Doc 9889

First Edition
Corrigendum No. 1
(English only)
16/1/12

AIRPORT AIR QUALITY MANUAL

FIRST EDITION — 2011

CORRIGENDUM NO. 1

1. Please replace existing pages (xiv), (xv), 3-A1-24, 3-A1-30, 3-A1-31, 3-A3-4, 3-A3-10, 4-8, 5-3 and 7-2
by the attached new pages dated 16/1/12.

2. Record the entry of this corrigendum on page (iii) of the manual.

 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AAL Above aerodrome level

ACARE Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe
ACU Air climate unit
ADAECAM Advanced aircraft emission calculation method
AFR Air-fuel ratio
AGL Above ground level
AMSL Above mean sea level
ANSP Air navigation service provider
APMA Air pollution in the megacities of Asia
APU Auxiliary power unit
ARFF Airport rescue and fire fighting
ARP Aerodrome reference point
ASQP Airline service quality performance
ASU Air starter unit
ATA Air Transport Association
ATOW Actual take-off weight
Avgas Aviation gasoline
BADA Base of aircraft data
BFFM2 Boeing fuel flow method 2
bhp Brake horsepower
BPR Bypass ratio
BTS Bureau of Transportation Statistics (U.S.)
CAEP Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection
CDO Continuous descent operations
CERC Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants (U.K.)
CH4 Methane
CI Carbon index
CNG Compressed natural gas (carburant)
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
DAC Double annular combustor
DEFRA Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (U.K.)
DfT Department for Transport (U.K.)
DOAS Differential optical absorption spectroscopy
DOT Department of Transportation (U.S.)
ECS Environmental control system
EDMS Emission and Dispersion Modelling System (U.S. FAA)
EEDB Engine Emissions Data Bank (ICAO)
EGT Exhaust gas temperature
EI Emission index
EPA Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.)
ETFMS Enhanced tactical flow management system (Eurocontrol)
ETMS Enhanced traffic management system (U.S.)
EU European Union
FAA Federal Aviation Administration (U.S.)
FAF Final approach fix

(xiii)
(xiv) Airport Air Quality Manual

FBO Fixed-based operator

FDR Flight data recorder
FES Fixed energy system
FESG ICAO CAEP Forecasting and Economics Sub-group
FIRE Factor Information Retrieval Data System (U.S. EPA)
FOA First Order Approximation
FOCA Federal Office for Civil Aviation (Switzerland)
FOD Foreign object damage
FOI Swedish Defence Research Agency
FSC Fuel sulphur contents
g Gram
GE General Electric
GIS Geographical information system
GPU Ground power unit
GSE Ground support equipment
GUI Graphical user interface
h Hour
HAP Hazardous air pollutant
HC Hydrocarbon
HDV Heavy-duty vehicle (e.g. truck, bus)
hp Horsepower
Hz Hertz
IAE International Aero Engines
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICCAIA International Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industry Associations
IOAG International Official Airline Guide
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISA International Standard Atmosphere
kg Kilogram
km Kilometre
kN Kilonewton
kt Knot
KVA Kilovolt ampere
kW Kilowatt
LASAT Lagrangian simulation of aerosol — transport
LASPORT LASAT for Airports (Europe)
LDV Light-duty vehicle (e.g. delivery vans)
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
LTO Landing and take-off
m Metre
MCLT Maximum climb-limited thrust
MES Main engine start
min Minute
MSDS Material safety data sheet
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards (U.S.)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (U.S.)
NGGIP National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme
NMHC Non-methane hydrocarbons
NMVOC Non-methane volatile organic compounds
NO Nitrogen monoxide
NOx Nitrogen oxides
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
NPR Noise-preferential route

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Acronyms and abbreviations (xv)

O3 Ozone
OPR Overall pressure ratio
Pb Lead
PBL Planetary boundary layer
PCA Pre-conditioned air (for cooling/heating of parked aircraft)
PLTOW Performance-limited take-off weight
PM Particulate matter
PM2.5 Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less
PM10 Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometres or less
POV Privately owned vehicle
PPM Parts per million
P&W Pratt & Whitney
RR Rolls Royce
s Second
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SAEFL Swiss Agency for Environment, Forests and Landscape
SHP Shaft horsepower
SN Smoke number
SOx Sulphur oxides
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
TAF Terminal area forecasts (U.S.)
TEOM Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance
TIM Time-in-mode
TOW Take-off weight
UID Unique identifier
U.K. United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change
U.S. United States
µg/m3 Micrograms per cubic metre
V Volt
VMT Vehicle-miles travelled
VOC Volatile organic compounds
WHO World Health Organization

______________________

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Appendix 1 to Chapter 3 3-A1-23

6.64 Similarly, data measured by operators may be made available, including:

a) typical or actual throttle settings used during reverse thrust operation;

b) actual aircraft/engine configuration data;

c) actual fuel flow data;

d) actual engine-type idle speeds;

e) typical or actual throttle settings for approach, take-off and climb-out (e.g. reduced thrust take-off
procedures);

f) approach and climb profiles;

g) frequency of less than all-engines taxi operation.

