PHYSICAL LAYER

By:
Anushka Tyagi
Assistant Professor
Department of Information Technology
Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad
Position of the physical layer
Services
 To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic signals.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Analog data
take on continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.

Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
Signals can be analog or digital.
Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range;
digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Figure Comparison of analog and digital signals
Periodic signals and nonperiodic signals.

A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time

frame called Period and repeats over subsequent identical
periods.

The completion of one full pattern is called cycle.

A non-periodic signals changes without exhibiting a pattern or

cycle that repeats over time.
PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.

A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler
signals.

A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.

 Figure A sine wave
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. When we
visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a cycle is
smooth and consistent, a continuous, rolling flow. Each cycle consists of a single arc
above the time axis followed by a single arc below it. A sine wave can be represented by three
parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency, and the phase.
Amplitude

The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally
measured in volts.
 Frequency and period

Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1

cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in I s. Note that period and
frequency are just one characteristic defined in two ways.
Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in
Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second.

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
Figure Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
 Example 1

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period of this sine wave can be
determined as follows:
 Example 2

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from the period (1
Hz = 10−3 kHz).
 Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.

Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.
Figure 4 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
Figure 5 Wavelength and period

Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal

travelling through transmission medium.
Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of
a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of
the medium.
Wavelength= propagation speed * period
Wavelength = propagation speed /time
Figure 6 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
Figure 7 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful
in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.
 Example 3

Figure 8 shows a periodic composite signal with frequency f. This type of signal is not
typical of those found in data communications. We can consider it to be three alarm
systems, each with a different frequency. The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.
Figure 8 A composite periodic signal
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the
difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
Figure 9 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
Bit Rate & Baud Rate
Parallel transmission
Serial transmission
Asynchronous here means “asynchronous
at the byte level,”
but the bits are still synchronized;
their durations are the same.
Data transmission and modes
Asynchronous transmission
In synchronous transmission, we send bits
one after another without start or stop bits
or gaps. It is the responsibility of the
receiver to group the bits.
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are

not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that the signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal
at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is
received.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation,
distortion, and noise.
Causes of impairment
Attenuation(changes in the electrical and mechanical signals)
 Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to
one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

 Example

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This means that
P2 = 10P1 . In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as
Distortion(changes in the shape of the composite signals)
Noise(unwanted signals)
 Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the values of
SNR(Signal to noise ratio) and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

 Some Numericals:
► Example 1:
A communication channel has a bandwidth of 5 kHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB. Calculate the
maximum achievable data rate.

► Example 2:
An internet connection has a bandwidth of 4 MHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 15 dB. What is the highest
possible data rate that can be achieved over this channel?
 Some Numericals:
► Example 3:
A digital communication system has a bandwidth of 10 kHz and an SNR of 10 dB. Calculate the maximum
data rate.

► Example 4:
A Wi-Fi network operates with a bandwidth of 20 MHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 40 dB. What is the
maximum data rate possible for this network?
Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
Bandwidth Utilization:
Multiplexing
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of
available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by

multiplexing; privacy and anti-jamming
can be achieved by spreading.
 MULTIPLEXING

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two

devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of
techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link. As data and
telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Time-Division Multiplexing
Figure Dividing a link into channels
► Multiplexer (Mux): A multiplexer, or "mux," is a device
that combines multiple signals into one. Think of it like a
traffic controller that decides which car (signal) can use a
single road (data line) at a time. This way, many signals
can share the same path without getting mixed up.
► Demultiplexer (Demux): A demultiplexer, or "demux,"
does the opposite of a mux. It takes the combined signal
at the end of the road and separates it back into the
original signals, sending each to the right destination. It's
like a traffic officer at the end of the road, directing cars
to their correct exits.
► Multiplexed Signal: A multiplexed signal, or "muxed
signal," is the combined signal created by the mux. It
carries information from multiple sources in one stream,
making communication faster and more efficient.
Figure Categories of multiplexing
 Multiplexing Techniques
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
► Technique: FDM divides the available bandwidth into non-overlapping
frequency channels, each carrying an independent signal.
► Multiplexing Devices: Multiplexers, such as passive RF combiners and
filters.
► Role: Multiplexes different signals into separate frequency bands for
parallel transmission.
► Applications: Analog radio broadcasting and cable TV. Limitations
include susceptibility to cross-talk and the need for guard bands.
Figure Frequency-division multiplexing
Note

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
Figure FDM process
Figure FDM demultiplexing example
Figure Wavelength-division multiplexing
2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

► Technique: WDM multiplexes optical signals with different

wavelengths onto a single fiber.
► Multiplexing Devices: WDM multiplexers, demultiplexers, and optical
amplifiers.
► Role: Combines multiple optical signals onto a single fiber for
transmission.
► Applications: Optical networks for telecommunications and data
centers. Advantages include high data capacity, reduced equipment
complexity, and flexibility for network upgrades.
Note

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.
Figure Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
3. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

► Technique: TDM allocates time slots within a fixed frame for multiple
signals to share the same channel.
► Multiplexing Devices: TDM switches and digital cross-connect
systems.
► Role: Enables time-sharing of the channel by allocating time slots to
various signals.
► Applications: Digital telephony and data communication. Limitations
include inefficient utilization of bandwidth in synchronous TDM.
Figure TDM
Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.
 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

In this section, we see how we can represent

digital data by using digital signals. The
conversion involves three techniques: line coding,
block coding, and scrambling. Line coding is
always needed; block coding and scrambling may
or may not be needed.
Figure Line coding and decoding
Figure Signal element versus data element
Figure Effect of lack of synchronization
Figure Line coding schemes
Unipolar
► Uses one voltage level (positive) and zero voltage to represent data.
► Example: NRZ (Non-Return to Zero) – A simple encoding where 1 is a high voltage, and 0 is no voltage.

Polar
► Uses two voltage levels (positive and negative) to represent data.
► Examples:
► NRZ (Non-Return to Zero): Same as in Unipolar but with positive and negative voltages.
► RZ (Return to Zero): The signal returns to zero voltage for each bit, improving synchronization.
► Biphase (Manchester and Differential Manchester):
► Manchester: Transition in the middle of the bit. Low to high = 1; high to low = 0.
► Differential Manchester: Transition in the middle for every bit, and an additional transition at the start for 0.

BiPolar
► Uses three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
► Examples:
► AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion): For 1s, the voltage alternates between positive and negative. 0s are always at zero
voltage.
► Pseudoternary: Opposite of AMI. 0s alternate between positive and negative, while 1s are zero volts.
Figure Unipolar NRZ scheme(Non return to zero)
Figure Polar NRZ-L(Level) and NRZ-I (Invert) schemes
 In NRZ-L the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average
signal rate of N/2 Bd.
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC
component problem.
Figure Polar RZ(return to zero) scheme
Figure Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

NRZ-l + RZ)

NRZ-I + RZ)
 In Manchester and differential
Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.
The minimum bandwidth of Manchester
and differential Manchester is 2 times
that of NRZ.
In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:
positive, zero, and negative.
Figure Bipolar schemes: AMI
(Alternative Mark Inversion) and pseudoternary