1.

Logarithmic
functions
• Logarithms
• Laws of logarithms
• Using logarithms to solve equations
• Natural logarithms
• Logarithmic functions
• Graphs of logarithmic functions
• Logarithmic scale
• Graphs with logarithmic scales
• Use of logarithmic scales
• Miscellaneous exercise one
Situation One

Various estimates could be made for how many years ago the population of the world was just one
million. Now it exceeds seven billion, i.e. it now exceeds 7 000 000 000.
Discuss any difficulties a person would face if they were to try to display these world population figures,
from one million to seven billion, graphically.

Situation Two
In 1982 an earthquake measuring 6.0 on the Richter scale (a scale for measuring the intensity of an
earthquake) occurred in the Yemen, and is thought to have resulted in approximately 2800 deaths.
In 2010 an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale occurred in Haiti and, according to some
estimates, may have resulted in more than 300 000 deaths.
Now 7.0 is approximately 1.17 × 6.0 and yet the number of deaths in the Haiti earthquake far exceeds
1.17 × 2800!
An earthquake in Japan in 2011 measured 9.0 on the Richter scale. Despite this being higher than the
Richter scale measurement for the Haiti earthquake the death toll was thought to be about 16 000.
Whilst this is a tragically high number of fatalities it is well below the Haiti earthquake death toll,
despite the higher rating on the Richter scale.
Discuss the above comments comparing earthquake death tolls and Richter scale readings. Do some
research about the Richter scale.

Situation Three
Let us suppose that the number of cells
in a colony of bacteria doubles every hour.
When timing commences the colony
consists of 50 cells. Assuming the doubling
continues, how long will it take for the
number of cells to reach ten million?

iStock.com/AlexRaths

Situation Four
An object with a temperature of 90°C is placed in an environment with temperature 20°C. The
temperature of the object, t minutes later, is T °C, where T approximately follows the mathematical rule
T = 20 + 70e-0.4t.
After how many minutes will the temperature of the object be 35°C?

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 3

 WS
Logarithms
If you did some research about the Richter scale, as Situation Two on the previous page suggested,
Logarithms
you probably discovered that its scale is logarithmic rather than linear. However this immediately raises
the question: What does it mean for a scale to be logarithmic? We will investigate what a logarithm is in
this chapter.

Shutterstock.com/Bro Studio
Situation Three, and indeed Situation Four, involved solving an equation in which the unknown value
featured as an index in the equation.
Situation Three required you to solve 50 × 2t = 10 000 000.
Situation Four required you to solve 35 = 20 + 70e-0.4t.
How did you go about solving these equations?
Let us consider equations of this type further, i.e. equations in which the unknown features as an index.
Suppose we have to solve: 5 × 2x = 80
Divide each side of the equation by 5. 2x = 16
From our knowledge of the powers of 2: x = 4
Suppose instead we were asked to solve: 5 × 2x = 115
Dividing each side of the equation by 5. 2x = 23
Now our knowledge of the powers of 2 tells us that x must lie between 4 (24 = 16) and 5 (25 = 32).
If we want to be more precise than this we could:
• look at the graph of y = 2x and see where it cuts the line y = 23.
• try some values between x = 4 and x = 5, evaluate 2x, and adjust our trials accordingly (trial and adjust).
• use the solve facility of some calculators. Note that whilst the display below left gives the answer as
4.523 561 956 the display below right is typical of the response we would get from a calculator that
has been asked to give the solution as an exact value. This exact solution is given using logarithms,
‘ln’ being the abbreviation for the ‘natural logarithm’ of a number.

solve(5 × 2 x = 115, x) solve(5 × 2 x = 115, x)

x = 4.523561956 ln(23)
x=
ln(2)

Let us now consider this idea of the logarithm of a number.

4 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

Note: The idea of a logarithm of a number proves useful in a number of applications other than
simply being able to give the exact solution to some exponential equations, as we shall see
as this course continues. Hence their introduction here.
• The number 10, raised to the power 2, is equal to 100, i.e. 102 = 100.
We say that the logarithm to the base 10, of 100 is 2. i.e. log10 100 = 2.
The logarithm to the base 10, of 100, is the number to which 10 must be raised to get 100, i.e. 2.
• The number 2, raised to the power 3, is equal to 8, i.e. 23 = 8.
We say that the logarithm to the base 2, of 8, is 3. i.e. log2 8 = 3.
The logarithm to the base 2, of 8, is the number to which 2 must be raised to get 8, i.e. 3.
• The number 5, raised to the power -1, is equal to 0.2, i.e. 5-1 = 0.2.
We say that the logarithm to the base 5, of 0.2, is -1. i.e. log5 0.2 = -1.
The logarithm to the base 5, of 0.2, is the number to which 5 must be raised to get 0.2, i.e. -1.
To generalise: For some positive number a,

