N 5 C 454692 Dbed 7
N 5 C 454692 Dbed 7
Learning Objects
After undergoing the subject students will be able to :
Add, multiply, subtract binary to hexa decimal number system.
Explain the symbol of various gates and the truth table
Use Boolean laws for the simplification of logical expressions.
Explain the De-morgan theorem for simplification.
Explain K-map technique.
Explain half-adder, full-adder, encoder, decoder
Uses of Flip-flops in digital circuits.
Explain Convertors.
Explain Memories.
Chapter 1
NUMBER SYSTEMS
Number systems
1.1 Decimal Number system
•Symbols-0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
•Symbols : -0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
Chapter 2
Gates
2. Logic gate
• A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates have two
or more inputs and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two
binary conditions low (0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels.
NOT GATE:
It has one input and one output.
NAND GATE:
The output is high if any of the inputs is low.It has two or more inputs and one output.
2.7 NOR GATE
It is NOT-OR gate, If any input is high output is low
Symbol of 2 input NOR Gate
A NAND gate can be used as a NOT gate using either of the following wiring configurations.
Chapter 3
ALL the digital circuit operation depend upon only two values that is either 1 or 0 .
Where the value of 1 and 0 denoted the predefined voltage level . So , Boolean algebra
can used for the analysis , simplification design of digital circuit .
There are three operation in Boolean Algebra :
Logical addition
Logical multiplication
Logical inversion
•A+B=B+A(OR Law)
•A.B=B.A(AND Law)
A B A+B B+A
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
Associative Law
•A+(B+C)= (A+B)+C
•A.(B.C)=(A.B).C
A B C A+(B+C) (A+B)+C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
Distributive Law
•A(B+C)=AB+AC
A B C B+C A(B+C) AB AC AB+AC
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
DeMorgan’s Theorem #1
A B A B A B A B A+B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 A·B=A+B
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
A+B=A·B
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
3.3 KARNAUGH MAPS (K-MAP)
An n-variable k-map has two cell with each cell corresponding to an n-variable truth
table value .
K-Map cell are labeled with the corresponding truth table row .
K-Map cells are arranged such that adjacent cells correspond to truth rows that differ
in only one bit position (logical adjacency) .
( K-MAPS )
K-Map are tables of row and columns with entries represent 1’s or 0’s of SOP and POS
representation
Combinational Circuits
4.1
Half Adder (HA).
HALF ADDER
Adding two single-bit binary values, X, Y produces a sum S bit and a carry out C-out bit.
This operation is called half addition and the circuit to realize it is called a half adder.
Half Adder Truth Table
Inputs Outputs
X Y S C-out
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
X
Half S
Y Adder C-OUT
S(X,Y) = S (1,2)
S = X’Y + XY’
S=X Y
Inputs Outputs
X Y C-in S C-out
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
A MUX is a digital switch that has multiple inputs (sources) and a single output (destination).
Multiplexer
Block Diagram
2N 1
MUX
Inputs Output
(sources) (destination)
N
Select
Lines
What is a Demultiplexer (DEMUX)?
A DEMUX is a digital switch with a single input (source) and a multiple outputs (destinations).
The select lines determine which output the input is connected to.
DEMUX Types
U
X
E
1 2N
Input Outputs
(source) (destinations)
Select
Lines
Decoders
A decoder has
N Inputs
2N Outputs
A decoder selects one of 2N outputs by decoding the binary value on the N inputs.
The decoder generates all of the minterms of the N input variables.
Encoders
An encoder has
2N inputs N
outputs
An encoder outputs the binary value of the selected (or active) input.
An encoder performs the inverse operation of a decoder.
Chapter : 5
FLIP FLOP
A flip-flop is a bistable multivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state by signals
applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs.
Without the edge-triggering of the clock input, the circuit would continuously toggle
between its two output states when both J and K were held high (1), making it an
astable device instead of a bistable device in that circumstance.
5.2 SR FLIP FLOP
SR Flip Flop is an arrangement of logic gates that maintains a stable output even after the
inputs are turned off.
This simple flip flop circuit has a set input (S) and a reset input (R).
5.3 D FLIP FLOP
The D flip-flop tracks the input, making transitions with match those of the input D.
The D stands for "data"; this flip-flop stores the value that is on the data line.
It can be made from a J-K flip-flop by tying both of its inputs high.
Counter is the combination of flip-flop which is used to count the events of number of clock
at input. Depending upon the manner by mean of which the flip-flop of counter triggered.
There is two types of counters:
Asynchronous Counter
Synchronous Counter
ASYNCHRONOUS COUNTER
Asynchronous counters are those whose output is free from the clock signal. Because the
flip flops in asynchronous counters are supplied with different clock signals, there may be
delay in producing output. The required number of logic gates to design asynchronous
counters is very less. So they are simple in design.
SYNCHRONOUS COUNTER
In synchronous counters, the clock inputs of all the flip-flops are connected together and
are triggered by the input pulses. Thus, all the flip-flops change state simultaneously (in
parallel).
Shift Register
Digital signals only have two states. For digital computer, we refer to
binary states, 0 and 1.
Successive Approximation
Types of DACs
Many types of DACs available.
R-2R Ladder
Binary Weighted Resistor
Utilizes a summing op-amp circuit
Weighted resistors are used to distinguish each bit from the most significant to
the least significant
Transistors are used to switch between Vref and ground (bit high or low)
Chapter 8
Memory Organization
It provides spaces for storing instruction and data, space for intermediate
results and spaces for final results.
Memory is primarily of two types;
INTERNAL MEMORY
PRIMARY
Primary memory is computer memory that a processor or computer accesses first or directly. It
allows a processor to access running execution applications and services that are temporarily
stored in a specific memory location. Primary memory is also known as primary storage or main
memory
CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer memory that provides
high-speed data access to a processor and stores frequently used computer
programs, applications and data. It is the fastest memory in a computer
External Memory
The storage capacity of the main memory or the primary memory of the computer is limited.
Sometimes we have to store millions or billions bytes of data and primary memory of this
computer is not able to store this data. Therefore, we require additional memory called auxiliary
memory or secondary storage.
SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY
semiconductor memories are small in size, have low cost, high speed of operation, high
reliability and memory size can be expanded according to their requirements.
WHAT IS ROM?
Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of storage medium that permanently stores data on
personal computers (PCs) and other electronic devices. It contains the programming
needed to start a PC, which is essential for boot-up; it performs major input/output tasks
and holds programs or software instructions.
TYPES OF ROM:-
1. Programmable Read Only
Memory[PROM]
WHAT IS RAM?
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the hardware in a computing device where the operating
system (OS), application programs and data in current use are kept so they can be quickly
reached by the device's processor. RAM is the main memory in a computer, and this type
of memory is volatile and all information that was stored in RAM is lost when computer is
turned off.
TYPES OF RAM
1.STATIC RAM
SRAM (Static RAM) is random access memory (RAM) that retains data bits in its memory as
long as power is being supplied.
2.DYNAMIC RAM
Dynamic RAM (DRAM), which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor
Very Short Answer type questions.
(b) (1101101)2 =( )2
(l) PIP0
(m) Encoder
(r) IC of ALU is
by using k-map
(ii) Encoder