Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and

Technology

Electronic Devices and Circuits

EE-231
CH:3 Bipolar Junction Transistors

Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi

Assistant Professor
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology
Email : wsethi@giki.edu.pk

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1. Become familiar with the basic construction and
operation of the Bipolar Junction Transistor.
2. Be able to apply the proper biasing to insure
operation in the active region.
3. Recognize and be able to explain the
characteristics of an npn or pnp transistor.
4. Become familiar with the important parameters
that define the response of a transistor.
5. Be able to test a transistor and identify the three
terminals.

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
Brief History- Transistors
• The invention of Transistor was
the beginning of a technological
revolution in the field of
electronics Invented in 1947.

• All three went on to win a Nobel

prize in 1956 for this contribution

• In comparison to vacuum tube

triode (a three-terminal device),
transistor offered;
• Smaller size
• Lightweight
• Rugged Dr. S. William Shockley (C), Walter H. Brattain (R),
• No warm up period required and John Bardeen (L) demonstrated the
as was in the case of vacuum amplifying action of the first transistor at the Bell
Telephone Laboratories on 23rd Dec, 1947.
tubes

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
Transistor Operation

Au

Ge

Cu

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
Point Contact Transistor
Operation

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
Transistor types & uses
• Two basic transistors are
• BJT – Bipolar junction transistor
• FET – Field effect Transistor
• BJT is used in two broad areas
• As a linear amplifier to boost or amplify an electrical
signal
• As an electronic switch
• Amplifiers are devices that increase the voltage,
current or power level
• Such devices have at least three terminals with one
controlling the flow between two other terminals

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Transistor Construction
• A three layer or three terminal
device consisting of
• Two n and one p type material
sandwiched in between the two n
type materials
• NPN transistor
• Or two p and one n type material
sandwiched in between the two p
type materials
• PNP transistor
• The three terminals are labeled
as
• E – emitter
• B – base
• C – collector
• Two junctions are present in
every BJT device

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Physical Structure (PNP)

P J1 N J2 P

Emitter Base Collector

region region region
Emitter Collector
(E) (C)

Emitter-Base Junction Collector-Base Junction

Base
(B)

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam

Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Physical Structure (NPN)

N J1 P J2 N

Emitter Base Collector

region region region
Emitter Collector
(E) (C)

Emitter-Base Junction Collector-Base Junction

Base
(B)

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam

Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• The emitter layer is heavily doped
• The base is lightly doped and very
thin compared to emitter and
collector regions
• The collector is moderately doped
• The outer layers have widths much
greater than the sandwiched p- or
sandwiched n-type material

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Schematic Symbol of Transistor
• The arrow head on emitter points towards the
conventional direction of the current flow

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Transistor Operation
• The emitter-base junction is forward biased with
collector open
– Smaller depletion region at Base-Emitter junction

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam

Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Transistor Operation
• The collector-base junction is reverse biased
– Larger depletion region at Base-Collector junction with
emitter open

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam

Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
Transistor Operation

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam

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• Applying both bias voltages sets
one pn junction in forward bias
mode and other in reverse bias
mode
• Majority carriers from emitter
diffusing in to thin and lightly
doped base do not find enough
electrons to combine with
• Hence base current IB is small in
quantity
• And offers high resistance due to its
low conductivity (lightly doped)
• IB is typically in microamperes
• The negative polarity at collector
will start pulling the excess of
holes that diffuse from emitter in
to base
• Thus, major portion of emitter
current goes into collector
• IC and IE is typically in the orders of
milliamperes
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• Applying KCL to the transistor
▪ IE = IC + IB
• However collector current has two components
• Minority current component called leakage current (ICO)
that existed even when emitter was open
• Majority current component which is contributed by the
current coming from emitter
▪ IC = ICmajority + ICOminority
• The leakage current is temperature sensitive and will
vary with temperature
• Typical range for leakage current is micro or nanoamperes

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Bipolar Junction Transistor Basics
• Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices
• Control the amount of current flowing through them from
the Emitter to the Collector in proportion to the amount of
current flowing through the base terminal
• Act like a current-controlled switch.
• A small current flowing into the base terminal controls a
much larger collector current forming the basis of
transistor action
• No current through base shuts off the device and prevents
collector current flow
• Collector current is proportional to the base current
• Collector current is limited by the base current regardless
of the amount ofDr.voltage
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 BJT as a switch
• When biased in cut-off region where there is no forward
biased Base-Emitter junction, Current is zero
• When in fully on state in saturation region, current is max
• Switch is off in cutoff region while on in saturation
• In-between these regions is the linear active region where
current flowing is proportional to control signal magnitude