If ax = b then loga b = x.

i.e. The logarithm to the base a, of b, is the number to which a must be raised to give b,
(x in this case).
For example:
log10 1000 = 3
(Because 1000 is ten to the power 3.) log10 (1000)
3
log10 10 000 = 4 log10 (10000)
(Because 10 000 is ten to the power 4.) 4
log2 (32)
log2 32 = 5 5
(Because 32 is two to the power 5.) log2 (0.5)
−1
log2 0.5 = -1 log4 (16)
(Because 0.5 is two to the power -1.) 2
log4 (2)
log4 16 = 2 0.5
(Because 16 is four to the power 2.)

log4 2 = 0.5
(Because 2 is four to the power 0.5.)

The statement loga b = x is the logarithmic equivalent of the

exponential statement ax = b (which could be written as a log a b = b).

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 5

 Note: • In the previous examples the numbers involved were such that the logarithms could be
determined mentally. If this is not the case, for example log10 50 or perhaps log2 17, some
calculators can evaluate such expressions directly.

log10 (50)
1.698970004
log2 (17)
4.087462841

• To avoid having to write the base of the logarithm every time, we can omit the ‘10’ for
logarithms to base ten.
Thus log 50, with no specific base indicated, is taken as log10 50.
Other bases need to be clearly indicated.

log10 (50)
1.698970004
log(50)
1.698970004

• On the previous page it was stated that:

For some positive number a,

If ax = b then loga b = x.

If we require a to be positive (i.e. we cannot have the logarithm with a negative base) it
follows that b must also be positive (because if a is positive it follows that a to some power
must also be positive).
I.e., we cannot determine the logarithm of a negative number.
(If asked to determine the logarithm of a negative number, say log (-3), some calculators will
indicate ‘error’ whilst others may give a ‘complex’ number. Whilst students of Mathematics
Specialist will be familiar with the idea of complex numbers, they are beyond the scope of
this Mathematics Methods unit. As far as this unit is concerned we cannot determine the
logarithm of a negative number.)

6 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

 EXAMPLE 1

Without the assistance of a calculator find

a log2 16 b log4 8 c log (0.1)
then use a calculator to confirm your answers.

Solution
a Let log2 16 = x
then 2x = 16
i.e. 2x = 24
giving x = 4
\ log2 16 = 4

b Let log4 8 = x
then 4x = 8
i.e. 22x = 23
giving x = 1.5
\ log4 8 = 1.5 log2 (16)
4
c Let log (0.1) = x
log4 (8)
then 10x = 0.1 1.5
i.e. 10x = 10-1 log(0.1)
giving x = -1 −1
\ log (0.1) = -1

Note: (For interest only.) Prior to the ready access of calculators, logarithms were commonly used
as an aid to calculation.
Evaluating a product like 216.4 × 171.2 or a quotient like 136.5 ÷ 16.5 now takes only a few
seconds but how would you cope with these calculations without a calculator?
In earlier centuries, mathematicians worked to produce tables of logarithms to the base ten.
I.e. They produced conversion tables that allowed a number (say 2.884) to be expressed as
a power of ten (~100.46).
When two numbers had to be multiplied (or divided) these tables were used to convert each
to powers of ten, these powers were then added (or subtracted) and other tables were then used
to convert these powers of ten back to give the answer to the question. Though we no longer
need to use logarithms in this way the log button on our calculator does hold the conversion
information.
From your calculator log10 500 ≈ 2.698 97 i.e. 102.698 97 ≈ 500,
-0.6198
log10 0.24 ≈ -0.6198 i.e. 10 ≈ 0.24.

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 7

 Exercise 1A
Write each of the following as exponential statements.

1 log2 8 = 3 2 log7 49 = 2

3 log49 7 = 0.5 4 log10 1000 = 3

5 log5 625 = 4 6 log4 32 = 2.5

 1
7 log5 (0.04) = -2 8 log 3   = -2
 9
9 loga x = y 10 logb y = c

11 logx a = p 12 loga x = 3

13 log3 5 = y 14 log2 3 = x

15 logx 5 = 4 16 log3 5 = p

Write each of the following as logarithmic statements.

17 26 = 64 18 34 = 81
3
19 81 = 92 20 9 2 = 27

21 2-1 = 0.5 22 2-2 = 0.25

23 102 = 100 24 10-2 = 0.01

25 r = pq 26 r p = q

27 2x = y 28 3y = z

29 5k = 4 30 7y = 3

31 7 = 3p 32 x = ey

Without the assistance of a calculator evaluate each of the following.

