Working definition of globalization:

Steger: “Globalization refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and world-space”

Positive
Impact

Social Negative
Phenomenon Impact

Solution:
Globalization

For a political scientist:

 Political scientist: “Challenge to the nation state.”
– Strength of regional blocks
– Emergence of global political norms
– “Challenge to the nation state.”
– Emergence of corporations

For the economist

 Increased free trade
 Speed of trade (milliseconds to trade shares)
 Global economic organizations
 Regional trade blocks

For the scholar of culture and communication

 “Global village”
 Communications technology as “shrinking” our world
 “Cultural imperialism”
Global Economic Organizations
 International Monetary Fund (IMF) - aims to promote economic stability.
 World Trade Organization (WTO) - regulates global trades that it flows smoothly,
freely and predictably.
 The World Bank (TWB) - international financial institution that provides funding,
advice and technical assistance to developing countries reduce poverty.
 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - promotes
policies in improving economic and social well-being of economic in the world.
 WEF (World Economic Forum) - for public or private cooperation that used to bring
the leaders together
 Group of 20 (G20) - (Only 19 members because USA left) to build mutual
understanding and foster collaboration in the face of global challenges.
 International Labor Organization (ILO) - promotes economic and social justice
through setting international labor standards.
 United Nations Conference (UNC) - various gathering or Summits organized by UN to
address global issue (eg. Human rights, security, environmental challenges, &
development).
 APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation) 1989 (21 members) - to promote
economic growth, cooperation, and integration among Acia Pacific Region.
 Group of 7 (United States, United Kingdom, France, West Germany, Italy, Canada,
and Japan) - deals with global economic governance, international security.
 BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa)
 Economic and Social Council of UN (EcoSoC) - of the 6 main organs of UN that deals
with economic, social, cultural and health matters as well as human rights and
fundamental freedoms.
 Group of 8 (France, Germany, Italy, Russia, UK & US, Canada, Japan) -
intergovernmental forum with 8 world's most advanced and industrialized economy.
 Bank of international Settlement (BIS) - serves a bank which promote monetary and
financial information
 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait ,
Saudi Arabia, & Venezuela) - oil producing countries that coordinates and unify
Petroleum policies to ensure its stable prices to produces and consumer.
 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) - promote trade,
investment, and development in developing countries.
Regional Trade Blocs

Attributes of Globalization

1. Various forms of connectivity

They are diverse (can be economic, political, cultural, etc.)
They are enabled by various factors, pressures, media, etc.
They are uneven (different degrees of interconnection)

2. Expansion and stretching of social relations

1. NGOs
2. Friendships/Relationships
3. Government associations
4. MNCs

3. Intensification and acceleration of social exchanges and activities

1. From snail mail to Facebook
2. Live television
3. Increased travel (cheap flights)

4. Occurs subjectively
1. We think about the world (#PrayforParis for example)
 2. We associate ourselves with global trends (fan of K-Pop)
3. Hopefully, we feel some sense of responsibility (climate change)

Helpful question: What is being globalized?

 The different forms of connectivity and flows are different facets of globalization
 Different “globalities” represent different forms of globalization – Flusty (2004)
 Depending on the globality, you see a different dynamic

Ideological dimension of globalization

Ideology - is a system of widely shared ideas, pattern beliefs, guiding norms and values and
ideals accepted as truth by some groups.

Superstructure ideology:
cultural

Superstructure ideology:
Politics

Base of ideology:
Economy

Market globalism
• Hegemonic system
- Globalization as social processes
- Globalization as norms, beliefs, narratives of phenomenon

• Social imaginaries
- Communal practices
- Creates mutual dependencies
- Communal attachments

• Modernity
- National framework of community
- Core of liberty, progress, nationality, etc.
Hegemony of technology:
Novel technologies facilitated the speed and intensity with which these ideas and practices
infiltrated the national imaginary.