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 BJT as an amplifier
• Operated in the linear active region for amplification
• Amplification is to proportionally increase the magnitude
of the input by a certain factor
• Transistor is connected in different configurations to
perform amplification of different forms like current,
voltage, or power (both)
1. Common-Base Configuration
2. Common-Emitter Configuration
3. Common-Collector Configuration
• In all of these configurations, during active region or linear
mode of operation;
• Base-emitter junction will always be forward biased
• Base-collector junction will always be reverse biased
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Common-Base Configuration
• Base is common to both input and output or we can
say base is the terminal that is closest to or at ground

Input Characteristics
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Common-Base: Collector Characteristics Curves

• Active Region (CB

reverse biased)
• VCB has negligible effect
on magnitude of IC
• IE controls the value of IC
• Any increase in IE causes
a similar increase in IC

• Transistor is mostly used in active

region for amplification purposes
• Cut-off and saturation regions are
used for switching applications
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Alpha (α)
In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are
related by a quantity called ALPHA.
IC
dc =
IE

I C = I Cmajority + I COminority IC = IE + ICBO

IC
ac =
IE VCB = cons tan t
The ac alpha is formally called the “common-base, short circuit, amplification factor”.
Ideally: a = 1
In reality: a is between 0.9 and 0.998

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam

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 Biasing for Amplifier

Establishing the proper biasing management for a common-base pnp transistor in the
active region. Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam
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Common Base Amplifying Action
• The AC input resistance measured from common-base input
characteristics is quite small
• 10 to 100Ω
• The output resistance is measured by the collector
characteristic curves
• This will always be a very high value
• 50kΩ to 1MΩ
• The difference in the input and out put resistance is due to
forward bias (low-resistance) at input and reverse bias
(high-resistance) at output
• Common base can amplify a voltage from 50 to 300 times
• The current amplification for common-base BJT is always
less than 1 as α = IC /IE is always less than 1
• Hence, no current amplification in common-base configuration

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Common Base Example
Ii =
Vi 200m
= = 10mA ac = 1( Ic = Ie )
Ri 20

IL = Ii = 10mA

VL = ILR = (10m )(5 K ) = 50V Av =

VL
=
50
= 250
Vi 200m
DC biasing is not shown inPrepared
the image
by: Dr. Waleedand is
Tariq Sethi-assumed
Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
Ghulam to be >50 V at least
 Common Base Amplifying Action

The basic amplifying action was produced by transferring a current “I”

from a low-to a high-resistance circuit.

transfer+ resistor = transistor

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam

Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Common Base Configuration
• Predicting the voltage gain of CB amplifier is difficult as it
needs approximations of transistor behavior/characteristic
• As the internal transistor resistance plays major role in this
and it depends on the amount of DC biasing magnitude,
the gain changes with different magnitude of applied bias
• An amplifier’s gain should be ideally independent of the
biasing power voltage
• The unpredictable and unstable gain makes this
configuration undesirable in most applications

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Common-Emitter Configuration
• Emitter is common to both input
(base-emitter) and output (collector-
emitter) or emitter is the terminal
that has been grounded

VCE effect on IB is
negligible and IB
depends on VBE
IB = IE – IC
VCC↑ ⇒ VCE↑ ⇒ IC↑
⇒ IB↓ but negligibly.