33 log8 64 34 log2 128

35 log 10 000 36 log3 243

 1  1
37 log 2   38 log 2  
 2  16 
 1 
39 log 6  40 log2 (0.125)
 216 
41 log9 243 42 log (0.001)

43 log6 6 44 log7 1

45 loga 1 46 log4 32

47 loga a 48 loga (a3)

8 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

Use a calculator to evaluate each of the following, correct to three decimal places if rounding is necessary.

49 log 5 50 log 25

51 log 7 52 log 49

53 log 20 54 log (7 + 3)

55 log 7 + log 3 56 log 50 - log 5

57 If log10 b = c a can c be negative?

b can b be negative?

Laws of logarithms WS

Suppose that loga b = x and loga c = y

Logarithm laws

It then follows that b = ax and c = ay

But, we know that axay = ax + y and ax ÷ ay = ax - y
i.e. bc = ax + y and b÷c = ax - y
Writing these as logarithmic statements:
 b
loga (bc) = x+y and log a   = x-y
 c

 b
Thus loga (bc) = loga b + loga c and log a   = loga b - loga c
 c

Again suppose loga b = x from which it follows that b = ax.

From the index laws we know that (ax)n = axn
i.e. bn = axn
Writing this as a logarithmic statement:
loga (bn) = nx

loga (bn) = n loga b

Note also that from a1 = a it follows that loga a = 1

from a0 = 1 it follows that loga 1 = 0

 1
and from loga (bn) = n loga b it follows that log a   = -loga b
 b

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 9

 EXAMPLE 2

Express each of the following as single logarithms.

a log x + log y - 3 log z
b log x + 1 - log y

Solution
a log x + log y - 3 log z = log (xy) - log (z3)
 xy 
= log  3 
z 

b log x + 1 - log y = log x + log 10 - log y

 10 x 
= log 
 y 

EXAMPLE 3

Without the assistance of a calculator, simplify log2 12 + log2 36 - 3 log2 3.

Solution
log2 12 + log2 36 - 3 log2 3 = log2 12 + log2 36 - log2 33
 12 × 36 
= log 2 
 27 
= log2 16
= log2 (24)
= 4 log2 2
= 4

EXAMPLE 4

If loga 4 = p and loga 5 = q, express each of the following in terms of p and q.

a loga 20 b loga 0.8 c loga (100a2)

Solution
a loga 20 = loga (4 × 5) b loga 0.8 = loga (4 ÷ 5)
= loga 4 + loga 5 = loga 4 - loga 5
= p + q = p-q
c loga (100a2) = loga 100 + loga (a2)
= loga (4 × 25) + 2 loga a
= loga 4 + loga 52 + 2
= loga 4 + 2 loga 5 + 2
= p + 2q + 2

10 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

Exercise 1B
Express each of the following as a single logarithm.

1 log x + log z 2 2 log x + log y

3 2 log x + 3 log y 4 2 log x - log y

5 log a + log b - log c 6 3 log a + 4 log b - 2 log c

7 5 log c - log (c3) + log a 8 2 + log x

9 3 - (log x + log y) 10 3 - log x + log y

Evaluate each of the following (without the use of a calculator).

11 log2 24 - log2 3 12 log2 20 + log2 8 - log2 10

13 log (104) - log 10 14 loga (a3) + logb (b2) - logc (c4)

15 log3 45 + 2 log3 2 - log3 20 16 log3 4 - 2 log3 6 - 2

17 log 5 - (log 2 + 2 log 5) 18 loga b + 2 loga (ab) - 3 loga b

log a b3 log a 48 − log a 3

19 20
2log a b log a 2

21 If loga 2 = p and loga 3 = q, express each of the following in terms of p or q or both p and q.
a loga 6 b loga 18
c loga 12 d log a 0.6
4
e loga (9a ) f loga 0.2

22 If log5 7 = a and log5 2 = b, express each of the following in terms of a or b or both a and b.
a log5 49 b log5 28
c log5 1.75 d log5 50
e log5 490 f log5 700

Find y in terms of x (and a if necessary) for each of the following.

23 loga y = x 24 loga y = loga (2x)

25 loga y = 3 loga x 26 2 loga y = 3 loga x

27 loga y = loga a + loga x 28 loga y = 2 + loga x

29 loga y = -loga x 30 loga y + loga x = 2

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 11

 31 An experiment was conducted to test the rate at which students forget work. The students were
tested on a particular period in History they had recently studied. They were then given repeat
tests of a similar nature after that. In each test the group average was calculated. The results
obtained seemed to fit fairly well with the rule:
Average score, t fortnights after the initial test = 75 - 35 log (t + 1)
a What was the average score in the initial test?
b What was the average score four weeks after the initial test?
c What was the average score eight weeks after the initial test?
d How many fortnights after the initial test did the average score fall to 40?