These measured and actual operator data may supplement or replace elements of modelled data.

6.65 Using actual performance and operational data, engine emission factors can be calculated using
programmes such as the Boeing fuel flow method 2 or the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt method.

Sophisticated calculation methodology for NOx, CO and THC

6.66 Once the actual fleet engine emissions factors, TIM and fuel flow are known, the LTO emissions are
calculated using the same equation used in the advanced approach, however with the refined input values.

Eij = ∑ (TIMjk*60) * ƒ(FFjk, Eiijk or Thrustjk, Condj, Nej) Eq. A1-7

where:

Eij = total emissions of pollutant i (e.g. NOx, CO or HC), in grams, produced by a specific aircraft j
for one LTO cycle;

Eiijk = the emission index for pollutant i (e.g. NOx, CO or HC), in grams per pollutant per kilogram of
fuel (g/kg of fuel), in mode k for each engine used on aircraft j;

FFjk = fuel flow for mode k, in kilograms per second (kg/s), for each engine used on aircraft type j;

Thrustjk = thrust level for mode k for the aircraft type j;

TIMjk = time-in-mode for mode k, in minutes, for aircraft j;

Nej = number of engines used on aircraft j;

Condj = ambient conditions (forward speed, altitude, p, t, h) for aircraft type j movement.

7. AUXILIARY POWER-UNIT EMISSIONS

7.1 An auxiliary power unit (APU) is a small gas-turbine engine coupled to an electrical generator and is used
to provide electrical and pneumatic power to aircraft systems when required. It is normally mounted in the tail cone of the
3-A1-24 Airport Air Quality Manual

aircraft, behind the rear pressure bulkhead, and runs on kerosene fed from the main fuel tanks. Not all aircraft are fitted
with an APU and, though their use on transport category jet aircraft is now almost universal, some turboprops and
business jets do not have an APU fitted.

Emissions calculation methodology

7.2 Unlike aircraft main engines, APUs are not certificated for emissions, and the manufacturers generally
consider information on APU emissions rates as proprietary. As a result, little data are publicly available to serve as a
basis for calculating APU emissions.

7.3 Analysis performed to date on APUs has not been successful in developing advanced and sophisticated
methodologies that more accurately predict APU particulate matter emissions. If more information is available to users
then they are encouraged to use this information if this would be of benefit to the study. As a result, use of the simple
approach for calculating particulate matter emissions is recommended at this time.

Simple approach

7.4 If very little information is known about the aircraft types operating at the study airport, then the simple
approach for APU emissions may be used. However, the results are likely to have a large order of uncertainty
associated with APU use and their emissions. Generalized emissions for APUs have been made public. This information
is recommended for use because the simple approach uses averaged proprietary engine-specific values obtained from
APU manufacturers.

7.5 When the level of detail about the aircraft fleet does not allow for this process to be used, the values in
Table 3-A1-3 are considered representative of the APU emissions for each aircraft operation at the airport under study
(other values may be used if deemed more appropriate).

Table 3-A1-3. Values representative of APU emissions

for each aircraft operation

9
Aircraft group Short-haul Long-haul

Duration of APU operation 45 min 75 min

Fuel burn 80 kg 300 kg

NOx emissions 700 g 2400 g

HC emissions 30 g 160 g

CO emissions 310 g 210 g

PM10 emissions 25 g 40 g

7.6 The fuel burn and emissions values given in 7.5 are based on averaged APU-specific proprietary data
from the manufacturer, though do not represent any specific APU type. The operational times noted are based on

9. Although there is no common definition of short-haul and long-haul, in the context of this document a “rule of thumb” is proposed
that relates the term to aircraft type. The long-haul group would include aircraft capable of a maximum range of more than
8 000 km (e.g. A330, A340, A380, B747, B767-200ER, B763, B764, B777, IL96). Short-haul would include all other aircraft.