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
Input Characteristics
 Common-Emitter Collector
Characteristic Curves
• In normal operation or active region
• Base-emitter junction is forward biased
• Base-collector junction is reverse biased
• Collector is at a higher positive potential
than base
• This reverse biases the base-collector
junction
• Once again
• IE = IC + IB
• Curves are not straight or horizontal
as in they were in the case of
common base
• VCE↑ ⇒ push on the holes increases
⇒ I C↑
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Saturation Region
• Both junctions are forward biased
• VCE increases as supply voltage VCC is increased
• Any increase in IB will not cause a
corresponding increase in IC
• IC will only increase with an increase in VCE
• Base to collector current starts to flow VCE – VBE – VCB = 0
which is opposite of IC
VCB = VCE – VBE
• Hence, some of the base current does not
get into emitter and does not get amplified
but rather gets wasted in collector
• Hence IB acts to saturate the current
amplification and IC can only increase with
an increase in VCE
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• Active Region
• As soon as VCE crosses 0.7 V or
becomes greater than VBE, base-
collector junction is reverse biased
• Region to the right of saturation
and above cut-off
• Base-emitter junction is forward biased VCE – VBE – VCB = 0
• Base-collector junction is reverse biased
VCB = VCE – VBE
• Curves are not horizontal
• Both VCE and IB will effect the
magnitude of IC
• The KVL equation suggests that for a
given value of VBE, if VCB increases
than VCE also increases
• This region is mostly used for voltage,
current and power amplification
▪ VCE = VCB + VBE
▪ Collector-base resistance is high, hence
VCE will also be high
▪ Note that in common emitter, output is
taken from collector to emitter
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• rc = base-collector resistance
• rb = base-emitter resistance
▪ rc >> rb
• Gain = Vout/Vin = ICrc/IErb
• IC ≈ I E
• Gain = rc/rb = high resistance divided by low resistance
• Gain = high
• Hence Vout >> Vin
• If a resistance is attached in series with the collector and KVL is applied in
output loop then we shall notice that
• The amplified output produced by a common-emitter is
always inverted and 180 degree out of phase with the input

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Cut-Off Region (High voltage &
low current)
• IB = 0
• A current flows from collector to emitter i.e, ICEO
(collector to emitter current with base open)
• This has a magnitude greater than cut-off current in
common-base mode
• This can be proved by developing a mathematical relation
between ICEO and ICBO

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Parameters Controlling IC
Saturation Region Active Region

Control of IB on IC X ✓
Control of VCE on IC ✓ ✓

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• Once the transistor is in the ON state then for all
analysis purposes we can consider VBE to be 0.7 V for
any value of IB

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
Beta (β)
• In the DC models, the levels for IC and IB are
related by a quantity called beta
• Mathematically
• βdc = IC / IB = DC current gain
• IC and IB are determined at a particular point on
characteristic curves
• β typically ranges from 50 to over 400
• Hence, for a device with a β of 200, the collector current
is 200 times the magnitude of base current

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• On data sheets, βdc is usually included as hFE
• For AC inputs, the AC beta is defined as
• βac = ∆IC / ∆IB with VCE = constant
• Formal name for βac is common-emitter forward current
amplification factor
• Normally referred to as hfe data sheets

βac = β2025
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring dc every where
Important Mathematical Relations
• β = IC/IB
• α = IC/IE
• β = α/(1- α)
• α = β/(β+1)
• ICEO ≈ βICBO
• IE = (β + 1)IB

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Common-Collector Configuration
• Same characteristics as that of common-emitter
• Output characteristics for a common-collector are
a plot of IE versus VCE for a range of values of IB
• Circuit configuration is almost the same as that of
a common-emitter but output is taken from the
load connected to emitter
• Collector is common to both input and output as it
is directly connected to ground
• Hence connected to both input and output
• Signal sees high impedance at input
• Output impedance is low (Base-emitter junction)
• Hence no voltage amplification
• Output voltage is taken across emitter and is
almost a replica of input voltage
• Output voltage replicates any change that
occurs in input voltage
• For this reason a common collector amplifier is
also called an emitter follower, since it follows
the input voltage

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• IE is the output current controlled by a small base
current
• IE is the largest of all the currents in a transistor
• Therefore, common-collector provides the greatest
amplification in terms of current

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
 Limits of Operation
• For each transistor a certain
region of operation on
characteristic curves will ensure
that maximum ratings are not
being exceeded
• The figure shows characteristic
for a particular transistor with
▪ ICmax = 50mA
▪ VCEO or VCEmax = 20V
▪ Breakdown of C-B junction beyond
VCE max
• VCEsat specifies the minimum
VCE that can be applied without
falling into non-linear region of
saturation
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• Maximum dissipation level is
defined as
• PCmax = VCEIC
• For example, in the curves shown,
collector power dissipation was
specified at 300mW
• The curve for power dissipation
can be plotted as
• At any point on the characteristics,
the product of VCE and IC must be
equal to 300mW
At ICmax

Joining these 3 points can give

you a rough estimate of actual
curve. More points mean more
At VCEmax
accurate curve. Shaded area on
the characteristics should be
avoided
ICE in midrange of
25mA
Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025
• Cutoff region should also be avoided if output signal is
to have minimum distortion
• In cutoff IC = ICEO
• If characteristics curves are not available then one
must make sure that the following ranges are strictly
followed

• For common-base characteristics, maximum power

curve is defined as

Prepared by: Dr. Waleed Tariq Sethi- Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute-Spring 2025