cp and Cv
Question
Consider one mole of an ideal gas heated at
constant volume. Its temperature changes by ΔT Explain why Cp is greater than Cv?
GUIDE

Fixed At constant pressure, the heat energy supplied is

piston TT+ΔT
partly taken in to increase internal energy and
also used to do external work. However at
constant volume, all the heat energy supplied is
taken in to raise the internal energy since no
external work is done. Therefore a lot of heat is
required to cause a 1K temperature rise.
ΔQv = ΔU = CvΔT
Particular gas changes
ΔU = CvΔT………………………………… (i)
(i) Isovolumetric process (constant Volume,V)
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At constant volume, the work done by the gas is state (P2, V2, T), then the change is said to be
zero hence Qv  U  nC v T reversible.

(ii) Isobaric process (constant pressure, P) Hence from the graph below process AB is
reversible if B changes to A through the same
At constant pressure path.
 Q p  nC p  T   U  P  V  nC v  T  P (V 2  V1 )
Work done by a gas in an isothermal expansion

(iii) Isothermal process (constant temperature,

T) P

At constant temperature, ΔT = 0. hence ΔU =0

Therefore, ΔQ = PΔV. All the heat energy
reappears as work done, hence all heat is used to
expand the gas.
For an ideal gas PV = nRT
V1 δv V2 V
Since T is constant, PV = constant.
Hence Isothermal processes obey Boyle’s law.
From the kinetic theory, if a gas confined in a Suppose the volume of the gas changes by δV at
cylinder by a piston expands, the molecules an average pressure P, the work done by the gas
bounce off the moving away piston with reduced δW = PδV = area of the shaded region.
speeds. The mean kinetic energy of the gas and
hence the temperature would decrease. Hence Hence the total work done when the gas expands
for an isothermal expansion, heat must flow into isothermally from V1 to V2 is
gas to keep the temperature constant. When a V2
gas is compressed with a moving in piston, the W   PdV
molecules of the gas bounce off the piston with V1
increased speed. The mean kinetic energy and
hence temperature of the gas would increase. For n moles of an ideal gas PV = nRT, hence
Hence in an isothermal compression, heat must nRT
P
flow out of the gas to keep the temperature V
constant.
V2 V
nRT 2
dV V 
Conditions for realizing an isothermal process W dV  nRT   nRT ln 2 
in practice. V1
V V1
V  V1 
1. The gas must be contained in a thin walled Hence work done during isothermal expansion,
highly conducting vessel. V 
W  nRT ln  2 
2. The vessel must be surrounded by a constant  V1 
temperature bath.
But
3. The process must be carried out slowly to P1V1  P2V 2  nRT
allow time for heat exchanges.
V  V  V 
W  nRT ln  2   P1V1 ln  2   P2V 2 ln  2 
Reversible isothermal change  V1   V1   V1 
Suppose a gas expands isothermally from a state (iii) Adiabatic process
(P1, V1, T) to a state (P2, V2, T). If the change
can be reversed so that the gas can be returned to
the state (P1, V1, T) through identical steps as
were taken in going from state (P1, V1, T1) to Adiabatic change is a change in temperature,
pressure and volume of a fixed mass of a gas

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when no heat is allowed to enter or leave the gas. The process must be carried out rapidly
(i.e ΔQ = 0). to avoid heat transmission exchanges,
Hence from 1st law of thermodynamics, 0 = ΔU - When carrying out an adiabatic process,
+ΔW the piston used must be light, frictionless
and thick.
 -ΔU =ΔW,
Equations of reversible Adiabatic changes
ΔU = -ΔW
1. The expression relating pressure P and
When the gas expands adiabatically, the gas does volume V for an adiabatic process is;
work at the expense of the decrease in internal
energy. Hence the temperature of the gas From the 1st law of
decreases. thermodynamics,∆� = ∆� + ∆�

In adiabatic compression, internal energy For an adiabatic change, ∆� = �, and ∆� =

increases as the work is done on the gas. Hence �∆�
the temperature of the gas increases. This can be
perceived when operating a bicycle pump; the , � = ∆� + �∆�
pump warms up (Adiabatic compression). When ∆� �∆�
you allow air to move out of a valve of a tube or For a unit temperature rise, ∆� + ∆�
=0
car tyre, the air feels cold (Adiabatic expansion). ∆�
But �� = ∆�
for one mole of gas
−�∆�
Examples of adiabatic changes include: �� = ∆�
………………………………………
…..(i)
Sound transmission in air.
Also for 1 mole of a gas ,PV=RT,
A bursting tyre or a ball.
Differentiate with respect to T
Inflating a tyre or a ball,
�� ��
� �� + � �� = �

Why adiabatic expansion of a gas results into ��� + ��� = ��� ……………………………
cooling …….(ii)
−���
In an adiabatic process heat, heat is not allowed But � = �� − �� and �� = ��
to enter or leave the cylinder containing the gas.
When a gas expands adiabatically, its molecules So equation (ii) becomes,
bounce off the moving piston with reduced
−���
speeds thus reducing the mean kinetic energy of ��� + ��� = (�� − �� )
��
the molecules. Since mean kinetic energy is
proportional to absolute temperature, and heat ��� + ��� =
−�� ���
+ ���
is not allowed to enter the cylinder containing ��
the gas, the temperature of the gas will therefore −�� ��� ��
decrease. This results into cooling. ��� =
��
,but ��
=�

In this process, no heat enters nor leaves the gas

system. Hence ΔQ =0
��� =− ����
Conditions for realizing an Adiabatic process
in practice Separating variables,
1 −�
- Gas must be contained in a thick- walled �� = ��
� �
perfectly insulated container.
1 −�
�
�� = �
��

Integrating gives
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 ��� = �������� (iii) the work done by the gas
( Cp = 29.1Jmol-1K-1)
2. For the equation relating pressure and
��
temperature we substitute V = � in the DATA
above equation. (i)
�� �
� = �������� Q p  nC p T
�

1−� � 3.0  10 4  n  29.1  50

Hence � � = constant
n  20.62moles
3. For the equation relating volume and
�� (ii)
temperature we substitute for P = � into
U  nCv T
��� = ��������
C v  C p  R  29.1  8.314  20.786mol 1 K 1
��
. �� = �������� . Hence U  20.62  20.786  50  21430.3J
�
TVγ−1 =constant
Q  U  PV
(iii)
P  V  3 .0  10 4  21430 .3  8569 .6 J

2. The density of a gas is 1.775kgm-3 at 27°C

and 105Pa pressure and its specific heat capacity
at constant pressure is 846Jkg-1K-1. Find the ratio
of its specific heat capacity at constant pressure
to that at constant volume.
From..PV  RT ,
1
V , T  273  27  300 K
1.775
subsitutin g
Recall, PV 105  1
R   188 Jkg 1 K 1
T 1.77  300
(i)
Now
 1
TV  cons tan t c p  cv  R
 1
T1V1  T2V 2 1 846  cv  188
Cp
where   cv  658 Jkg 1 K 1
Cv
cp 846
    1.29

(ii) PV  Constan t cv 658

P1V1  P2V 2
1. A vessel containing 1.5x10-3m3 of an ideal
Examples gas at pressure of 8.7x10-2Pa and
temperature 25°C is compressed
1. Nitrogen gas, in an expandable container is isothermally to half its volume and then
raised from 0°C to 50°C at a constant pressure allowed to expand adiabatically to its
4x105Pa. The total heat added is 3.0x104J. Find original volume. (γ =1.41)
(i) the number of moles of the (i) Calculate the final temperature and
gas pressure
(ii) the change in internal energy (ii)
of the gas

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 (iii) Calculate the work done during the gas is heated until its temperature is increased
isothermal process. to 147°C. ( Cp =29.41Jmol-1K-1,

P R = 8.31Jmol-1K-1 )
B Calculate (i) the Amount of heat supplied
P2
to the gas (1.176x107J)
A
P1
(iv) The change in internal
T1 energy.( 8.436x106J)
P3 C
T2
2. One litre of a gas at a pressure of
V1 1.0x105Pa and temperature of 17°C is
V2 V compressed isothermally to half its
volume. It is then allowed to expand
adiabatically to its original volume.
From the graph above, motion AB is Calculate the final temperature and
isothermal, hence applying Boyle’s law pressure. (γ = 1.40) (Final pressure =
7.57x104Pa, final temperature =219.8K)
P1V1  P2V 2
8.7  10  2  1.5  10  3  P2  7.5  10  4 3. An ideal gas at a pressure of 2.0x106Pa
occupies a volume of 2.0x10-3m3 at
P2  1.74  10 1 Pa 47.5°C. The gas expands adiabatically to
a final pressure of 110x105Pa. ( = 1.40)
Process BC is adiabatic, hence
Calculate (i) the number of moles of the gas
P2V2  P3V1 (1.5 moles)

1.74  10 1  7.5  10  4 
1.41

 P3  1.5  10 3 
1.41

(ii) The final volume (5.92x10-4m3)

2
P3  6.55  10 Pa
TOPIC 6: VAPOURS

Hence final pressure is 6.55x10-2Pa Vapour is a state of matter that can be turned
into liquid by application of pressure alone.
To find final temperature, consider process BC
Vapour can also be defined as a molecular
TV  1
T V  1 substance which is in gaseous phase below its
1 2 2 1
critical temperature.

298  7.5  10 4 
1.411

 T2  1.5  10 3 
1.411

Gas is a state of matter that can't be turned into

T2  224.3K
liquid by application of pressure alone. Gas can
also be defined as a molecular substance which
(ii) Work done during the isothermal
is in gaseous phase above its critical
compression
temperature.
V  EVAPORATION
W  P1V1 ln  2 
 V1  This is the process by which a liquid becomes
 7.5  10  4  vapour. It takes place at all temperatures but
 8.7  10  2  1.5  10 3 ln  3 
 occurs at the greatest rate when the liquid is at its
 1.5  10  boiling point.
 9.05  10 5 J
Factors that determine the rate of
evaporation
Exercise Temperature. Increasing the temperature of
a liquid increases the rate of evaporation
1. A cylinder contains 4kmoles of Oxygen gas
at a temperature of 47°C. The cylinder is Surface area. Increasing the surface area of
provided with a frictionless piston which the liquid increases the surface area of the liquid
maintains a constant pressure of 1x105Pa. The
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 Draught or wind blowing over the surface However, when the temperature exceeds 4°C, it
of the liquid. The rate of evaporation increases begins expanding due to anomalous expansion of
when there's too much wind blowing since the water. This expansion makes the bottle of soda
vapour molecules are removed before they return to break.
to the liquid.
Why cloudy nights are warmer than cloudless
nights
Kinetic theory of evaporation At night, radiational cooling usually occurs.
This is the cooling of the earth's surface and the
This explains why evaporation causes cooling. air near the surface and it’s caused by infrared
radiation from the earth's surface and from the
Molecules of a liquid are always in a state of
atmosphere.
continuous random motion and make frequent
collisions with each other and with the walls of The clouds therefore act like a blanket and this
the container. blanketing effect prevents heat from escaping
through the atmosphere and go into space. Thus
If a molecule near the surface of the liquid gains
cloudy nights are warmer than cloudless nights
enough energy to overcome the attractive forces
of the molecules below it, it escapes from the DEW FORMATION
surface. The process is known as evaporation. Dew point
This is the temperature at which water vapour,
Therefore, when a liquid evaporates, it loses
present in the air, is just sufficient to saturate it.
most of its molecules with a greater kinetic
Conditions for dew formation
energy and the ones that remain have low kinetic
Low temperatures.
energies.
Humidity (amount of water vapour in the
Since temperature is proportional to the average air),
kinetic energy of molecules, the decrease in
kinetic energy of the molecules in the liquid Dew formation on grass
decreases the temperature of the liquid thus the During the night, air temperature falls as the
liquid cools. earth cools. If the temperature falls below the
Why it's much cooler in the valley than on top dew point, water condenses from air and forms
of hills at night dew.