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 Attachment A to Appendix 1

This document was prepared on 1 October 2004. Check website for latest version.

————————

3-A1-29
 Attachment B to Appendix 1

SIMPLIFIED AIRCRAFT EMISSION INDICES

Table B-1. LTO emission factor by aircraft

LTO emission factors/aeroplane (kg/LTO/aircraft)2 Fuel

Aircraft1 consumption
CO 23 HC NOx CO SO 24 (kg/LTO/aircraft)
A300 5 450 1.25 25.86 14.80 1.72 1 720
A310 4 760 6.30 19.46 28.30 1.51 1 510
A319 2 310 0.59 8.73 6.35 0.73 730
A320 2 440 0.57 9.01 6.19 0.77 770
A321 3 020 1.42 16.72 7.55 0.96 960
A330-200/300 7 050 1.28 35.57 16.20 2.23 2 230
A340-200 5 890 4.20 28.31 26.19 1.86 1 860
A340-300 6 380 3.90 34.81 25.23 2.02 2 020
A340-500/600 10 660 0.14 64.45 15.31 3.37 3 370
707 5 890 97.45 10.96 92.37 1.86 1 860
717 2 140 0.05 6.68 6.78 0.68 680
727-100 3 970 6.94 9.23 24.44 1.26 1 260
Large commercial aircraft5 727-200 4 610 8.14 11.97 27.16 1.46 1460
Source: ICAO (2004)6 737-100/200 2 740 4.51 6.74 16.04 0.87 870
737-300/400/500 2 480 0.84 7.19 13.03 0.78 780
737-600 2 280 1.01 7.66 8.65 0.72 720
737-700 2 460 0.86 9.12 8.00 0.78 780
737-800/900 2 780 0.72 12.30 7.07 0.88 880
747-100 10 140 48.43 49.17 114.59 3.21 3 210
747-200 11 370 18.24 49.52 79.78 3.60 3 600
747-300 11 080 2.73 65.00 17.84 3.51 3 510
747-400 10 240 2.25 42.88 26.72 3.24 3 240
757-200 4 320 0.22 23.43 8.08 1.37 1 370
757-300 4630 0.11 17.85 11.62 1.46 1 460
767-200 4 620 3.32 23.76 14.80 1.46 1 460
767-300 5 610 1.19 28.19 14.47 1.77 1 780
767-400 5 520 0.98 24.80 12.37 1.75 1 750
777-200/300 8 100 0.66 52.81 12.76 2.56 2 560
DC-10 7 290 2.37 35.65 20.59 2.31 2 310
DC-8-50/60/70 5 360 1.51 15.62 26.31 1.70 1 700
DC-9 2 650 4.63 6.16 16.29 0.84 840
L-1011 7 300 73.96 31.64 103.33 2.31 2 310

3-A1-30 16/1/12
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Attachment B to Appendix 1 3-A1-31

LTO emission factors/aeroplane (kg/LTO/aircraft)2 Fuel

Aircraft1 consumption
CO 23 HC NOx CO SO 24 (kg/LTO/aircraft)
MD-11 7 290 2.37 35.65 20.59 2.31 2 310
MD-80 3 180 1.87 11.97 6.46 1.01 1 010
Large commercial aircraft5 MD-90 2 760 0.06 10.76 5.53 0.87 870
Source: ICAO (2004) 6 TU-134 5 860 35.97 17.35 55.96 1.86 1 860
TU-154-M 7 040 17.56 16.00 110.51 2.51 2 510
TU-154-B 9 370 158.71 19.11 190.74 2.97 2 970
RJ-RJ85 950 0.67 2.17 5.61 0.30 300
BAE 146 900 0.70 2.03 5.59 0.29 290
CRJ-100ER 1 060 0.63 2.27 6.70 0.33 330
ERJ-145 990 0.56 2.69 6.18 0.31 310

Regional jets/business Fokker 100/70/28 2 390 1.43 5.75 13.84 0.76 760
jets > 26.7 kN thrust BAC111 2 520 1.52 7.40 13.07 0.80 800
Dornier 328 Jet 870 0.57 2.99 5.35 0.27 280
Gulfstream IV 2 160 1.37 5.63 8.88 0.68 680
Gulfstream V 1 890 0.31 5.58 8.42 0.60 600
Yak-42M 1 920 1.68 7.11 6.81 0.61 610
Low thrust jets
(Fn < 26.7 kN)
Cessna 525/560 1 060 3.35 0.74 34.07 0.34 340
Source: FAEED222 7