32 The Richter scale reading, R, of an earthquake of intensity I is given by

 I 
R = log  
 I0 
where I0 is a minimum intensity level used for comparison.
a Find R for an earthquake with intensity 1000 I0.
b An earthquake registers 5.4 on the Richter scale. Express its intensity in terms of I0.
c An earthquake measuring 6 on the Richter scale is how many times as intense as that of one
measuring 5 on the Richter scale?
d An earthquake measuring 7.7 on the Richter scale is how many times as intense as that of one
measuring 5.9 on the Richter scale?

33 The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is measured

by its pH. This is the negative of the logarithm to
the base ten of the hydrogen ion concentration
in moles per litre.
The letters pH stand for potential of hydrogen.
Thus pH = - log10 (hydrogen ion concentration
in moles per litre).

Shutterstock.com/Deyan Georgiev
A pH below 7 indicates that a solution is acidic
and a pH above 7 indicates alkaline. Values are
usually between 0 and 14.
The pH of natural water is generally about 6
because dissolved carbon dioxide from the air
forms carbonic acid.
Find the pH of each of the following:
a Grapes. Hydrogen ion concentration 0.0001 moles/litre.
b Beer. Hydrogen ion concentration 0.000 031 6 moles/litre.
c Urine. Hydrogen ion concentration 0.000 000 25 moles/litre.
d Eggs. Hydrogen ion concentration 0.000 000 016 moles/litre.
e Blood. Hydrogen ion concentration 0.000 000 042 moles/litre.
If a solution has a pH of 5.25 what is its hydrogen ion concentration?

12 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

34 Sound loudness is measured by comparing the intensity of the sound with the intensity of a sound
that is just detectable by the human ear.
With L, the loudness of the sound in decibels (dB),
I, the intensity of the sound
and I0, the intensity of sound just audible to the human ear, then
 I 
L = 10 log10  
 I0 
a If the noise level in a room was 40 dB it would be considered quiet.
Express the intensity of sound in this quiet room in terms of I0.
b If the noise level in a room was 70 dB it would be considered noisy.
Express the intensity of sound in this noisy room in terms of I0.
c How many times is the intensity of a 90 dB noise level that of the intensity of
a 20 dB noise level?

Using logarithms to solve equations

Now that we know what logarithms are, and what rules they obey, can we use them to solve equations like
2x = 23?
As mentioned earlier, we already have other methods for solving equations of this type but we include
the logarithmic approach here because, as well as being useful functions in their own right, logarithms
give us a method that can be quick to apply and that allows us to state an exact solution to the equation.

EXAMPLE 5

Use logarithms to solve the following equations, giving exact answers involving base ten
logarithms.
a 2x = 23 b 25x - 1 = 3x

Solution

a 2x = 23 b 25x - 1 = 3x
Taking logs of both sides Taking logs of both sides
log (2 ) x
= log 23 log (25x - 1) = log (3x)
\ x log 2 = log 23 (5x - 1) log 2 = x log 3
log 23 5x log 2 - log 2 = x log 3
x =
log 2 x(5 log 2 - log 3) = log 2
log 2
\ x =
5 log 2 − log 3

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 13

 Note: • When ‘taking logs of both sides’ in the previous example we chose to use base ten
logarithms because the question asked us to give our exact answer involving base ten
logarithms. Without this requirement we could use any base of logarithm. Indeed a
calculator, set the task of finding the exact solutions to the above equations, may well use
natural logarithms, for which the abbreviation is ‘ln’. We will consider the concept of natural
logarithms later in this chapter.
• The answer for part b of the previous example could be written in a number of different
ways, for example:
log 2 log 2 log 2 − log 2
5
,    ,    ,    ,   …
log(2 ) − log 3 log 32 − log 3  32   3
log   log  
 3  32 
Hence do not be too quick to mark your answer wrong just because it appears different to
the one given in the back of the book.

Exercise 1C
Solve each of the following, giving your answers in exact form involving logarithms to the base ten.

1 3x = 7 2 7x = 1000 3 10x = 27

4 2x = 11 5 3x = 17 6 7x = 80

7 5x = 21 8 10x = 15 9 2x = 70

10 6x + 2 = 17 11 3x + 1 = 51 12 8x - 1 = 7

13 5x - 1 = 32x 14 2x + 1 = 3x 15 43x = 5x + 2

16 32x + 1 = 23x - 1 17 5(2x) = 3 - 2x + 2 18 5x + 4 (5x + 1) = 63

Use the substitution y = 2x to solve each of the following equations, giving your answers in exact form
involving logarithms to the base ten.