At night, air loses heat and its density increases. SATURATED AND UNSATURATED
Therefore, the more denser air, which is cool, VAPOURS
Fixed piston
tends to move down to the deeper areas like
valleys while the less dense air, which is warm,
stays on top like hills. This makes valleys to be
cooler than hills at night. Condensation
Evaporation
Why a baby has to be wrapped on a cold day
On a cold day, the temperature of the body is Liquid
higher than that of the surroundings. Therefore,
there's a net rate of heat loss from the body
which depends on the temperature difference
between the body and the surrounding. Consider a liquid confined in a container with
Therefore, a baby should be wrapped to avoid fixed piston.
loss of heat from the baby to the surrounding.
In the confined space above liquid, two
Why a bottle of soda left in a freezer processes take place. These are evaporation( the
overnight breaks most energetic molecules have sufficient kinetic
energy to overcome the attraction by other
There's a high percentage of water in soda.
molecules and leave the surface of the liquid to
Therefore, until the temperature decreases up to
become vapour molecules) and condensation
40C, it still behaves like any other liquid.
( the vapour molecules collide with the walls of
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the container giving rise to vapour pressure and Effects of temperature on SVP
also bombard the surface of the liquid and re-
enter the liquid). Increase in temperature increases the kinetic
energy of liquid molecules and also of the
In an unsaturated vapour, the rate of vapour molecules. Hence both the rate of
evaporation is greater than the rate of evaporation and the rate of condensation
condensation. increases.
In a saturated vapour the rate of evaporation The dynamic equilibrium is achieved at higher
is equal to the rate of condensation and there is saturated vapour pressure since a higher vapour
dynamic equilibrium between liquid and its density is obtained eventually all the liquid
vapour. evaporates and the vapour becomes unsaturated.
Increase in temperature, increases saturated
At a given temperature, the saturated vapour has vapour pressure
a maximum density at that temperature and the
vapour exerts a maximum vapour called
saturated vapour pressure (S.V.P).
Saturated vapour is the vapour which is in
dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.
Unsaturated vapour is the vapour which is not
in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.
Effect of volume on S.V.P
Unsaturated obeys pressure law whereas
If the volume of the space above the liquid is saturated don’t. Since saturated vapour do not
increased at constant temperature. There is a obey either Boyle’s or pressure law, they can not
momentary decrease in the density of the vapour. obey the equation of state hence never apply
The rate of condensation decreases and more PV
liquid evaporates until dynamic equilibrium is = constant to saturated vapours. However
T
restored. the equation of sate can be applied to unsaturated
vapour.
Hence, volume changes has no effect on
saturated vapour pressure(S.V.P) i.e. saturated Differences between saturated and
vapour pressure is independent of volume at unsaturated vapour
constant temperature. Saturated vapour Unsaturated vap
- It doesn’t obey gal laws. - It obeys g
If the increase in volume is continued, more and
- It’s in dynamic equilibrium with - It’s not in
more liquid evaporates until there is none left.
its own liquid with its ow
The vapour becomes unsaturated.
- It can only exist when the liquid - It doesn’t
is present liquid.
- It exits at a fixed temperature. - It exists a

Pressu Saturated

S.V.
Unsaturated
vapour

Measurement of SVP of a liquid

Volum
In the figure below, C is a large chamber acting
Saturated vapour does not obey Boyle’s law but as a buffer against pressure variations and
unsaturated vapour do. keeping h steady.

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The pressure in the reservoir is adjusted to a Some water is placed in a J-tube such that some
suitable value by opening the tap, and pumping air is trapped by the liquid column as shown in
air on the system and then closing the tap. figure (A). The J-tube is then placed in a beaker
of water subjected to heat as shown in figure (B).
The liquid in the flask is heated until it boils. The air in the J-tube will be observed to remain
The condenser, condenses the vapour and return trapped as before until the water in the beaker
it flask. starts boiling. At boiling point, the water in the
J-tube then comes to the same level in each limb.
When cooling occur, the SVP = atmospheric
This implies that the vapour pressure in the
pressure – h.
closed limb equals to the external pressure.
The boiling point is read from the thermometer.
The procedure is repeated for different values of
h and the corresponding temperatures (θ°C) are
determined.