New technology Facilitates transaction Promotes Promotes global trade

Environmental
sustainability

Characteristics of Globalization
 Globalization gives us identity as global citizen
 Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets
 Globalization is inevitable and irreversible
 Nobody is in charge of globalization, the worst is there is no one else to blame
 Globalization benefits everyone…in the long run
 Globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world

Globalization
- Worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social aspects
- Multidimensional phenomenon
- But the economic dimension is one of the major driving forces

Economic Globalization
- A historical process
- Increasing integration of economies around the world through the movement of goods,
services, and capital across borders. (Transportation and Communication Revolution)
- A process making the world economy an “organic system” by extending transnational
economic processes and economic relations to more and more countries and by
deepening the economic interdependence among them (Szentes)

Attributes of Economic Globalization

 The globalization of trade of goods and services;
 The globalization of financial and capital markets;
 The globalization of technology and communication; and
 The globalization of production
History of Economic Globalization
Grills and Thompson, globalization began since Homo sapiens began from migrating from the
African continent to populate the rest of the world
Frank and Grills considered the Silk Road (Asia, Europe, Africa) the best example for archaic
globalization 5,000 years ago

History of Economic Globalization

 Adam Smith considered the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and
the discovery of the direct sea route to India by Vasco de Gama in 1498 as the two(2)
greatest achievements of human history
 British Industrial Revolution spread to Continental Europe and North America
 17th – 19th century, economic nationalism and monopolized trade such as the British
(1600) and the Dutch (1602) East India Companies
 20th century transport revolution
- The “golden age of globalization because of :
- Relative peace
- Free – trade
- Financial and economic stability

Transportation Revolution
1. Canals, Steamboats, Railroads
2. Turnspike (national road)
3. Steamboats
4. Canals
5. Railroads

Nation – State & Economic Globalization

 For hyperglobalists, states ceased as primary economic organization
 People consume highly standardized global products and services produced by global
corporations in a borderless world
 There will be no national products, technologies, no national companies
 Neo - Liberals claim that nation – states have lost an important element of economic
sovereignty
 “Buy Taiwan, hold Italy and sell France”, Thomas Friedman compared countries to
individual stocks.
 The major players of global economy are the transnational corporations or TNCs

TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS
- are constantly evolving as a result of outsourcing activity
- Going out to find the source of what you need
  We live in an age of outsourcing.
 Firms are subcontracting an expanding set of activities. Some have become “virtual”
manufacturers, owning designs for so many products but making almost nothing
themselves.

Examples: AMERICAN CAR (WTO)

KOREA – assembly
JAPAN – components & advanced technology
GERMANY – design
TAIWAN & SINGAPORE – minor parts
UK – advertising and marketing services
I RELAND/ BARBADOS – data process

The global commodity chains

- TNCs gather resources, transform them into goods or commodities and finally distribute
them to consumers in the world market

Impact of Economic Globalization

- World Bank (WB) claims that globalization can indeed reduce poverty but it definitely
does not benefit all nations.

The World System Analysis

- Capitalism under economic globalization creates INEQUALITY.
- The ratio of the richest region’s GDP per capita to the poorest:
 1000, 1 : 1
 1500 , 1: 2
 1820, 1 : 3
 1871, 1: 5
 WW I, 1: 9
 1950, 1: 15

DUTERTENOMICS
- Based on the rule of law
- Driven by massive infrastructure spending
- Slogan of “Build, build, build.”

The competitiveness of an economy and the impact of economic globalization depend on the
capacity of the nation - state for political intervention in order to regulate TNCs, IGOs and other
market players.

Nation - states are not influenced uniformly by economic globalization

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM (IMS)
 Rules, customs, instruments, facilities, and organizations for effecting international
payments
 Facilitates cross-border transactions involving trade and investment
 The Gold Standard - 19th century, UK, France, USA, Italy, Germany and other
European nations adopted the gold standard as a fixed exchange rate regime until 1930s
 The Bretton Woods System - Adopted the gold - dollar exchange standard. Various
currencies were fixed to the US dollar until 1971
 International Banks Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
 International Monetary Fund (IMF)

10 Points of the Washington Consensus (1990)

1. Fiscal policy discipline
2. Effective public spending
3. Tax reform
4. Competitive exchange rates
5. Trade liberalization
6. Financial market liberalization
7. Liberalization of foreign direct investment
8. Privatization
9. Deregulation
10. Security of property right

EUROPEAN MONETARY INTEGRATION

- Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg created a common
market where goods and services, capital and labor moved freely
- European Economic Community,1957
- European Monetary System, 1979
- European Exchange Rate Mechanism
- European Economic and Monetary Union, 1992
- European Central Bank, 1999
- EURO as a reserved currency