19 (2x)2 + 3(2x) - 18 = 0 20 22x - 2x + 3 + 15 = 0

21 If x = log2 7 find an exact expression for x involving base ten logarithms.

Hint: Write the equation in exponential form and then take the logarithm of both sides.

22 Without the assistance of your calculator, find exact expressions involving base ten logarithms for
each of the following. (Hint: Do question 21 first.)
a log3 5 b log2 12 c log9 15
d log9 4 e log2.5 (6.8) f log5.4 (9)

14 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

Applied questions
Solve the following questions without using the ability of your calculator to solve equations.

23 A strip of metal is to be made into a thin

sheet by repeatedly passing it through a pair
of compression rollers. The thickness, T,
of the metal after it has passed through
the rollers n times is given by
T = T0 (0.92)n,
where T0 is the initial thickness of the metal
before any rolling has been done.

iStock.com/ozgurdonmaz
How many times should the metal be passed
through the rollers if we require the final
thickness to be as close as possible to, but
thinner than, 20% of the initial thickness?

24 A group of 200 insects were monitored in a laboratory experiment and the population was found
to grow such that the number, N, present t days after the experiment commenced, approximately
fitted the model
N = 200 (2.7)0.1t.
Find a the number of insects in the group 3 days after the experiment commenced,
b the number of insects in the group 5 days after the experiment commenced,
c on which day the population first exceeded 1000.

25 A driver with a high blood alcohol level is more likely to have an accident than is a driver with
a low, or zero, blood alcohol level. If R% is the likelihood or risk of an accident, and a% is the
blood alcohol level then let us suppose that the rule
R = (2.8)20a,
for a ≥ 0, is a reasonable mathematical description of what seems to be the case.
For what value of a, the percentage blood alcohol level, is the risk of an accident 51%?

26 A company expects the weekly sales of a particular chocolate bar to increase from the usual
100 000 bars to 250 000 bars whilst their new advertising campaign is running. However, market
research indicates that t weeks after the campaign finishes the weekly figures will have fallen to
N bars, where
N = 100 000 + 150 000 (1.1)-0.8t.
If this predicted model proves to be correct, what will
be the weekly sales figures
iStock.com/harmpeti

a 4 weeks after the campaign ceases?

b 8 weeks after the campaign ceases?
The company plans to repeat the campaign when sales
fall to 135 000 bars per week. Approximately how many
weeks after the first campaign ceases will this happen?

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 15

 27 If $10 000 is invested at an interest rate of 8% per annum, compounded annually, the investment
will grow to $P after x years where
P = 10 000 (1.08)x .
a Find P after 3 years.
b Find P after 7 years.
c How long will it take (to the nearest year) for the investment to grow to $50 000?
d How long will it take (to the nearest year) for the investment to grow to $50 000 if
i the interest throughout is 10% rather than 8%?
ii the interest is 14% for the first 8 years and 10% thereafter?
e Find the annual interest rate necessary for the $10 000 to double in value in 5 years.
(Give your answer as a percentage, correct to one decimal place.)

Natural logarithms
Natural logarithms, a term mentioned a few pages earlier, are logarithms to the base ‘e’. With e being
a naturally occurring base in exponential equations describing growth and decay situations, it follows
that it could well be a useful base to use with logarithms.
If    b = ex   then   x = loge b.

Note: • We call logarithms to the base e natural logarithms.

• loge x can be written as ln x. (In this text we will use both forms.)
• Some calculators have two built-in logarithm options: log for log10 x
and ln for loge x.
Use your calculator to confirm that:
ln 1 = 0,   ln 2 ≈ 0.693,   ln 10.5 ≈ 2.351,   ln 2.718 28 ≈ 1.
• Whilst e and 10 are the more common bases for logarithms (indeed base ten logarithms
are sometimes referred to as common logarithms), we have already seen that other bases are
possible. In some cases logarithms to other bases may be readily evaluated, for example,
log2 8 = 3 and log5 25 = 2.
In other cases, for example,
log2 7 or log5 0.6,
we might use the ability of some calculators to evaluate the logarithm.
log2 7 ≈ 2.807, log5 0.6 ≈ -0.317.