Therefore, a liquid boils only when its saturated

vapour pressure is equal to the external pressure.
Why it's possible to make water boil at
temperatures below its boiling point
It's possible to make water boil at temperatures
below its boiling point because boiling of water
occurs only when its saturated vapour pressure
A graph of SVP against θ can be plotted. equals the atmospheric pressure. Since
external/atmospheric pressure varies with
altitude, it implies that when altitude is increased,
the atmospheric pressure will reduce.
Thus, the saturated vapour pressure equals the
lowered external pressure easily and since
pressure is directly proportional to temperature,
boiling takes place before the normal boiling
point.
We note that at low temperature, a large change How cooking of water at 76cmHg and 100°C
in temperature leads to a small change in SVP. is achieved
Cooking utensils/pressure cookers have lids
BOILING which prevent steam from escaping. As the
Boiling point is the temperature at which water inside the cooking utensil is being heated,
saturated vapour pressure equals external density of steam above the water increases
pressure. which in turn increases the steam pressure above
Effect of altitude on boiling the water.
Altitude is the height above the earth's surface. At 100°C the steam pressure equals 76cmHg and
An increase in the height above the earth's hence, the water boils. If heating is continued,
surface decreases the weight and hence the steam pressure may rise above 76cmHg hence
density of the air above. This in turn decreases causing explosion of the system.
the atmospheric pressure. Thus, atmospheric Therefore, to ensure cooking at 76cmHg and
pressure decreases with increase in altitude. 1000C, the lid should have a safety valve
Experiment to show that a liquid boils only designed such that it opens when pressure inside
when its saturated vapour pressure equals the utensil is 76cmHg.
external pressure
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 Examples T1  25  272  298 K . V1   A  20 . 8 cm 3
A closed vessel contains air and little water. The PN  PT  P .S .V
temperature of water is 200C and the pressure in  1 . 01  10  5  1 . 70  10 3
the vessel is 76cmHg. Calculate the new
 9 . 93  10 4 Nm 2
pressure when the temperature of the vessel is
raised to 400C, water still being present. (S.V.P
of water at 200C and 400C = 2.0cmHg and At 83.3°C
8.0cmHg respectively)
T 2  83 . 3  273  356.3K
DATA 3
V 2  25 . 2 Acm
At 20 0 C P2  ?
PT  Pa1  PS .V P1V 1 PV
 2 2
76  Pa1  2 T1 T1
Pa1  74cmHg 9 . 93  10 4  20 . 8 A P  25 . 5 A
 2
298 356 . 3
At 400c 4
P2  9 . 80  10 Nm 2

Pa1 Pa 2

74 P
 a2
  
S .V . P of H 2 O  1 . 01  10 5  9 . 80  10 4 
T1 T2 273 313  3 . 00  10 3 Nm 2

74  313
Pa2   79.05cmHg
293

Hence PT at 40 0 c  79.05  8.0

 87.05cmHg
P Q

2. A column of nitrogen is trapped in a

capillary tube of constant X sectional
area and closed at one end by a thread of
water.

3. Two vessels P and Q each of volume

1.5cm3 are joined in the middle by a
The length of nitrogen column is 20.0cm at 250c closed tap and placed in the constant
and 25.2cm at 83.30c. temperature both at 600C. P contain a
vacuum while Q contains air and
Calculate the saturated vapour pressure of water saturated water vapour. The total
at 83.30c if its value at 250c is 1.70 x 103 Nm-2, pressure in Q is 200mmHg. When T is
Neglect weight of water thread and assume that opened, equilibrium is reached with the
atmospheric pressure remain constant and is 1.01 water vapour remaining saturated. If the
x 105Nm-2. final pressure in the cylinders is 150
mmHg, calculate the S.V.P of water at
DATA 600c.
DATA
At 250c

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P1   200  PS  V 1  1 . 5 cm 3

P2  150  PS  V 2  3 . 0 cm 3
TOPIC 7:HEAT TRANSFER
P1V 1  P2 V 2 Thermal Conduction
 200  PS   1 . 5  150  PS   3
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy from
300  1 . 5 PS  450  3 PS one place to another without the movement of
1 . 5 PS  150 the substance as a whole.
PS  100 mmHg Mechanism of Conduction
When the end of the solid is heated, the
amplitude of vibration of the atom of the solid
Exercise increase. The atoms collide with neighbouring
cooler atoms and pass on some of their energy to
1. The air column is trapped in a tube of
these atoms. In this way heat is transferred from
uniform cross section area and closed by a thread
the hot end to the cool end.
of water. The length 1, of the air column, is
column, is 10.0cm at 150C and 12.6 cm at 500C. In gases, fast moving molecules pass on kinetic
Calculate the SVP of water at 500C. If the value energy to the slower moving ones when they
at 150C is 1.7 x 103 Pa. (Neglect the weight of collide with them. In this way heat is slowly
the water thread and assume that the atmospheric conducted through gases.
pressure = 1.01 x 105 Pa) (1.26x104Pa)
In metals, the free elections travel at high speeds
2. In a laboratory, a student collected 1000cm3 and transfer energy quickly from one part of the
of hydrogen over water at 200C. The external metal to another by collisions with other
pressure was 70.0cm of mercury. The S.V.P of elections and other atoms. Hence in metals, heat
water at 200c is 1.76cm of mercury. Calculate is carried by mainly the motion of free election
the corresponding volume of hydrogen at STP. and by the inter atomic vibration.
(836.6cm3)
In non-metals and liquids, there are no free
3. A volume of 4.0 x 10-3 m3 of air is saturated elections and hence heat is transferred from one
with water vapour at 1000C. The air is closed at atom to another by inter atomic vibration,. This
200C at constant pressure of 1.33 x 105pa. process of heat conducted is slow as compared to
Calculate the volume of air after cooling, if the that in metals.
SVP of water at 200C is 2.3 x 102Pa.
( Atmospheric pressure = 1.01x105Pa)
Thermal conductivity (Coefficient of Thermal
Conductivity, K)
4. A horizontal tube of uniform bores enclosed at Consider a slab of thickness L and area of cross
one end, has some air trapped a small quantity of sections A having temperatures θ1 and θ2 at its
water. If the length of the enclosed air column is ends.
20cm at 140C, what will it be if the temperature
is raised to 400C and atmospheric pressure
remains at 760mm of Hg.
(l =23cm)