INTERNATIONAL TRADE & TRADE POLICIES

 David Ricardo’s comparative advantage - Every single nation must have a relative
advantage in something irrespective of its initial condition.
 Most – Favored Nation (MFN) Principle - states that any negotiated reciprocal tariff
reductions between two parties should be extended to all other trading partners without
conditions
 Kennedy Round (1962) - tariff cuts
  Tokyo Round (1970) - subsidies and procurement codes
 Uruguay Round (1986/1994) – multilateral trade negotiations
 World Trade Organization (WTO), 1995 (industrialized countries trade to developing
countries, specifically on agriculture)
 Doha Round – to lower trade barriers
 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to promote trade
and cooperation between the developing and developed nations

GLOBAL DIVIDE
III. Conceptions of Global Relations
Major Premise:
The underdevelopment of certain states/peoples and their lack of representation in global
political process is a reality.
Prevalent: Imbalances of aggregate economic and political power between states.

THE STARBUCKS AND THE SHANTY

Spaces of underdevelopment in developed countries may mirror the poverty of the global south,
and spaces of affluence in the developing world mirror those of the global north.

THE GLOBAL SOUTH

Global interconnectedness accordingly is woven into fabric of everyday life as it is
visible to those observants. There are Starbucks branches in Melbourne, Manila, New York, and
New Delhi. These branches have similar structures, menus, and perhaps ambiance. This
sameness represents the cultural homogenization that are being argued and criticized by those
individuals associated with globalization. The environment where this global corporations are
located will tell the difference of how globalization affects people by geography. In Manila and
New Delhi, upon leaving the café, you will see children begging on the streets, sidewalk vendors
selling street foods, and bag snatchers (common sight in Metro Manila) and other vagabonds
looking for their victims. Walk a little distance, take a ride, and you will see the kind of
transportation available in the city of Metro Manila and India as well as other Southeast Asian
countries. The façade of the newly built condominiums, big shopping malls, corporate buildings
will seemingly attract you at first, but at the background are shantytown where houses are built
from discarded plywood and galvanized iron sheets. Of course, they have poor sanitation,
inadequate comfort rooms, the creeks are filled with garbage and overflowing with foul odor
emanating in the entire neighborhood. Children in their dirty clothes are happily running, playing
unmindful of what is happening around. Some of them are child laborers, and their parents are
either unemployed of if lucky are employed in the informal sector as construction workers,
casual janitor, cleaners and yes, prostitutes. Their security and safety is also under question (fire
is common).
These scenarios of people living in New Delhi, India and in Metro Manila is very
unlikely in New York. There are poor people in Harlem as well as in other places in the United
States, but they do not have many child laborers. Hence, there is something more glaring about
poverty in the global south, and the north/south divide relative to globalization. This divide tells
us that globalization is indeed had created inequality.
The global south is everywhere, but it can also be somewhere, and that somewhere is
located at the intersection of entangled political geographies of dispossession and repossession.

Global Inequality and the Future

All societies past and present are characterized by social differentiation, a process in
which people are set apart for differential treatment by virtue of their statuses, roles and other
social characteristics. The process of social differentiation does not require that people evaluate
certain roles and activities as being more important than others. Nevertheless, social
differentiation sets the stage for social inequality, which is a condition in which people have
unequal access to wealth, power, and prestige. This description fits most of the citizens in the
global south.
The nearly 200 nations in the world are part of a global social hierarchy in which some
have much greater wealth, power, and prestige than others. Today the welfare and life chances of
billions of people depend on where they fit in their nation’s class system, but also where their
nation ranks in the global system of stratification.
Based on factors such as GDP per capita, import-export ratios, quality of life, and the
relative strength of military and state institutions, the nations of the world can be divided not
three major strata: The core, the semi-periphery, and the periphery. As with class divisions,
boundaries among nation-states in each of the strata are semipermeable- they can be crossed, but
with difficulty (Beeghley, 1989).
THREE MAJOR STRATA
1. CORE: Nations that are similar to the upper class, receive disproportionate share of the
world’s wealth and surplus production. They are concentrated in the global north (i.e.
USA, Germany, France, Australia, UK, France, the Scandinavia, and all others with
advanced industrial economies.) while Singapore, Japan and South Korea are
geographically located in the global south, they are part of the core because of their
economic status and GNP per Capita. The core nations are also the primary base of the
world’s banks and investment firms of 300 or so giant transnational corporations whose
combined assets comprise roughly a quarter of the productive assets in the world(Barnet
and Cavanaugh, 1994)

2. SEMI-PERIPHERY: Nations such as Saudi Arabia, Brazil, and Taiwan, are comparable
to the middle class. They are moving toward industrialization and a diversified economy,
and their moderately strong governments give them a share of the surplus and some
leverage in their dealings with the core nations (Chirot, 1997).