Beech King Air9 230 0.64 0.30 2.97 0.07 70

Turboprops
DHC8-100 10 640 0.00 1.51 2.24 0.20 200
Source: FOI8
ATR72-50011 620 0.29 1.82 2.33 0.20 200

Notes.—

1. Equivalent aircraft are contained in Table B-3.

2. Information regarding the uncertainties associated with the data can be found in the following references:

— QinetiQ/FST/CR030440 “EC-NEPAir: Work Package 1 Aircraft engine emissions certification — a review of the development of ICAO Annex 16,
Volume II,” by D.H. Lister and P.D. Norman.
— ICAO Annex 16, Volume II, 2nd edition (1993).

3. CO2 for each aircraft based on 3.16 kg CO2 produced for each kg of fuel used, then rounded to the nearest 10 kg.

4. The sulphur content of the fuel is assumed to be 0.05 per cent (same assumption as in the 1996 IPCC NGGIP revision).

5. Engine types for each aircraft were selected on the basis of the engine with the most LTOs as of 30 July 2004 (except 747-300 — see text). This approach, for
some engine types, may underestimate (or overestimate) fleet emissions which are not directly related to fuel consumption (e.g. NOx, CO, HC).

6. ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) Engine Exhaust Emissions Data Bank (2004) based on average measured certification data. Emission factors
apply to the LTO cycle only. Total emissions and fuel consumption are calculated based on ICAO standard time-in-mode and thrust levels.

7. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Emissions and Dispersion Modelling System (EDMS) non-certified data.

8. FOI (The Swedish Defence Research Agency) turboprop LTO emissions database non-certified data.

9. Representative of turboprop aircraft with shaft horsepower (SHP) of up to 1 000 SHP/engine.

10. Representative of turboprop aircraft with shaft horsepower of 1 000 to 2 000 SHP/engine.

11. Representative of turboprop aircraft with shaft horsepower of more than 2 000 SHP/engine.

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3-A1-32 Airport Air Quality Manual

Table B-2. Engine designation by aircraft

Aircraft ICAO engine Engine UID

A300 PW4158 1PW048

A310 CF6-80C2A2 1GE016

A319 CFM56-5A5 4CM036

A320 CFM56-5A1 1CM008

A321 CFM56-5B3/P 3CM025

A330-200/300 Trent 772B-60 3RR030

A340-200 CFM56-5C2 1CM010

A340-300 CFM56-5C4 2CM015

A340-500/600 TRENT 556-61 6RR041

707 JT3D-3B 1PW001

717 BR700-715A1-30 4BR005

727-100 JT8D-7B 1PW004

727-200 JT8D-15 1PW009

737-100/200 JT8D-9A 1PW006

737-300/400/500 CFM56-3B-1 1CM004

737-600 CFM56-7B20 3CM030

737-700 CFM56-7B22 3CM031

737-800/900 CFM56-7B26 3CM033

747-100 JT9D-7A 1PW021

747-200 JT9D-7Q 1PW025

747-300 JT9D-7R4G2(66%) 1PW029(66%)
RB211-524D4(34%) 1RR008(34%)

747-400 CF6-80C2B1F 2GE041

757-200 RB211-535E4 3RR028

757-300 RB211-535E4B 5RR039

767-200 CF6-80A2 1GE012

767-300 PW4060 1PW043

767-400 CF6-80C2B8F 3GE058

777-200/300 Trent 892 2RR027

DC-10 CF6-50C2 3GE074

DC-8-50/60/70 CFM56-2C1 1CM003

DC-9 JT8D-7B 1PW004

L-1011 RB211-22B 1RR003

MD-11 CF6-80C2D1F 3GE074

Appendix 3 to Chapter 3 3-A3-3

Table 3-A3-2. Sources of emission rate data — emergency generators

Fuel Methodology Source

Diesel fuel U.S. EPA AP-42, Vol. 1, Table 3.1-1

USAF (distillate oil) FAA’s Air Quality Handbook, Table H-2

1985 National Acid Precipitation Program

Gasoline USAF FAA’s Air Quality Handbook, Table H-2

NONROAD

U.S. EPA AP-42, Vol. 1, Table 3.1-1

Kerosene/naphtha (jet fuel) USAF FAA’s Air Quality Handbook, Table H-2

LPG (propane or butane) USAF FAA’s Air Quality Handbook, Table H-2
NONROAD
Natural gas USAF FAA’s Air Quality Handbook, Table H-2

Residual/crude oil USAF FAA’s Air Quality Handbook, Table H-2

2.4 For demonstration purposes, estimates of emissions from power/heating plants, boilers and generators are
calculated using the following general equation:

E = A × EF × (1–ER/100) Eq. A3-1

where:
E = emissions (e.g. kilograms/day);

A = activity rate (e.g. horsepower-hour or litres/day);

EF = emission factor (e.g. kilograms/litre specific to fuel type and pollutant);

ER = control equipment emissions reduction efficiency (%).