5. The total pressure in a closed vessel

containing air and saturated vapour at 350C is l
1.01 x 105Pa. If the saturation vapour pressure is 1   2
at 350c and 870c are 3.99 x 103Pa and 7.18 x 104
Pa respectively, calculate the total pressure in the dQ
vessel at 870C, assuming the air remains dt
unchanged. (1.852x105Pa)
θ1 θ2
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Experiment shows that the rate of flow of heat
through the slab is;
i. Proportional to the cross sectional area,
A
ii. Proportional to the temperature drop or
difference between the faces, (θ1-θ2). Determination of thermal conducting K of a
good conductor of heat e.g. Cu
iii. Inversely proportional to the thickness, L
The thermal conducting of a good conductor of
iv. Is dependent of the material
heat e.g. copper can be obtained using Searle’s
Rate of flow of heat, apparatus. The specimen bar is heated from one
end using a steam jacket and cooled at the other
dQ A  1   2  end by circulating water.

dt l
dQ KA  1   2 

dt l

Where K= thermal conductivity or co-efficient

of thermal conductivity.

dQ
K dt
A1   2 
l
Hence thermal conductivity of a material is the
rate of heat flow through the material normal to
opposite faces of cross section area 1m2 in a
region of unit temperature gradient.
Units of K is Wm-1K-1
Temperature distribution along an insulated
bar of a good conductor of uniform cross When the apparatus has been moving for
section in steady state sometime, a steady state condition is attained
when,
i. The temperature θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 remain
constant.
ii. The rate of heat flow and the temperature
gradient are the same for any section of
Since there is no loss of heat to the surrounding, the bar since it is lagged.
dQ
the rate of heat flow is constant hence The steady temperatures θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 are
dt
recorded and the mass rate of flow, m of water
d
temperature gradient, ,will be constant. obtained by collecting the warm water flowing
dx out of B and measuring the mass obtained in a
given time.

Temperature distribution along an unlagged Q    

   mc 4   3   KA 2 1
metal bar t  l

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Where c is the specific heat capacity of water, A Where A1, θ2, θ1 and l are all measured.
= area of cross section of bar.
Part 2 of the experiment
Using:
The disc D is removed and B is heated directly
KA  2   1  from C until its temperature is above what it was
mc  4   3   , the thermal
L in part 1. C is then removed and a thick felt pad
conductivity K can be calculated is placed on top of B. Temperature and
corresponding time readings are recorded as B
N.B In order not to upset the temperature cools and a cooling curve is plotted. The aim of
gradient, the cold water is allowed in through A part 2 is to find the rate of heat loss from B at
and not through B temperature θ1

Determination of thermal conductivity K of a

poor conductor of heat e.g glass
The specimen is made uniform of a disk D. the
disc d is placed on a thick brass slab B
containing a thermometer and is heated from
above by a steam chest C whose thick base
carries a thermometer.

the rate of temperature fall of B at θ1, equals the

slope a of the tangent at θ1
b

Q
t
 
 mc a .......... .......... .....( 2)
b

Where m = mass of the brass slab B, c = specific

heat capacity of brass
Since the rate of heat loss from B depends on the
temperature of B (which is the same in the two
KA  2   1 
parts) then  mc a b
The experiment has two parts: l
Part 1of the experiment The thermo - conductivity K can then be
calculated.
Steam is passed until the temperature θ1 and θ2
are steady. Note: In determination of thermal conductivity
of a poor conductor such as card board or
Heat flow from steam chest(C) to metallic
ebonite, the substance is made thin in order to
base(B) through specimen disc(D) and is then
get an adequate rate of heat flow and fairly of
lost to the surrounding.
large surface area to reduces the heat loss to the
At steady state, the rate of heat flow equals the surroundings from the specimen.
rate of heat loss of B of temperature θ1 to the
surrounding.
Examples:
1. Uniform composite slab is made of two
Q KA  2   1 
 .......... ...( i ) types of material A and B of thickness
t l 6cm and 3cm and of thermal
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 conductivities 369Wm-1k-1 and 120Wm- temperature of 200C while the outer layer
k respectively. If the ends of A and B
1 -1
of B is at temperature of 100C. Calculate
are maintained at 80°C and 20°C, (i) The temperature of the interface
calculate of A and B
(i) The temperature of the junction of (ii) The rate of heat through the wall
the two materials
(ii) The rate of flow of heat through
an area of 1m2 of the slab.
Data
Data