3. PERIPHERY: Nations including Haiti, Bangladesh, and Ethiopia resemble lower

ranking classes. They are poor and powerless and derive minimal benefits from their
participation in the world economy. Today, transnational corporations such as Exxon,
Siemens, and Toyota are the key players in the world economy. They provide poor
countries with scarce capital, new technology, management skills, and products that are
essential for rapid growth. Land that could have been used to meet people’s subsistence
need is diverted from domestic use to the production of agricultural exports.

Some disparities in wealth and income have dramatic effects on people’s life chances in both
core and periphery nations. Many people in periphery nations must try to subsist, educate their
children, and remain healthy on annual income of less than 3000 under the added burden of
extreme environmental and political instability.

Global economic integration is not only inevitable given the rise of new technologies; it is more
importantly, a normative international goal to not partake to globality is backwards.

 Civilization Discourse: Dominant ideology of colonialism and the logic that shaped the
birth of the international order.
 Modernization Theory (Rostow): outlined historical progress in terms of a society’s
capacity to produce and consume material goods.
 Clash of Civilization (Huntington): A clash of civilization is the main conflict in the
post-cold world war.
  End of History (Fukuyama): The complete triumph of western capitalism and
liberalism turns the west into the telos (ultimate end) of political organization, which all
must aspire to.
 The Lexus (Friedman): Global progress seen in terms of a binary between embracing
free trade and being left behind by the pace of international economic and technological
developments. The alternative to Lexus is stagnation, making injunction to globalize an
imperative in the quest for global modernity.
 Lenin: Capitalism’s strength is premised on the creation of new market via imperialism
 It was through associating imperialism with capitalism that the international left made an
end of unfriendly relations with the nationalism with the colonized world.
 Sukarno: Colonialism has also its modern dress, in the form of economic control,
intellectual control, actual physical control by a small but alien community within a
nation. It is a skillful and determined enemy. It appears in many guises.
 Third Worldism: Began as common resistance to new forms of colonialism.

THE RISE OF CITIES

Although the dominance of cities is a relatively recent phenomenon, cities have been in
existence for approximately 9,000 years, and human cultural development is directly linked to
them. IN fact, the term civilization comes from Latin word “civis” meaning a person.
Although the worlds population is still predominantly rural, when human
accomplishments are chronicled, it is the cities that capture most attention. The first cities
apparently developed in the fertile valley of Tigris and Euphrates rivers, resembled overgrown
villages of 5000 to 10000 people more than modern day cities. Nevertheless, these early
population centers served many of the same functions that contemporary cities do, including
providing a centralized government, property rights, an expanded division of labor, and a
relatively stable market for exchange of goods and services. Throughout the world, important
empires were marked by the growth of cities. In ancient times, while Greek citizens lived
throughout the countryside, the Cities of Athens and Sparta epitomized Greek life, and they are
still remembered for their contributions to western culture. For most human history, the sights
and sounds of great cities such as Hongkong, Paris, and New York are simply unimaginable. Our
distant ancestors lived in small, nomadic groups, moving as they depleted vegetation or hunted
migratory game. The tiny settlements that marked the emergence of civilization in the Middle
East some 12,000 years ago held only a small fraction of Earth’s people. Today, the largest three
or four cities of the world hold as many people as the entire planet did back then.

The rise of cities is linked to the following factors:

1. Agricultural improvements that reduce the number of workers needed in food production.
2. Stabilization of Political and economic institutions, which enhance safety and distribution
of goods and services.
3. Improvements in transportation and communication, which enhance trade and social
interaction among large number of people.
4. The rise of industrial and post-industrial economies, which demand concentrated
populations to provide labor and services.

2 types of Community
 Gemeinschaft - is a community characterized by a relatively small population, a simple
division of labor, face-to-face interaction, and informal social control
 Gesellschaft - is a society made up of a large population characterized by loose
associations, a complex division of labor, secondary relationships, and formal social
control.

Gemeinschaft communities share a strong sense of cohesiveness, common values, and a

commitment to strive for the common good. Cities by contrast, tend to be gesellschaft
communities and more heterogenous in values, with much emphasis on common goals.