2.5 In cases where fuel sulphur content is important, an alternative formula may be more appropriate. Using
this formula, the following example is given for an airport emergency generator. Assume an airport has a
335 horsepower diesel engine emergency generator with an emissions reduction efficiency of 75 per cent. If the
emission factor for NOx is 14.0 grams/horsepower-hour and the airport operates the generator 1 000 hours annually,
total NOx emissions would be:

1 000 hours × 14.0 grams/horsepower-hour × 335 horsepower × (1–75/100) =

1 172 500 grams of NOx.

3. INCINERATORS

3.1 When located at airports, incinerators are typically used to destroy or sterilize refuse and other regulated
waste products produced and transported on international aircraft. An airport may also have food preparation facilities
that use incinerators to dispose of solid wastes (i.e. paper, wood, plastics and other rubbish).
3-A3-4 Airport Air Quality Manual

3.2 Combustible waste incinerators have a variety of furnace types and configurations (in-line, retort, etc.),
include single or multiple combustion chambers and are typically fuelled by natural gas, oil or LPG. Control equipment
and technologies are used in both the burning process and at the stack to help reduce excess emissions.

3.3 For existing incinerators that have operating permits, estimates of air pollutant emissions can be obtained
from the appropriate regulatory agency files and/or the operating permit itself. In the absence of a permit, emissions
estimates are often based on the fuel type, the content and amount of refuse incinerated and appropriate emission
factors for the fuel, refuse and combustion chamber design. For new and expanding facilities, the forecasted amounts of
incinerated refuse can be based on the projected increase in international flights and/or increase in food service
providers, if applicable.

3.4 Commonly-used sources of emission rate data for combustible waste incinerators are provided in Table 3-A3-3.

Table 3-A3-3. Sources of emission rate data — combustible waste incinerators

Number of chambers Source

Single and multiple AP-42, Vol. 1, Table 2.1-12

EPA’s Factor Information Retrieval (FIRE) software

CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook — 2005 (Group 9)

3.5 For demonstration purposes, estimates of emissions from a combustible waste incinerator are calculated
using the following general equation:

E = A × EF × (1–ER/100) Eq. A3-2

where:

E = emissions (e.g. kilograms/year, grams/day);

A = amount of refuse incinerated (e.g. metric tonnes or kilograms/day);

EF = emission factor (e.g. kilograms or grams/metric tonne);

ER = control equipment emissions reduction efficiency (%).

3.6 Using this formula, the following example is given for an incinerator. Assume an airport has a single chamber
incinerator with an emissions reduction efficiency of 80 per cent. If the emission factor for CO is 1.0 kilograms/metric tonne
of waste and the airport incinerates 2 500 metric tonnes of waste, the total CO emissions would be:

1.0 kilograms × 2 500 metric tonnes × (1–80/100) = 500 kilograms of CO (i.e. 0.5 metric tonnes).

4. AIRCRAFT/AIRPORT MAINTENANCE FACILITIES

4.1 At most large airports, aircraft maintenance facilities are typically operated by commercial airlines or other
service providers and perform scheduled aircraft inspections and repairs on the aircraft fuselage, engines and other
apparatus. A variety of surface treatment, coating and painting operations may also occur. At smaller airports, these
maintenance services are typically offered by privately-owned fixed-based operators (FBO).