80°C A B 20°C
θ
20°C 10°C
A θ B
Rate of heat flow through A
dQa  80   
 k a Aa  
dt  la 

0.15m 0.15m
Rate of heat flow through B
dQb    20  A= 6 X 3 = 18m2
 K b Ab  
dt  lb 

If heat is to flow rates should be equal

Rate of heat flow through A = Rate of heat flow
through B dQ 0.6  1820    0.5  18    10 
 
dt 0.15 0.15
0.620     0.5  10 
 80       20 
K a Aa    K b Ab 
  0 .6
 la  l
 b  20       10
0 .5
 80       20 
360  A   2 
 120  A   2 
 6  10   3  10  1.220       10
600080     4000  20  24  1.2    10
4.8  10 5  6000  4000  8.0  10 4 34  2.2
5.6  10 5  10000   15.5 0 C
  56 0 (ii) Rate of heat flow,
Rate of heat flow = dQ 0.6  1820  15.5
 80  56    324W
 24  dt 0.15
K a Aa    360  1 2 
 la   6  10 

 1.44  10 5 W

2. A wall 6m x 3m consists of two layers A 3. A cavity wall is made of two brick layers
and B of bricks of thermal conductivities each of thickness 10cm and between
0.6 and 0.5 Wm-1K-1 respectively. The which there is a layer of air 2cm thick. If
thickness of each layer is 15.0cm. The the thermal conductivity of air is 0.024
inner surface of layer A is at a W�−1 �−1 and that of brick is
0.7Wm−1 K−1 and that the inner and outer
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 walls have temperatures 250C and 150C window if the temperature of the external
respectively, find the rate of heat flow surfaces of glass are 30°Cand 20°C (K of glass =
through 1m2 of the wail. ( 8.936 Js−1) 0.72Wm-1k-1 , K of air = 0.025Wm-1k-1 )
5. One end of a perfectly lagged metal bar of
length 0.10m and cross sectional area 5x10-4m2
is maintained at 100°C while the other is in
contact with ice. Calculate the rate at which the
ice melts. ( Thermal conductivity of the metal is
400Wm-1K-1, specific latent of fusion =
Exercise 3.36x105JKkg-1) ( 5.95x10-
4
kgs-1)
1. A wall consists of two layers of thickness L1
and L2 and thermal conductivities K1 and K2
respectively. If the surfaces of the wall are
T0PPIC 8: RADIATIVE TRANSFER
maintained at temperatures T1 and T2. Show that
the rate of heat transfer through the wall is This is the transfer of heat radiation from place
to place without the need for the intermediate
AT2  T1 
Where A is the area medium.
L1 L
 2
K1 K2 It is the mechanism by which heat radiation
propagates in a vacuum.
i. State the assumption made above
ii. A cooking utensil of thickness 3mm is to FACTORS ON WHICH THERMAL
be made of two layers, one of aluminium RADIATION DEPENDS
and the other of brass. If one layer is to The amount of radiation emitted by a body
be 2mm thick and the other 1mm, depends upon three factors:
determine which combination allows a Surface area of the body.
higher rate of flow.
The temperature of the body.
K AL  240Wm 1 K 1 ; K Br  112Wm 1 K 1 
The nature of the surface of the body.

2. The external walls of a house consist of two Electromagnetic spectrum

layers of brick separated by an air cavity. The
outer face of the wall is at a temperature of 45°C The term radiation covers a wide spectrum from
while the inside of the house is at 20°C. If the the very short length � –rays to the very long,
thickness of each brick layer is 15cm and air wave length radio waves. The variation of wave
cavity is 5cm, calculate the temperature of the length across the electromagnetic spectrum is
walls in contact with the cavity. illustrated below

3. Water in an aluminium saucepan of diameter

16cm and thickness 4mm is kept boiling at
100°C in the Stove. The water boils at a rate of
2.28 x 10-4 kgs-1. Calculate the temperature of
the underside of the saucepan.(100.5°C)

4. A window of height 1.0m and width 1.5m

contains a double glazed unit consisting of two
single glass planes, each of thickness 4.0mm
separated by an air gap of 2.0mm. Calculate the
rate at which heat is conducted through the

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 Like all other radiations, infra-red can be
refracted or reflected.

Applications of infra-red radiations

Night vision: Helicopters fitted with
infra-red detectors can be flown at night with
clear view of the ground.
Radio photography: Clear photographs
can be taken at night using infra-red lenses and
detectors.
- Remote-control keypads for televisions
and radio recorders use infra-red
signaling,
They are used to dry paint on cars during
manufacture.

Detection of infrared radiation

Infra-red has a longer wavelength than the
visible light, the eye can't detect infra-red
VIOLET RADIATION radiation. Detectors of infra-red radiation
therefore include:
Sources of ultra-violet radiation - Ether thermoscopes.
The sun , Current through mercury vapour. - Bolometer.

Effects of ultra-violet radiation - Thermopiles.

They cause photoelectric emission. - Optical pyrometers.

They cause fluorescence.

They can cause skin burn. Thermopile
They can affect a photographic film. This is a pile of thermocouples arranged as
shown schematically below.