Urbanization and Human Ecology

Urbanization refers to the movement of masses of people from rural to urban areas and
an increase in urban influence over all spheres of culture and society. Social scientists recognize
that the number of people residing within the political boundaries of cities is less important than
the complex communication, transportation, economic, and social networks that link people in
cities and towns to those in suburbs and the surrounding rural areas.
Urban studies in some affluent countries became closely identified with human ecology,
a subfield of sociology that focuses on recurring spatial, social, and cultural patterns in a
particular social environment- in this case, cities. Spatial relations are the analytical basis for
human ecology, which focuses on the physical shape of cities, and social relations and
interaction between people.
The term urbanization refers to an increase in the proportion of people living in the cities,
and urbanism reflects changes in attitude, values, and lifestyles resulting form urbanization.
Urbanism affects people negatively because the city’s large size, high population density, and
great heterogeneity lead to impersonality, anonymity, and such individual problems as
loneliness, alcoholism, and suicide. Further, urbanism entailed a way of life in which the city
affects how people feel, think and interact.

Metropolis, Megalopolis, and Suburbs

Most global cities from the 1900 through the mid-1960s, urbanization patterns reflected a
steady migration from rural to urban areas. Over the past three decades, however, while cities
have continued to grow, most migration has been into the fringe areas around major cities. The
traditional concept of the city grew increasingly inadequate to describe urbanization in the case
of global cities such as London, Paris, New York and Tokyo. The new term metropolis means a
major urban area that includes a large central city surrounded by several smaller incorporated
cities and suburbs that join to form one large recognizable municipality.
As major metropolitan areas have continued to absorb smaller surrounding cities, an even
larger urban unit has developed. The megalopolis consists of two or more major metropolitan
areas linked potentially, economically, socially and geographically.

Problems in Cities
1. The greatest problem facing major cities is generating enough revenue to provide
adequate services and protection for their residents. Most major cities raise taxes to
compensate for shrinking revenues but this in turn encourages more residents and
business to flee city and locate in surrounding suburbs.
2. Urban decay hits the central city as major businesses move from the downtown area to
more profitable suburban locations. Old buildings subsequently either remain vacant and
deteriorate or become multiple-unit slum housing, low rent hotels, “adult bookstores and
theaters, center for drug distribution and other criminal activities, and repositories for the
urban homeless.
3. The central cities have increasingly become the domicile of the poor. Although many of
the poor reside in rural areas, the proportion of urban poor increased between 1980 to
1990. Much urban poverty is a result of a growing urban underclass of poorly educated
and unskilled minorities who lack the skills and education to make the transition from an
industrial to a service economy.
4. Urban problems continue to exist such as chronic unemployment, homelessness, violent
crimes, alcohol and drug abuse, suicide and other forms of deviance.
5. Inner-city decay. Even if some city governments in global cities attempt to revitalize
central cities by razing dilapidated buildings and replacing them with modern high-rise
office buildings, apartment complexes, and condominiums, they could not contain the
proliferation of street people, drug dealers, and prostitutes who do their illegal trades,
especially during night time.
Human Ecology and Environmental Concerns in Global Cities
The ecological perspective provides a theoretical model for analyzing the
interdependence between human beings and the physical environment. In the case of human
society, two of the most important ecological factors are growth in population and our ability to
alter the environment though technology.

Overpopulation
As human population grows, we alter our physical environment to obtain sufficient food
and shelter. We know the fact that most of the global cities were once covered with trees,
grasses, flowers, marshes, and stream have been covered with asphalt, concrete, steel, wood, and
glass to build cities and residential areas and create millions of miles of highways.
Overpopulation threatens to bring about widespread starvation and avalanche of death.
As population increase and urban areas expand, farmers are forced onto marginal lands. They
may burn forests to grow corps or raise cattle on that land. Deforestation can result in over
cultivation and soil erosion. Moreover, larger population demand not only more food but also
wood, petroleum and other fossil fuels, electricity, water, and other scarce commodities.