16 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

 • It is possible to express a logarithm in one base as an expression involving logarithms to
another base. Indeed question 21 of the previous exercise asked you to do this when it asked
you to express log2 7 in terms of base ten logarithms.
Applying the technique suggested in that question to the general case gives us a change of
base formula, as shown below.
If  x = loga b  then ax = b
x
Taking logarithms logc (a ) = logc b
\ x logc a = logc b
log c b
Giving x =
log c a

log c b
Hence loga b = the change of base formula.
log c a

Some calculators, if working in exact mode, will, when

given the logarithm in a base other than 10 or e, log2 (7)
display the answer in terms of natural logarithms. ln(7)
ln(2)
log5 (0.6)
−(ln(5) − ln(3))
ln(5)

EXAMPLE 6

Use logarithms to solve the equation ex + 1 = 5 giving your answer

a exactly,
and b correct to four decimal places.

Solution
a With the equation involving e it makes sense to use natural logarithms rather than logarithms
to base ten.
ex + 1 = 5
\ (x + 1)loge e = loge 5
Thus x+1 = loge 5
x = ln 5 - 1 is the exact solution.
b \ x = 0.6094 is the solution correct to 4 decimal places.
The reader should confirm that 0.6094 is also obtained if base ten logarithms are used instead of
natural logarithms.

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 17

 Exercise 1D
Evaluate each of the following without the use of a calculator.

 1
1 log e e 2 log e   3 log e ( e3 ) 4 log e e
 e

 1   1 
5 ln 3 e 6 ln   7 ln( e −3 ) 8 ln  3 
 e  e

Clearly showing your use of natural logarithms, solve each of the following equations giving your
answers as exact values.

9 ex + 1 = 7 10 ex + 3 = 50 11 ex - 3 = 100

12 e2x + 1 = 15 13 5e3x - 1 = 3000 14 4ex + 2 + 3ex + 2 = 7000

15 e2x - 30ex = -200 (Hint: let y = ex.)

Express each of the following in terms of natural logarithms and prime numbers (without the assistance
of a calculator).

16 log7 2 17 log2 21 18 log3 200 19 log5 50

20 log6 9 21 log9 6 22 log4 300 23 log8 220

24 If A = 2000e-t find an exact expression for t in terms of A and evaluate it, correct to three decimal
places, for a A = 1500,
b A = 500,
c A = 50.

25 The population of a particular country was thought to be 22 300 000 in 2010.

Figures suggest that the population is growing such that, t years after 2010, it will be
approximately P, where P = 22 300 000e0.02t.
If the population growth continues as suggested, in which year would the population of this
country reach a 32 000 000?
b 45 000 000?

26 A certain culture of bacteria grows in such a way that t days after observation commences the
number of bacteria present, N, is given by:
N ≈ 5000e0.55t.
According to this rule how many days after observation commences, to the nearest day, would the
number of bacteria be a 80 thousand?
b 750 thousand?

18 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

Logarithmic functions
The Preliminary work mentioned that it can be helpful to view a function as a machine with a specific
output for each given input:
Input
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
The Output
square it and
add three 4, 7, 12, 19, 28
function machine

Applying this idea to the concept of logarithms:

Input
1000, 100, 10, 1, 0.1
f ( x ) = log x Output
3, 2, 1, 0, –1

Input
8, 4, 2, 1, 0.5
f ( x ) = log2 x Output
3, 2, 1, 0, –1

Input
125, 25, 5, 1, 0.2
f ( x ) = log5 x Output
3, 2, 1, 0, –1

Graphs of logarithmic functions WS

What do the graphs of y = log x, y = ln x, y = log5 x, y = log2 x, etc., look like?

Plotting log functions

As the Preliminary work mentioned, it is anticipated that you are familiar Use your calculator to
with how the graph of y = af [b(x - c)] + d, view the graphs of
differs from that of y = f (x). y = loga x for various
values of a > 0.
In particular, starting with y = f (x):
• Multiplying the right hand side of the equation by ‘a’ stretches (dilates) the graph parallel to the
y-axis with scale factor ‘a’. If ‘a’ is negative the graph is also reflected in the x-axis.
1
• Replacing x by bx dilates the graph parallel to the x-axis with a scale factor of .
b
• Replacing x by x - c translates the graph c units to the right.
(If c is negative the translation is to the left).
• Adding ‘d’ to the right hand side of the equation translates the graph d units vertically upwards.
(If d is negative the translation is vertically downwards.)

INVESTIGATE

Are these same effects evident when we consider the graphs of logarithmic functions?

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 19

 Exercise 1E
1 Determine the coordinates of the point where the graph of y = log2 (x + 8) cuts
a the x-axis, b the y-axis.

2 What are the coordinates of the point that is common to all graphs of the form y = logp x?

3 Find the coordinates of the point where the graph of y = loga x cuts the line y = 1.

4 What is the equation of the vertical asymptote of the graph of

a y = logp x? b y = logp (x - 3)? c y = logp x - 3?