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Appendix 3 to Chapter 3 3-A3-9

8.2 Common U.S. sources of emission rate data for construction activities are provided in Table 3-A3-9.

Table 3-A3-9. Source of emission rate data — construction activities

Activity/vehicle type Source

Land clearing/demolition U.S. EPA AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 13: Miscellaneous
Sources

Construction equipment/vehicles (off-road) U.S. EPA NONROAD model

Construction vehicles (on-road) U.S. EPA MOBILE model

Material storage piles (standing and working) U.S. EPA AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 13: Miscellaneous
Sources

Asphalt paving U.S. EPA AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 4: Evaporation Loss
Sources

Batch mix plants U.S. EPA AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 11: Mineral
Products Industry
Concrete batching U.S. EPA AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 11: Mineral
Products Industry

Open burning U.S. EPA AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 2: Solid Waste
Disposal

Vehicle travel on unpaved roads U.S. EPA AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 13: Miscellaneous
Sources

8.3 For Europe, emission factors for these activities can be found in the CORINAIR Emission Inventory
Guidebook1.

8.4 For demonstration purposes, estimates of PM emissions from the working of a storage pile can be
obtained using the following general equation that considers the throughput of the operation (i.e. the quantity of material
used over a given time and the number of drops the material undergoes (once during loading and once during
unloading)). Notably, the emission factors for various materials vary depending on the type, particle size, silt content and
moisture content of the material.

EPM = 2 × TH × EF Eq. A3-7

where:

EPM = emissions of PM (e.g. kilograms);

2 = number of drops material undergoes;

TH = total throughput;

EF = emission factor (e.g. grams).

1. The name of the Corinair Emission Inventory Guidebook has been changed to the EMEP/EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory
Guidebook.
3-A3-10 Airport Air Quality Manual

8.5 Using this formula, the following example is given for construction operations at an airport. Assume a
construction operation involves the movement of 100 metric tonnes of limestone. Given a moisture content of approximately
0.2 per cent, an aerodynamic particle size of 0.45 micrometres and an average wind speed of 20 kilometres per hour, the
amount of PM generated would be as follows based on an emission factor of 54 grams/metric tonne:

2 x 100 metric tonnes x 54 grams/metric tonne = 10 800 grams (i.e. 0.01 metric tonnes).

8.6 Another common example of construction emissions involves the use of an off-road vehicle. The equation
used to obtain pollutant estimates from this type of construction activity considers the type of equipment (i.e. bulldozer,
articulated truck), the size of the equipment (i.e. horsepower), the load factor placed on the equipment (i.e. the ratio of
the load over a designated period of time to the peak load) and the period (i.e. hours) of operation.

8.7 For demonstration purposes, estimates of exhaust emissions from construction vehicles and equipment
can be derived from the following formula.

E = H × EF × LF × T Eq. A3-8

where:

E = emissions (e.g. grams/day);

H = horsepower of the equipment;

EF = emission factor (e.g. grams/horsepower-hour);

LF = load factor (per cent);

T = total period of operation (hours).

8.8 Using this formula, the following example is given for the use of a bulldozer. Assume an airport contractor
uses a 400 horsepower bulldozer 3 hours each day, 15 days a month, for a period of one year and the average load
factor for the equipment is 59 per cent. If the emission factor for the bulldozer is 9.6 grams per horsepower-hour, the
amount of NOx would be:

400 hp x 9.6 grams/hp-h x 0.59 x 540 hours = 1 223 424 grams (i.e. 1.2 metric tonnes).

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Chapter 4. Temporal and spatial distribution of emissions 4-7

4.5.2 During the input data development for these models, the process previously described will often be needed
since the models may not have algorithms for all sources to allow spatial and temporal determination. A GIS-based
model should facilitate the spatial distribution process through its highly visual interface; an example is shown in
Figure 4-1 taken from the Arcview-based ALAQS-AV. LASPORT and EDMS also have GIS capabilities. It should be
noted that any graphical user interface-based programme will support the spatial determination more easily and, with
proper input, assist in the temporal distribution. The user should consult the appropriate model user’s guide for further
information.

Figure 4-1. Example of 2-D geospatial emissions inventory

4.6 DATA FORMATTING AND REPORTING

4.6.1 It is often essential to use a matrix-type approach when reporting spatial and temporal emissions results.
Figure 4-2 shows an example (U.S. EPA). In this figure, it can be seen that sources 23 and 24 are continuous emitting
sources while source 25 represents a source with temporal emissions variability. From this type of analysis, emissions
for any hour can be easily determined. For example, source 24 emits 417 pounds from 2:00 to 3:00 p.m. This same
matrix approach may also be used for spatial reporting or for each individual source in a single table, a combination of
spatial and temporal data. In some models such matrixes can be obtained as an output.

4.6.2 Once the data are in this format, graphics can also be used to display the results and more easily identify
trends. For example, Figure 4-3 is the plot of source 25 that was shown in Figure 4-2. It can be seen that the source is
utilized in the afternoon but much less at other times of day. This could be used for spatial distribution and with
3-D graphics as well, resulting in much easier comprehension by the reviewer.