Depletion of Natural Resources

Forest land around the globe is being destroyed at a rate of an acre every second and
tropical forests are shrinking by 11 million hectares each year. One side effect of depletion of
tree cover is accelerated soil erosion, resulting in an estimated loss of 26 billion tons of topsoil
per year. Soil mismanagement has also contributed to desertification in many parts of the globe,
especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Desertification- the creation of a desert on what was once
arable land- can be attributed in part to the loss of fresh groundwater and the destruction of
natural lakes.
Another ecological concern caused by globalization of cities is that species are becoming
extinct at a rate that is 1000 times greater than the pace that has prevailed since prehistory.

Pollution: Air, Water and Land

Pollution is now affecting almost every global city worldwide. Its most serious
manifestations affect the three major givers of life: Water, air and land. The three major sources
of water pollution are domestic wastewater, industrial charges, and agricultural run-off.
Urbanization creates a heavy concentration of human waste, which is usually discharged into
sewage systems that empty into nearby bodies of water. Unfortunately, other municipalities rely
on those same bodies of water as their major supply of drinking water.
The cities of Tokyo, L.A. and Mexico are almost permanently enveloped in haze of
smog. Other major global cities around the world suffer from similar problems. Emissions of
lead, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides produce air pollution that is aesthetically displeasing as
well as threatening to human health. These pollutants are most heavily concentrated in urban
areas and have been directly linked to lung damage and respiratory disease.
Sources of Economic Growth (Global Cities)
- Economic powerhouse - high level of business activities, trade and finance
- Network centers - strong human capital, significant business activity, information
exchange
- Industry leaders - dominant business sectors, robust university system, technically
trained professional
- Regional hubs - high levels of information exchange, most stable government and
economies, younger and more liberal populations

Key Terms:

Global in the Local:

- Globalization’s main physical and geographic embodiment
- Global flows of people, goods, resources, ideas
- Embodies both the good and bad effects of globalization

Cosmopolitanism
- Diversity of people, goods, ideas, and cultures
- Capitalist context points to a cosmopolitan commercial consumption
- Consumption is costly in resources
- Perpetuation in the Internet Age
- Networks and groups rely on geographic proximity

Downsides
- High costs, alienation, impersonality, social isolation
- Discrimination against migrants of certain kinds
Key Issues:
- Diversity and community
- Mobility and community
Defining the Global City
Historical precedents:
 “Imperial” Cities - seats of imperial power
 “Free” Cities - links in ancient trade routes
 “World” city (Roderick McKenzie, who conceptualized a global network of cities as
early as 1927 )
Perspective Matters:
 The globe as the unit of analysis
 The global city transcends boundaries of nation-states
Saskia Sassen (2005) introduces global cities as global “command centers” of the world
economy
 Global financial centers
 Apart from being financial centers, global cities are:
 Geopolitical power centers
 Cultural and trendsetting powerhouses
 Higher education hubs
 Creative Industries

New global cities have since arisen not only as financial centers but also a producers of
services that are global in scope. Global cities are post-industrial (Shanghai & Singapore).
Manufacturing has been scattered across national and global networks. This turn from
“landscapes of production” to “landscapes of consumption”

 Nature of activities generates a specific labor demand:

 A professional class of knowledge workers
 Highly mobile, career minded not necessarily elites
 Drives “gentrification” of cities but also polarization
 Occupational and income polarization
 Highly paid professional class vs providers of low paid services
 Polarization of housing markets
 Mitigated by state action in certain areas

The international educational market represents a significant potential of the “creative class” in
large, attractive cities. The international tertiary education market has grown since 1975. All
cities worthy of the “global city” title are nowadays are also magnets for international students.

The synergies between education, research and industry are crucial for global capitalism.
- Global cities must be “brain hubs” and good ecosystems attracting and retaining the
creative class
- Global cities are the home to a diverse and visible set of protagonists of the “urban
lifestyle”
- Artists, bohemians, new media designers, gay and youth subcultures, university students,
and immigrants
- Create cultural and ethnic diversity
- Bohemian and alternative lifestyles
- BOHEMIAN “cool” for cities (music scene or its openness to gays)
GLOBALIZATION AND MEDIA

- Globalization - a set of multiple, uneven and sometimes overlapping historical

processes, including economics, politics, and culture that have combined with the
evolution of media technology to create the conditions under which the globe itself can
now be understood as “an imagined community”.
- The two concepts have been partners throughout the whole of human history.
- “Globalization and media have created the conditions through which many people can
now imagine themselves as part of one world.”