INFRA-RED RADIATION
Radiation of longer wavelength than the visible
light (ranging from 0.7μm to about 1mm) in the
electromagnetic spectrum is called infra-red.
Sources of infra-red radiation
The sun , Hot bodies.
Effects of infrared radiation
They cause photoelectric emission.
They cause a sensation of warmth or heat on a The pile of thermocouple is connected to a
body. sensitive galvanometer G. The thermoelectric
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emf developed in proportional to the temperature
difference between the hot and cold junctions.
In dynamic equilibrium, the infrared radiation
incident per second on the hot junction is equal
to the rate of heat loss to the surrounding by the
hot junction. But the rate of loss of heat to the
surrounding is proportional to the excess
temperature above the surroundings.
Hence, the thermoelectric emf is proportional to
the rate of incidence of infrared radiation of the
thermopile.
The thermopile has the disadvantage that it The tube is partly filled with ether and therefore
integrates infrared radiation from a large area both bulbs contain a mixture of air and ether
vapour. When infra-red radiation falls on the
thermoscope, the blackened bulb, which is a
BOLOMETER good absorber of radiation, absorbs more of the
infra-red radiation than the un-blackened bulb.
This makes the air-vapour mixture in the
blackened bulb to increase, causing it to expand
and thus increasing the pressure in the blackened
bulb. The increased pressure in the blackened
bulb pushes the ether along the tube and this
therefore shows the presence of infra-red
radiation.
OPTICAL RADIATION PYROMETER
This can be used to detect radiations from very
hot bodies. Thus, they can be used to measure
furnace temperature. The source is focused using
the objective lens such that its image lies in the
A bolometer consists of a blackened strip of same plane with that of the filament. The
platinum foil arranged in a zigzag pattern as observer looks through the eyepiece to observe
shown in the figure (a) above. The strip is then the image of the small area of object focused on
connected to a Wheatstone bridge as shown in
figure (b) above.
When infra-red radiation falls on the bolometer,
heat is gained by the platinum strip and this
increases the temperature and hence, resistance
of the strip.
The increase in resistance can be seen by a
deflection on the galvanometer G. This shows
the presence of infra-red radiation. Thus, infra-
red radiation has been detected.
ETHER THERMOSCOPE If the image of the hot body is brighter than the
filament, the filament appears dark on a bright
background; implying that the filament is at a
lower temperature than that of the hot body. The
temperature of the filament is adjusted using a
rheostat till the image of the hot body has the
same brightness as the filament. The ammeter is
calibrated to read the temperature of the hot
body. Thus the temperature of the hot body can
be read on the ammeter.
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TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER i. A body radiates heat radiation at a rate
which is determined by the nature of its
surface and its temperature.
ii. A body absorbs heat energy at a rate
which is determined by the nature of its
surface and the temperature it’s
surrounding.
iii. A body at constant temperature radiates
heat energy at the same rate as it absorbs
heat.
It follows from Prevost’s theory, that if the
surface of a body is a good absorber of radiation
The eyepiece is focused on a small blackened then it must be equally a good emitter, otherwise
disc and the gold plated mirrors adjusted until its temperature would rise above that of its
the radiations from the furnace are focused on surrounding. Black and rough surface are better
the disc. Small plane mirrors M1 and M2 make absorbers and emitters of radiation.
the focusing easier.
PREVOST'S THEORY OF HEAT
The radiations from the source warm the
EXCHANGE
junction attached to the disc and a thermoelectric
It states that a body radiates or absorbs heat
e.m.f is set up. The galvanometer is calibrated in
energy at a rate determined by the nature of the
degrees and so the temperature can be read off.
surface and the temperature of the surroundings.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT IN RELATION Heat exchanges for a body in an enclosure
TO GLOBAL WARMING The rate of loss or gain of heat (radiation) from a
Radiations from the sun have short wave length body depends on the temperature of its
due to the high temperature of the sun. When this surrounding.
radiation, of short wave length passes through If the body's temperature is higher than that of
the water vapour and carbon dioxide gas in the the surrounding, it loses energy by radiation to
lower layers of the atmosphere, it warms up the the surrounding until dynamic equilibrium is
lower layers of the earth. reached. If the body's temperature is lower than
that of the surrounding, it gains heat energy until
The earth will then re-emit this radiation (infra- dynamic equilibrium is reached. At dynamic
red radiation) as a black body radiation of long equilibrium, the rate of heat loss is equal to the
wavelength because of the low temperature of rate of heat gain.
the earth. Consider a black body whose absolute
temperature is T in an enclosure at absolute
The black body radiation will therefore be temperature .
trapped by the water vapor and carbon dioxide
gas in the atmosphere thus preventing the
radiation from escaping from the earth's
atmosphere.
The radiation which has been prevented from
escaping from the earth's atmosphere will
therefore cause global warming.
Black body radiation
NOTE: If the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere increases, the average temperature of When radiation falls on a surface, three things
the earth increases because more radiation, happen, that is:
which is re-emitted, will be trapped. This will
cause dramatic climatic and geographic change i. A certain amount of heat R is reflected,
to occur.
ii. A certain amount of heat A is absorbed,
PREVOST’S THEORY OF HEAT
EXCHANGE iii. A certain amount of heat T is transmitted.
I
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-

I=A+R+T

For a black surface, no reflection or transmission

occurs. All the radiation incident on it is
absorbed. Hence a black body is one which
absorbs all the wavelengths of the radiation in
incident on it and transmits or reflects none.
An approximation of a black body consists of a
hollow sphere whose inside is coated with black
rough material and a small hole for admission of
radiation into the cavity.
Intensity, E is the radiant energy emitted per
second, per metre squared or it is the power
incident on a unit area, or power emitted by
metre squared.

Power
E
area
Relative intensity, Eλ is the power radiated per
metre squared of a black body in a unit
wavelength interval.