4.6.3 Graphical displays may be used to show the geo-spatial distribution, usually in 2-D density grids, but
careful use of 3-D techniques could also be envisaged for sources such as aircraft as illustrated in Figure 4-4.
4-8 Airport Air Quality Manual

Hour … 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 … Total
………………………………………………
23 … 435 435 435 435 435 435 435 435 435 435 435 435 435 435 … 10005
24 … 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 … 10008
25 … 508 763 847 847 847 847 847 847 847 847 763 508 254 85 … 9996
………………………………………………

Pounds per hour

released
Sources

Figure 4-2. Diurnal profile file

900

800

700
Pollutant emissions (lb)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Hour of day

Figure 4-3. Diurnal profile plot

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Chapter 5. Dispersion modelling 5-3

b) Q2 emissions parameters (emissions strength of each trace substance for each source);

c) Q3 substance parameters (e.g. conversion or deposition properties);

d) Q4 atmospheric parameters (e.g. wind speed, wind direction, turbulence properties and temperature);
and

e) Q5 terrain parameters (e.g. surface roughness, terrain profile, obstacles).

5.3.5 Not all of the above parameters are independent and most of the parameters are time-dependent. It is
evident that the parameter set includes additional information than is required for emissions calculations, even when
emissions allocation has been conducted as described in Chapter 4.

5.3.6 At airports, the relevant sources can be grouped as follows:

a) S1 aircraft, including auxiliary power units (APUs);

b) S2 aircraft handling sources (e.g. ground support equipment (GSE), aircraft fuelling, airside vehicles);

c) S3 stationary and area sources (e.g. power plants, fire training); and

d) S4 airport access traffic (e.g. landside motor vehicles).

5.3.7 The dispersion methodologies used are of course only for those sources directly included in the model.
Regional or background contributions also add to the total local concentration to produce the total concentration. The
total concentration is needed to compare to the applicable criteria or standards. These background sources can be
substantial and come from sources at varying distances from the airport. How background sources and the resulting
concentrations are accounted for needs to be considered based on the spatial resolution of the modelling area and data
sources to be used, such as long-term ambient monitoring stations. This stands in contrast to noise assessments, where
the airport contribution is usually by far the dominating component. To account for the overall concentration the
background concentration must be added to the concentration predicted by the models. This results in:

ct cs cb Eq. 5-1

where:
c = concentration with the subscripts t, s and b representing total, source and background, respectively.

5.3.8 The summation in Equation 5-1 represents the concentration at a point in space from all sources and is the
value that is compared to applicable ambient air quality standards. Of note is that concentration, c, is pollutant-specific,
that is, pollutants of different species cannot be added.

5.3.9 Figure 5-1 shows an overview of the modelling process (A) and the detailed steps required (B).

5.3.10 Several approaches to dispersion modelling have been applied at various airports around the world to
predict local concentrations. As the science continues to evolve, so will the airport models. As such, this chapter will
concentrate on the common methodologies currently used rather than on specific models.

5.3.11 The actual formulation for these models may vary. To assist the reader in a more comprehensive
understanding of dispersion model methodologies, model formulations are briefly discussed in Appendix 1. Computer
models in common use for airport dispersion modelling are listed in Appendix 2.

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5-4 Airport Air Quality Manual

A. Process overview

Emission source information Meteorology

Topography Receptors

Dispersion model

Atmospheric concentration at receptors

B. Detailed breakdown of atmospheric concentration due to S1 – S4

S1 – S4

Q1 + Q2 Q4 Q5

Dispersion Receptors
Q3
model

Atmospheric concentration at
receptors

Figure 5-1. Inputs and outputs of dispersion modelling2

2. J. Draper et al., Air Quality Procedures for Civilian Airports and Air Force Bases, Appendix I: Dispersion Methodology, FAA-AEE-
97-03, Arlington, VA., April 1997.
 Chapter 7

MITIGATION OPTIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.1.1 The need to set up mitigation plans with specific measures can be triggered by existing regulatory
requirements for ambient air quality, particularly when standards are exceeded, or by regulations or conditions set forth
in permits for airport operation and/or expansion.

7.1.2 Measures to reduce emissions from airport sources should be based upon information provided from
emissions inventories and/or concentration information. As such, it is a requirement to have such information available
prior to planning measures.

7.1.3 This chapter does not discuss specific contents of measures or their appropriateness. Rather, the local
circumstances have to be considered when designing a mitigation plan.