The Communications Media

The decade of the 1990s began with a stirring lesson on the importance of
communications media in the modern world. Throughout the world, people were riveted to their
television sets as they learned about overthrow of a tyrant in Romania. For several weeks they
had watched as one after another of the communist states of Eastern Europe faltered and toppled-
First Poland, then Hungary, then Czechoslovakia, then East Germany. But the situation I
Romania was far more violent-and much more public. In that nation, in fact, television played a
dominant role in the revolution that put an end to communist rule.
Communications media are institutions that specialize in communicating information,
images, and values about ourselves, our communities, and our society. Typical media institutions
in modern societies are the print media (newspapers and magazines), radio, movies, and
television. The messages communicated by the media in some countries can be political or non-
political, religious or secular, educational or purely entertaining, but in every case, they use
symbols to tell us something about ourselves and our environment.
Many social scientist had been deeply impressed by the media’s ability to incorporate
people into a society’s national life and bring about changes in their traditional values. The
media are run by professional communicators, people who are skilled in producing and
transmitting news and other communications. These skills can be used to enhance the ability of
national leaders to influence and persuade the masses. Because of this, the media are always
under pressure to communicate the information and values that people in power want to have
communicated.
The influence of media is a source of continual controversy as different groups strive for
greater control over media communications. IN many societies, the media are subject to strict
censorship. The very idea of news and entertainment institutions that are free from censorship by
political or religious institutions is a relatively recent development.

Media Power and Its Limits

A familiar expression in modern societies is “Information is Power”. Because media
control such a large and diverse flow of information, they have immense power. Questions about
power of the media become especially urgent when one imagines what could happen if control of
the media fell into the hands of groups that oppose democratic institutions. In such a case, could
persuasive power of the media be used to destroy individual and political freedom?
In many countries in which freedom of the press is guaranteed, there are still many
problems related to access to media and their power to attract large audiences. On the other hand,
in a democratic society, television and other media can be a two-edged sword, conferring power
on those in the spotlight but also subjecting them to sometimes embarrassing public scrutiny.
Technological Limits
When media institutions are well differentiated from political and other institutions, it is
actually quite difficult for powerful individuals or groups to manipulate mass audiences. This
becomes even more true as changing technologies give people more opportunities to choose the
type of messages they receive via the media. Cable television offers potential for much greater
diversity in program content. Veiwers can watch everything from public affairs to pornography.
Social media such as Facebook, Twitter, Messenger, You tube, and the internet also make
possible a wider range of choices. So although it is entirely likely that the size of the television
audiences for special events like the super bowl will continue to increase, the audience of media
consumers is becoming ever more diverse and fickle and, hence ever more difficult to reach as a
mass audience.

Evolution of Media and Globalization

To understand further the study of globalization and media, it is important to appreciate
five periods of the evolution of media and globalization.

1. Oral Communication
- Language allowed human to cooperate.
- It allowed sharing of information.
- Language became the most important tool as human being explored the world and
experience different cultures.
- It helped them move and settle down.
- It led to markets, trade and cross-continental trade.

2. Script
- Language was important but imperfect, distance became a strain for oral communication.
- Script allowed human to communicate over a larger space and much longer times.
- It allowed for the written and permanent codification of economic, cultural, religious, and
political practice.

3. The Printing Press

- It started the “information revolution”.
- It transformed social institutions such as schools, churches, governments and more.
- Elizabeth Eisenstein (1979) surveyed the influences of the printing press.
 It changed the nature of knowledge. It preserved and standardized knowledge.
It encouraged the challenge of political and religious authority because of its ability to
circulate competing views.

4. Electronic Media
- The vast reach of these media continues to open up new vistas in the economic, political,
and cultural processes of globalization.
- Radio - quickly became a global medium, reaching distant regions.
- Television - considered as the most powerful and pervasive mass medium. It brought
together the visual and aural power of the film with the accessibility of radio.

5. Digital Media
- Digital Media are often electronic media that rely on digital code.
- Many of our earlier media such as phones and TVs are now considered digital media.
- In the realm of politic computer allowed citizens to access information from around the
world

“Is it possible for globalization to occur without media?”

