CSC 417:

DATA COMMUNICATION
LECTURE TWO:
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO WAVES :
Data and Signals
 Analog and Digital Data
• To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.
• Data can be analog or digital.
• The term analog data refers to information that is continuous;
• Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
• For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives
information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are continuous.
• On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will
change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
• Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous
values. When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be
captured by a microphone and converted to an analog signal or sampled and
converted to a digital signal.
• Digital data take on discrete values.
• For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s.
They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for
transmission across a medium
 Analog and Digital Signals
• Like the data they represent, signals can be either
analog or digital.
• An analog signal has infinitely many levels of
intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves
from value A to value B, it passes through and
includes an infinite number of values along its path.
• A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a
limited number of defined values.
• Although each value can be any number, it is often
as simple as 1 and O.
Comparison of analog and digital signals
 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
• Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic
or non-periodic (sometimes refer to as aperiodic, because the prefix
a in Greek means "non").
• A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time
frame, called a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent
identical periods. The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
• A non-periodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle
that repeats over time.
• Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non-periodic.
• In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals
(because they need less bandwidth) and non-periodic digital signals
(because they can represent variation in data)
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
• Periodic analog signals can be classified as
simple or composite.
• A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals.
• A composite periodic analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves.
 Sine Wave
• The sine wave is the most fundamental form
of a periodic analog signal. When we visualize
it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over
the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent,
a continuous, rolling flow
• A sine wave can be represented by three
parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency,
and the phase.
• These three parameters fully describe a sine wave.
• Peak Amplitude : The peak amplitude of a signal is
the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries.
• For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally
measured in volts.
• Period and Frequency:
• Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds,
a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
• Frequency refers to the number of periods in I s.
Note that period and frequency are just one
characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the
inverse of frequency, and frequency is the
inverse of period, as the following formulas
show.
 Sine Wave
• A sine wave refers to the graphical representation of the
general function.
• The sine wave comes with a characteristic “S” shape where it
oscillates above and below 0 in a periodic uniform manner.
• The sine function is a trigonometric function, which is a
mapping from the set of all non-negative real numbers to
the interval [-1,1], i.e., the sine function takes as input any
non-negative real number and gives as output some number
between -1 and 1.
• The sine function and sine waves are used to model periodic
phenomena and processes that follow predictable cyclical
patterns.
Sine Wave
 Sine Wave Formula

• We can mathematically describe a sine wave as

• S(t)
• where s is the instantaneous amplitude, A is
the peak amplitude, f is the frequency, and T is
the period

ω is the angular frequency of the wave, which is equal to 2π times the frequency f of the
wave, i.e., ω = 2πf
 Phase
• The term phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time O. If we think of the
wave as something that can be shifted
backward or forward along the time axis,
phase describes the amount of that shift. It
indicates the status of the first cycle.
• Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360°
is 2π rad; 1° is 2π/360 rad, and 1 rad is
360/(2π) ].
• A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of
a complete period; a phase shift of 180°
corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period;
and a phase shift of 90° corresponds to a shift
of one-quarter of a period
 Composite Signals
• Simple sine waves have many applications in daily life.
• We can send a single sine wave to carry electric energy from one place to another.
• For example, the power company sends a single sine wave with a frequency of 60 Hz
to distribute electric energy to houses and businesses.
• As another example, we can use a single sine wave to send an alarm to a security
center when a burglar opens a door or window in the house.
• In the first case, the sine wave is carrying energy; in the second, the sine wave is a
signal of danger.
• If we had only one single sine wave to convey a conversation over the phone, it
would make no sense and carry no information.
• We would just hear a buzz.
• we need to send a composite signal to communicate data. A composite signal is
made of many simple sine waves.
• According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a combination of simple sine
waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
 Composite Signals cont.
• A composite signal can be periodic or non-
periodic. A periodic composite signal can be
decomposed into a series of simple sine waves
with discrete frequencies (frequencies that
have integer values (1, 2, 3, and so on)).
• A non-periodic composite signal can be
decomposed into a combination of an infinite
number of simple sine waves with continuous
frequencies, frequencies that have real values.
 Bandwidth
• The range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal is its bandwidth. The
bandwidth is normally a difference between
two numbers. i.e the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies contained
in that signal. For example, if a composite
signal contains frequencies between 1000 and
5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000.
 Example
• Question
• A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The
highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest
frequency?
• Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all
frequencies of the same amplitude.
• Solution
• Let fh be the highest frequency, fz the lowest
frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then B =fh - fz :::::}
20 =60 - it =} .ft =60 - 20=40 Hz
 DIGITAL SIGNALS
• information can also be represented by a
digital signal
 Bit Rate

• Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus

period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics. Another term-bit rate (instead
of frequency)-is used to describe digital
signals.
• The bit rate is the number of bits sent in Is,
expressed in bits per second (bps)
 Bit Length
• We discussed the concept of the wavelength
for an analog signal: the distance one cycle
occupies on the transmission medium.
• We can define something similar for a digital
signal: the bit length.
• The bit length is the distance one bit occupies
on the transmission medium.
• Bit length =propagation speed x bit duration
 Transmission of Digital Signals
• let us consider the case of a non-periodic
digital signal, similar to the ones we encounter
in data communications.
• The fundamental question is, How can we
send a digital signal from point A to point B?
We can transmit a digital signal by using one
of two different approaches: baseband
transmission or broadband transmission
(using modulation)
 Baseband Transmission
• Baseband transmission means sending a
digital signal over a channel without changing
the digital signal to an analog signal. Figure
3.18 shows baseband transmission.
• Baseband transmission requires that we have a low-pass channel, a channel
with a bandwidth that starts from zero.
• This is the case if we have a dedicated medium with a bandwidth constituting
only one channel.
• For example, the entire bandwidth of a cable connecting two computers is one
single channel.
• As another example, we may connect several computers to a bus, but not allow
more than two stations to communicate at a time.
• Again we have a low-pass channel, and we can use it for baseband
communication.
• Figure 3.19 shows two low-pass channels: one with a narrow bandwidth and the
other with a wide bandwidth.
• We need to remember that a low-pass channel with infinite bandwidth is ideal,
but we cannot have such a channel in real life. However, we can get close
 Case 1: Low-Pass Channel with Wide
Bandwidth
• If we want to preserve the exact form of a non-periodic digital signal with
vertical segments vertical and horizontal segments horizontal, we need to
send the entire spectrum, the continuous range of frequencies between zero
and infinity.
• This is possible if we have a dedicated medium with an infinite bandwidth
between the sender and receiver that preserves the exact amplitude of each
component of the composite signal.
• Although this may be possible inside a computer (e.g., between CPU and
memory), it is not possible between two devices.
• Fortunately, the amplitudes of the frequencies at the border of the bandwidth
are so small that they can be ignored.
• This means that if we have a medium, such as a coaxial cable or fiber optic,
with a very wide bandwidth, two stations can communicate by using digital
signals with very good accuracy, as shown in Figure 3.20. Note that i is close to
zero, and h is very high.
• Although the output signal is not an exact replica of the original signal, the
data can still be deduced from the received signal. Note that although
some of the frequencies are blocked by the medium, they are not critical.
Case 2: Low-Pass Channel with Limited
• Bandwidth In a low-pass channel with limited
bandwidth, we approximate the digital signal
with an analog signal. The level of
approximation depends on the bandwidth
available.
Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)

• Broadband transmission or modulation means

changing the digital signal to an analog signal
for transmission.
• Modulation allows us to use a bandpass
channel-a channel with a bandwidth that does
not start from zero.
• This type of channel is more available than a
low-pass channel. Figure 3.23 shows a
bandpass channel.
Note that a low-pass channel considered a bandpass channel with the lower frequency
starting at zero. Figure 3.24 shows l can be the modulation of a digital signal. In the figure, a
digital signal is converted to a composite analog signal. We have used a single-frequency
analog signal (called a carrier); the amplitude of the carrier has been changed to look like
the digital signal. The result, however, is not a single-frequency signal; it is a composite sign
 Example
• An example of broadband transmission using modulation is the sending of
computer data through a telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a
resident to the central telephone office.
• These lines, installed many years ago, are designed to carry voice (analog
signal) with a limited bandwidth (frequencies between 0 and 4 kHz).
• Although this channel can be used as a low-pass channel, it is normally
considered a bandpass channel.
• One reason is that the bandwidth is so narrow (4 kHz) that if we treat the
channel as low-pass and use it for baseband transmission, the maximum bit
rate can be only 8 kbps.
• The solution is to consider the channel a bandpass channel, convert the digital
signal from the computer to an analog signal, and send the analog signal.
• We can install two converters to change the digital signal to analog and vice
versa at the receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called a modem
(modulator/demodulator)
Thank you