7.2 MITIGATION PLANNING METHODOLOGY

Framework for emissions reduction measures

7.2.1 Emissions reduction measures typically fall into four different strategic categories: regulatory, technical,
operational and economic, as described more fully in 7.3. Examples of each type of strategy are provided in Table 7-1. It
is important to note that the value of these measures when applied to a specific problem has to be evaluated on a case-
by-case basis, and a combination of measures may prove to be the best way forward. All measures aim at reducing,
directly or indirectly, the emissions at source.

7.2.2 “Regulatory measures” refer to mandatory requirements stated in the laws and regulations of the relevant
jurisdiction setting emissions standards and/or operation of emissions sources.

7.2.3 “Technical measures” refer to changes in the technology associated with the emissions characteristics of
certain sources. These can be measures related to the reduction of emissions at the direct source of emissions (e.g.
vehicle) or it can also include infrastructure measures (e.g. insulation, road layout).

7.2.4 “Operational measures” refer to those measures that would be implemented by the operator of the
equipment in question, whether the airline, the airport authority, tenants or any other entity.

7.2.5 “Economic (market-based) measures”1 can include a number of different instruments to incorporate the
environmental external costs of activity. A basic differentiation must be made under ICAO policy between taxes which
raise revenues for general governmental use, and charges, which are designed and applied to recover the costs of
providing facilities and services for civil aviation.2 Economic measures can also take the form of subsidies or allowances.

1. The economic measures category does not include fines assessed to violators of traditional regulatory requirements.

2. ICAO’s Policies on Charges for Airports and Air Navigation Services (Doc 9082); Assembly Resolution A37-18, Appendix H.

7-1
7-2 Airport Air Quality Manual

Table 7-1. Overview of emissions reduction measures (examples)

Measures

Source group Regulatory Technical (Infrastructure) Operational1 Economic

Aircraft • ICAO engine emissions • General airport layout • Engine start-up • See Guidance on Aircraft
standards, as adopted • High-speed runway turn-offs • Scheduling improvement Emissions Charges
into States’ national law • Parallel taxiways • Single/reduced engine Related to Local Air
• APU operating • Flow management taxiing Quality (Doc 9884)2
restrictions • 400Hz/PCA at aircraft • Reduced engine idling time
gates/stands • Aircraft towing
• Reduced APU use
• De-rated/reduced thrust
• Engine washing
• Use of alternative jet fuel
• Airport-specific ATM
measures, including RNAV,
RNP and continuous
descent operations (CDOs)
Aircraft handling and • Motor-vehicle emissions • Alternative-fuel GSE • Reduction of vehicle • Emissions-related
support standards for GSE (as (CNG/LNG, LPG, electric) operational characteristics licensing fees
applicable) • Alternative-fuel fleet • Use of generators, GPUs,
vehicles (CNG/LNG, LPG, airstarts
electric) • Reduced intensity of hot fire
• Emissions reduction practices.
devices (PM filter traps,
etc.)
• Fuel fumes capturing
systems
Infrastructure and • Emissions standards for • Low emissions energy • Low emissions procedures
stationary sources facilities (e.g. power plant, incinerator (perhaps for maintenance operations
plants, emergency filters) (painting, engine testing,
generators) • Energy conservation cleaning)
measures in new
construction and building
maintenance
• Change of fuel use
• Change in stack heights
and location
Landside access • Motor-vehicle emissions • Enhanced public transit and • Off-airport check-in • Employee rideshare/
traffic standards intermodal connections • Preferential parking for carpooling incentives
• Idling restrictions • Road structure layout alternative-fuel vehicles • Parking pricing and
• Alternative fuels • Preferential queues for subsidies
• Dedicated public traffic “green” taxis • Public transit incentives
lanes
1. Certain operational measures set forth in this table may be done on either a voluntary or regulatory basis. The laws of various
States differ regarding the right of authorities at the regional and local level to require or regulate operational practices. In
circumstances where an authority has legal jurisdiction, it may require an operational practice by regulation (e.g. APU
operating restrictions, vehicle idling restrictions). When regulation is not permitted, emissions management efforts may consist
of informal consultations, voluntary agreements, etc., encouraging the use of such practices and ascertaining the extent and
environmental effect of their use. When the airport authority is the owner or operator of the emissions source of interest, it is
empowered, within its legal mandates, to select and implement viable options.

2. This chapter does not address market-based measures, such as charges and taxes, related to aircraft engine emissions
affecting local air quality. Such measures are addressed in Doc 9884.

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