5 The graph below shows y = log5 x.

y
2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

5 10 x
−0.5

−1.0

Use the graph to determine approximate solutions to each of the following.

a log5 x = 0.5, b log5x = 1.5, c x - 50.8 = 0, d log5 (x - 1) = 1.3.
e Now solve each of the equations algebraically, with the assistance of your calculator to
evaluate powers, giving answers rounded to 3 decimal places.

6 The graph below shows y = loga x, y = loga (x - b), and y = loga x + c.

Determine the values of a, b and c given that they are all positive integers.
y
8

5 10 15 20 x
−1

−2

−3

−4

20 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

Logarithmic scale
The number line below shows a linear scale.
Suppose we start at a particular number location on this line. If moving a particular distance to the
right (or left), increases (or decreases) the number we are located at by, say, 10, then on this linear scale
all such movements of this size will increase (or decrease) the number we are located at by 10.

−10 −10 +10 +10 +10

−20 −10 0 10 20 30

However, on a logarithmic scale, if moving a particular distance to the right (or left) multiplies (or
divides) the number we are located at by, say, 10, then all such movements to the right (or left) will
multiply (or divide) by 10.

÷10 ÷10 ×10 ×10 ×10

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

In this way, in a logarithmic scale, the distance between consecutive powers of ten is constant.

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103

Notice that the logarithmic scale shown above displays the numbers 1 to 1000 in the space that the
linear scale at the top of the page displayed just zero to 30. This ability to display a greater range
in the same space is one feature that makes logarithmic scales useful. Consider again Situation One
encountered at the beginning of this chapter, for example. It would be difficult on a linear scale to show
both the comparatively small world population of one million and the much larger current population
of more than seven billion. Use of a logarithmic scale may solve this problem.
Before the ready availability of electronic
calculators a device called a slide rule was
a helpful aid when performing calculations.
The slide rule was marked using a
logarithmic scale rather than a linear scale.
By placing two such scales with the same base
together, and adding length a to length b, the
fact that
Shutterstock.com/nattul

logk a + logk b = logk (ab)

means that the combined length gives the
product a × b.

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 21

 Graphs with logarithmic scales
Some graph paper have a logarithmic scale on y
one axis (log-linear graph paper) or on both y = 10x
103 = 1000
axes (log-log paper). y = 8x

The log-linear graph on the right has a logarithmic y = 5x

scale on the y-axis. 102 = 100

On this graph, functions with equations of the form

y = ax 101 = 10 y = 2x
will appear as straight lines
(as indeed will all functions of the form y = kabx,
100 = 1
for k, a and b constants). 0 1 2 3 x

Use of logarithmic scales

As mentioned on the previous page, if we wish to display data that has a large range, a logarithmic scale
can be useful.
We have also already seen in this chapter that this ‘multiplication effect’ of a logarithmic scale is used
in the Richter scale of earthquake intensity, in the modelling of memory activity, in measuring the
acidity or alkalinity of solutions (the pH value) and in sound measurement (decibels). Three of these
applications are mentioned again below and also mention is made of the use of a logarithmic scale in
musical scales.

The Richter scale

A seismograph is an instrument that measures vibrations from an earthquake graphically. The base ten
logarithm of the amplitude of these measurements (corrected for the distance the seismograph is from
the earthquake epicentre) gives the strength of the earthquake on the Richter scale.
The use of base ten logarithms means that for each unit increase on the Richter scale, the amplitude
of the vibrations is multiplied by ten.

pH scale
The pH scale (potential of Hydrogen) is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. This is the
negative of the logarithm to the base ten of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per litre.
A pH of 7 is regarded as neutral. Pure water is neutral, it is neither acidic nor alkaline. The pH of pure
water is a reference point for acidity and alkalinity. A pH above 7 indicates a solution is alkaline, below
7 indicates the solution is acidic.
A solution with a pH of 3 is ten times as acidic as a solution with a pH of 4.
A solution with a pH of 10 is one hundred times as alkaline as a solution with a pH of 8.

22 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

Scale of loudness
The decibel (dB) scale measures loudness and is based on multiples of ten. Hence this too is a
logarithmic scale using base ten logarithms.

Shutterstock.com/Chilika77
Music scale
If one musical note has frequency f and another has frequency 2f the frequency ratio is said to be one
octave. Thus, each time the frequency doubles we go up one octave. This use of powers again means
that a logarithmic scale is used.
To determine how many doublings are involved in a change from a frequency f1 to f2 we solve
f2
= 2x
f1
 f   f 
Hence log  2  = x log 2   giving   x ≈ 3.32 log  2  .
 f1   f1 

Exercise 1F
1 A particular scale measures N as a function of L according to the rule
N = -log10 (2L) .
-8
Find a N when L = 3.2 × 10 ,
b L when N = 9.5.