Relative intensity E  =
power E

area  wave length interval wave length
At each reflection inside the cavity, a certain
percentage of the radiation is absorbed. Features of the graph
Eventually after multiple reflections all the i. As the temperature increases the intensity
radiation is absorbed. of every wave length increases but the
A device like this which absorbs all the radiation intensity of the shorter wave lengths
incidents on it is known as a black body. increase more rapidly.

Black body radiation is that radiation whose ii. The wavelength at which maximum
quality (wave length) depends only on the intensity occurs shifts to shorter wave
temperature of the body. It is sometimes called lengths as the temperature increases.
full radiation or cavity radiation or temperature The appearance of the body depends on the
radiation. position of  m (Wavelength at which maximum
Spectral curves for black bodies intensity occurs). The body changes from its
colour when cold, to red hot (  m is in the red
A graph of relative intensity against wavelength
region of the specimen) to yellow hot, white hot
illustrates the distribution of energy in black
(  m is in the middle of the spectrum, to blue hot
body radiation.
(  m in the blue region).

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Qn. Explain why the deepest part (centre) of a 1. Calculate the rate pf loss of heat energy
fire looks brightest (white) of a black body of area 40m2 at a
Data temperature of 50°C, if the radiation it
At the centre of a fire, temperature is highest. receives from the sun is equivalent to a
Since the quality of radiation (relative intensity temperature in space of -220°C.
of different wavelengths) depends on Data
temperature, the relative intensity is therefore
maximum at the deepest part of the fire. Tc= -220 +273 = 53K
This maximum relative intensity corresponds to
Th = 50 +273 = 323K
all the different wavelengths being emitted and
since these wavelengths are in the visible region, Rate of heat loss
a combination of all these colors results into
white.
Laws of Black Body Radiation   
 Pe  Pa  A Th4  Tc4  40  5.67  10 8 4 323 4  53 4 
8 10 4
 40  5.67  10  1.087  10  2.467  10 W
1. Wien's displacement law
It states that the product of maximum
wavelength, ���� and the absolute temperature,
T of a body is equal to a constant. That is,
T���� =constant 2. The element of an element fire has a
The constant is called Wien’s constant and has a temperature 1150K. Calculate the
value 2.9 x 10-3 mK. frequency at which the intensity of the
2. Stefan's law radiation by the element is maximum.
c
It states that the total energy radiation per unit  max T  acons tan t But  max  where c  speed of lig
surface area per second (E) of a black body is f min
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute c
 T  2.9  10 3
temperature T of the body. That is, EαT4 f min
3  10 8  1150
f min   1.19  1014 Hz
2.9  10 3
If the body is of surface area A ,then the total
energy radiated per second is ������ =σAT4 .
ESTIMATING TEMPERATURE OF THE
The energy radiated per second = STARS
power .Hence ,P = σAT4
Assume the sun to be a sphere of radius rs
having a temperature Ts and radiating as a black
Cooling of bodies body. The power radiation by the sun,

Suppose a hot sphere with surface area A and Pr  ATs4 , but A  4rs2
temperature, Th is placed in a cold enclosure Pr  4rs2Ts4
with temperature, Tc. If the body is a black body,
the rate of absorption of heat Pa  ATc4 and The power is radiated in all directions
the rate of emission Pe  AT h
4

Hence power radiated =

Pe  Pa

 A Th4  Tc4 

Examples

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Intensity at the earth surface(power per unit area) 6000k, estimate the temperature of the
total power radiated surface of mars if its distance from the
= sun is 2.28 x 1011m.
surface area of imaginary sphere
Data
4  r s2 T s 2
 
4 R 2
r s2  T s 4
 Power per unit area of earth’s surface =
R2
Intensity at the earth’s surface is called solar rs2Ts4


7  10 8 
2
 5.7  10 8  6000
4

constant R2 
2.28  1011 
rs2Ts4
Power received by the earth = 2
R E2   
3.6197  10 25
R
5.1984  10 22
Where R E2 is the area of earth on which the
sun’s radiation is incident normally.  6.9632  10 2 Wm -2
Power reached by mars = solar constant x area
1. Estimate the temperature of the earth  6.9632  R 2
assuming it is in radiative equilibrium of
the sun. Using Stefan’s law
DATA
6.9632  R 2 m  4Rm 2Tm4
(rs = 7 x 10 m, Surface temperature of sun =
8

6000K, distance from the earth to the sun = 1.5 x 6.9632  10 2

Tm4 
1011m,   5.7  10 8 wm 2 k 4 ) 4  5.7  10 8
Tm  2.35  10 2 K
rs2Ts4
Solarconstant 2
R


710  5.710 6000
8 2 8 4
Exercise
1.50710  11 2
1. The total output of the sun is 4.0 x 1026W.
25
3.619710 Given that the mass of the sun is 1.97 x 1030kg

2.2710491022 and its density is 1.4 x 103 kgm-3, estimate the
 1.594103Wm2 temperature of the sun, state any assumptions
made (   5.67  10 8 Wm 1 k 1 )
Power reached by earth = solar constant x area (5.84x103K)
Good luck in your exams
3 2
 1.594  10  R E

Using Stefan’s law,

1.594  10 3  R E2  4R E2 TE4
1.594  10 3
TE4 
4  5.7  10 8
TE4  6.9905  10 9
TE  2.89  10 2 K

2. Assuming that the sun is a sphere of

radius 7 x 108m, at a temperature of
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