Importance of Media
- Mass media are important because they reflect and create cultural values and interests.
- Media attention and interest is also economic.
- Media uses message as its medium- content is delivered in a way our culture in itself how
we live

Functions of Mass media

1. Warning - ability to warn of impending danger. Broadcast of hurricanes, tornadoes,

storms and alert listeners and viewers to take the necessary precautions and provide up-to
minute tracking of the location of bad weather systems. Without such warnings, there is
the possibility for tremendous loss of life and property.
2. Companionship - television has produce a new category of friend: the media friend.
These are people known to viewers who feel a sense of friendship with the performer,
newscaster, and field reporters.
3. Status Conferral - a latent function of mass media is to confer status on those
individuals who are given high visibility. Unknown individuals can become household
names within a few weeks and some will figure permanently once media attention is
given to them.
 4. Agenda Setting - Media also set a cultural agenda for what is important. In the
international scene, several media agenda setting occurred for civil disturbances.
5. Reality Construction - while agenda setting is concerned with emphasizing what is
important, reality construction focuses on the interpretation and meaning of a media
event, some broadcasters invite people who are experts in their field when media events
are aired.
6. Surveillance - refers to the collection and of information both within and outside society.
The evening television news is an overview of the happenings of the day. News reporters
scan the environment for new events and report them in print or over the airwaves.
Surveillance may also focus on particular events, such as presidential election,
impeachment trial, graduation ceremony of PMA cadets, or disaster such as earthquakes
or sea mishaps.
7. Socialization and Education - Media also involve socialization or the transmission of
social heritage to the audience. The commentator of an accident is providing a
socialization experience on how the accident happens. Clearly related to media is
education. The major networks and the government stations have made noteworthy
contributions to what we know about the world. Aside from news coverage, the networks
air educational programs.
8. Propaganda - defines as “any and all set of symbols which influence opinion, belief or
action on issues regarded by the community is controversial”
9. Mainstreaming - refers to a common outlook and set of values that exposure to
television tends to cultivate (Gerbner, 1976). Views are promoted by network executives
to dictate cultural values, required by advertisers to promote these values or lose
revenues.
10. Entertainment - the entertainment function of television is the purposeful development
of programming for the sole function of providing entertainment to the viewers. Any
artistic, cultural or educational value is secondary.
11. Advertising - the fundamental economic purpose of media is to sell an audience to
advertisers who can induce the audience to buy products. The primary target audience is
the affluent, fairly well educated, and relatively young. In effect, mass media exist for
corporations which market their products through the media.

Media Ethics
Professional communication recognized the value of fundamental standards and ethical
behavior. In addition, media audiences have come to expect certain fundamental ethical
standards. Among these are the following.
1. Accuracy - The bedrock of ethics is accuracy, the reporting of information in context that
allows people to understand and comprehend the truth.
 2. Objectivity - Objectivity is reporting facts without bias or prejudice, including deliberate
attempt to avoid interpretation. To be fully unbiased is admirable but unattainable goal.
3. Fairness and Balance - means providing equal or nearly equal coverage of various
points of view in a controversy. Fairness and balance often go hand in hand within
accuracy and objectivity. Reporters attempt to investigate the many sides of a story.
4. Truth - although journalist cannot always ensure that their stories are true, they can make
an extra effort to be truthful and to avoid lying.
5. Integrity of source - a journalist story is only as good as his or her sources. Reporters
who became too loyal to sources risk the possibility of being blinded and missing
important cues to stories.
6. Avoiding Conflict of Interest - outside business, social and personal activities and
contacts can subtly influence the ability of mass media professionals to conduct objective
reporting
Global Imaginary and Global Village
- Media have linked the globe with stories, images, myths and metaphors.

Global Imaginary
- the globe itself as imagined community.

Global Village
- Marshall McLuhan
- Media have connected the world in ways that create a global village.
- As McLuhan predicted media and globalization have connected the world. However, the
“global village have brought no collective harmony or peace.

Media and Economic Globalization

- Media fosters the conditions for global capitalism.
- “Economic and cultural globalization arguably would be impossible without a global
commercial media system to promote global markets and to encourage consumer values”
– Robert Mc Chesney

Media and Political Globalization

- Though media corporations are themselves powerful political actors, individual
journalists are subject to intimidations as more actors contend for power.
- In the age of political globalization: government shape and manipulate the news.

Media and Cultural Globalization

- Media on one level are the carriers of culture.
- It generates numerous and on-going interactions
- Globalization will bring about and increasing blending or mixture of cultures.
Popular Music and Globalization
- Technologies of transport, of information and mediation, including social media
platforms, have made possible the circulation of cultural commodities such as music.
- Circulation of cultural commodities is consumed to gain cultural capital and social status.