2 If x octaves are involved between a note of frequency f1 hertz (Hz) and one of f2 Hz then
1  f 
x= × log  2  .
log 2  f1 
a How many octaves are there between a frequency of 20 Hz to one of 50 Hz?
b If something has a frequency range of 3 octaves, and the lower frequency is f1, express the
higher frequency in terms of f1.

3 The pH of a solution is defined as

pH = -log (H+),
where H+ is the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per litre.
a Find H+ for pure water, pH = 7.
b Find the pH for lemon juice, H+ = 0.01 moles per litre.

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 23

 4 The ‘logit’ function (pronounced lowjit) is used in some branches of probability and statistics.
If p is the probability of an event occurring then
 p 
logit (p) = ln  .
 1 − p 
a If p = 0.2 find logit (p) giving your answer correct to two decimal places.
b If logit (p) = 4 find p giving your answer correct to two decimal places.
c If an event has a probability of occurring of p what is the significance of logit (p)
being negative?
 x 
d If, for real x and real k, ln  = k, show that x will always be between zero and one,
 1 − x 
whatever the value of k.

5 Comment on the following statement:

The cost of the damage caused
by an earthquake of Richter scale 7
is ten times that of one with Richter scale 6.

Shutterstock.com/Darrenp
6 With the linear scale shown below indicating 0, 10 and 20,

0 10 20

we know where to mark 1, 2, 3, etc.:

0 10 20

However, with the logarithmic scale below, indicating 1, 10 and 100,

1 10 100

where would we mark 2, 4, 5, 20, 30, 50?

Try to draw such a logarithmic scale yourself with these numbers appropriately placed.
(Use 5 cm for the distance from 1 to 10, and the distance from 10 to 100, i.e. use 5 cm
to represent ‘multiplication by 10’.)
(As mentioned on page 21, before the ready availability of electronic calculators a device called
a slide rule used such a scale and was helpful in performing calculations.)

24 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205

Miscellaneous exercise one WS

This miscellaneous exercise may include questions involving the work of this chapter and the Logarithms review
ideas mentioned in the Preliminary work section at the beginning of the book.

Differentiate the following with respect to x.

1 5x3 2 x(x2 + 1)
x −3
3 4 (x3 + 1)4
2x + 5
5 ex 6 2ex

7 10ex 8 ex+ 3x2 + x3

9 e5x 10 3e4x

11 3e2x 12 2e3x + 3e2x

Write each of the following as exponential statements.

13 log3 81 = 4 14 log6 216 = 3

15 log2 (0.25) = -2 16 loga b = c

17 loga c = b 18 logb a = c

19 logc a = b 20 logx 2 = 5

Write each of the following as logarithmic statements.

21 23 = 8 22 25 = 52

23 4-1 = 0.25 24 2-3 = 0.125

25 7x = y 26 a2 = p

27 10y = z 28 x = ey

Evaluate each of the following (without the assistance of a calculator).

29 log2 32 30 log5 125

31 log10 10 32 log 1000

33 5 + ln e 34 4 - ln e2

ISBN 9780170395205 1. Logarithmic functions 25

  1
35 6 ln e 36 log2 8 + ln  
 e
37 loga 1 38 loga a

39 loga (a3) 40 log a a

Use natural logarithms to solve each of the following equations, giving exact answers.

41 ex + 1 = 12 42 ex + 2 = 25

43 ex - 1 = 150 44 e2x + 1 = 34

45 5ex + 1 + 3ex + 1 = 200 46 e2x - 12ex = -35

Express each of the following as a single logarithm.

47 3 log x + log y 48 2 log x - 3 log y

49 2 log a + log b - 3 log c 50 3 + log x

51 2 + ln x 52 3 - ln x + 2 ln y

53 A particular company required P tonnes of fossil fuel in 2010. Figures suggest that this annual
requirement is increasing in such a way that t years after 2010 the company will require
Pe0.1t tonnes. If this suggested rule is correct, by what year will the requirement for fossil
fuel for this company be approximately five times its 2010 requirement?

Shutterstock.com/cornfield

54 A body is initially at rest at an origin, O. It then moves in a straight line such that its acceleration,
t seconds later, is 0.1e0.1t m/s2.
a Find the velocity of the body when t = 10.
b Find the displacement of the body from O when t = 10.
c Find a formula involving T for the distance the body travels from t = T to t = T + 1.
Use your formula from c to determine, correct to 3 decimal places, the distance the body moves in
d the third second,
e the tenth second.

26 MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205