Clru 85

Diffraction

The centre P willbe always bright.

Fringe width B= DA
d
Here. D= distancebetween the screen and
the wireand d = diameter of the
Effect ofinereasingthe thickness ofthe wire :Ifthe thickness of the wire wire. iincreased,
is gradually
the width ofthe interference fringes decreases. Ifthe wire is sufficientlythick, theiinterferencefringes
4 completely disappear. The intensity, however, falls off rapidly as we enter the geometrical shadow
from either side. The difractionpattem in the
illuminated region remains
To measure the diameter of a wire: Anarrow vertical slit, a narrowunaffected.
wire and a micrometer
eyepicce are arranged on an optical bench. The centres of these components are arranged to lie in
the same horizontal line. When the slit is
illuminated with monochromatic light. interference tring
of cqual width are seen within the geometrical
D. the distance between the slit and the
shadow of the wire. The fringe width is measured.
cross-wires is also measured. is known.
Sh .. The diameter of the wire =d=DNB.
Example:lfthe diameter of awire be 2 x 10 m, calculate the separation between the fringes
formed on a screen placed at 0.5m. from the wire. The
5x 10'm and is placed at afinite distance from the wire. light source used has a wavelength oJ
Solution : The two edges of the wire act as if two small coherent sources are
They, therefore, produce equidistant interference bands. situated there.
Diameter of the wire = Distance between coherent sources = 2x 10 m:
D= distance between wire and screen =0.5m; ,=5 x 10- m;
B=?
DA 0.5 x (5 x 10-)
B= =1.25 x 10 m.
2x 104

3.10. Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit

Let aparallel beam of monochromatic light of
wavelength be incident normally upon a narrow P,
slit of width AB= a (Fig. 3.18). The diffracted light Screen
is focused by a convex lens on a screen placed in A

the focal plane of the lens. The diffraction pattern P.

obtained on the screen consists of a central bright
reg band, having alternate dark and weak bright bands
V.I.L P
of decreasing intensity on both sides. B
e up As a plane wavefront is incident on the slit
nim p
AB, each point on the wavefront becomes a source
S in!
of secondary wavelets. The rays diffracted along Fig. 3.18.
the direction of incident rays are focused at 0. The
ecer point O is optically equidistant from all points on the slit AB. Therefore, all the secondary wavelets
ffec from ABreach O in the same phase. Hence there is maximum intensity at 0.
lue i Let us consider the intensity at any point P above 0. The secondary waves travelling at an angle
ma e with the normal are focused at P,. Let AC be drawn perpendicular to BC. The optical lengths of
may all the rays from the plane 4C to the focal point P, are the same. The path difference between the
Sou secondary waves originating from extreme points Aand B is
ep BC = AB sin 9 = a sin 0.
of
Let this path difference be one wavelength. If now we imagine the aperture AB to be divided
intotwo equal halves, then the wavelets from corresponding points in each half will differ inphase
 86 Optics and.Spectroscop
at P, by W2. other's effect thus
first They would mutually interfere and cancel out cach
minimum at P,.
BC= a sin8 =
producing t
or
(:: is v
sin 6 =
very Smal
Hence the first minimum on either side eofO will occur in adirection given by

dividedSuppose
a
for
into four another point P, the path difference BCis 2 A. Now the slit can be supposed
two halves of equal parts. The rays from corresponding points separated by adistance al4 to be
and cancel outeach half of the slit will have a path difference ofN2. These rays will mutualy in the
each other. A
second minimum, therefore, occurs at P, in a direction given by interfere
In general the BC= asin = 2.
rays an even various
multiple ofsecondary
is
N2 or an minima will occur when the path difference between theextreme
integral multiple of .
For minima, BC=
Besides the central
on either
a sin 9 = 2n (N2) = nh
..(1)
side of the maximum there are secondary maxima which lie in between the minima
at O,
difference BC is an oddcentral (principal)
multiple of N2. maximum. These are situated in directions in which the path
. For
N2 ..(2) seçondary maxima, BC =a sin =
(2n + 1)
The intensity of
and falls off these secondary
rapidly as we move maxima is much less ‘ Intensity
Thus the
of a central
outwards.
diffraction patterm due to a single slit
bright
maxima and minimamaximum at O consists
on both the followed by secondary
Fig. 3.19 shows the sides.
from the centre of the variation of intensity with distance
Let f be the focal
central maximum.
length of the
first mninimum fromcollimating
x= distance of the lens. Let Distance from 0 Distance from
Centre
lens is very 0. If the Centre
lens, then
near the slit or the screen is far awaycollimating
from the
Fig. 3.19.

9x
sin
a
a

.:. Width of the

Central maximum= 2x=JA
a
Hence the width of the central
maximum is proportional to the wavelength of light )
(3,11. Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Double Slit
Let AB and CD be two parallel slits of X

and separated by an opaque distance b equal width a

a+ b
S,A
plane wave-front be incident normally upon (Fig.3.20). Let a M
light diffracted from these slits is the slits. The
focused
a screen XY placed in the focal plane of
by a lens L on
lens L. The slits
and the screen are perpendicular to the plane of the
pape.
Fig. 3.20.
 Diftration
By Huygvgen's
drctons. Al thepriwiple,
waveletsinall
sevOndaryevery
wavespoit in the in
travelling slitstheABdirection
and CDofíncident light come tofocusat O.
sends out secondary
Frunthe theory of
ditlraction
trom cach sht n a dinection 9 is
at asingle slit, he
resultant amplitude Rdueto waveletsdiffracted
R= 4Sin
Here 4 is a constant being
Ru Sin / equal to the amplitude due to a single slit when e = 0, and
We can, therefore, consider the
bylerta middle points S, and S, of the slits andtwo slits as equivalent to two coherent sources placed at
to the nonal. Hence the each sending a wavelet of
waves of same amplitude Rand a amplitude at P will be due toamplitude
resultant Asin o/a in a
the direcuo
phase difference . interference between the twO
S,Mis the
wavelets from S,perpendicular drawn
and S, is (a + b)sinfrom
S, on S,P. Then the path
Let o =(2^) (a + b) sin = 2B
0. The
corresponding phasedifference
differenceS,Mbetween
is (2/ ) (a+secondarY
b) sin 6.
nineingpa Fromthe triangle of amplitudes(Fig. 3.21), the
at P is resultant
amplitude R
R'2 = R' + R' + 2RR
cos
= 2R' (1 + cos ¢) =
2R'.2 cos² (0/2) = 4 R cos (0/2)
Substituting the values of R and ), we get Fig, 3.21.

R2= 442 sin cos B

a?
Hence intensity at P would be

I= 442 Sin a cos B

from a?
Thus the resultant intensity at any point depends on
(i) (44' sin two factors :
maximum
)/a:This factor gives the diffraction effects due to a single slit.
in the
direction a = 0. The central maximum has on There is a central
secondary maxima of diminishing intensity. either side alternate minima and
The angular positions of minima are
where n=1,2,3, . The positions of given by = Tt
secondary maxima are at ,=t 3T 2 ST .7
2 2
(ii)The second term cos B is due to
the combined effect of both the
interference. The intensity will be maximum when cos² B= 1.
slits and hence is due to
ie.,B= t nt where n =0, 1, 2, 3... , or
(a + b) sin =tnt
(at b) sin = tnh
P The intensity will be minimum when
cos B=0 or B=+(2n + 1)/2
(a+b)sin =±(2n +1) or (a+ b)sin = t (2n + 1)
2
2
88
Optics and Spectrosco
Fig.3distribution
intensity .22(u) and Fig.3.22 (b) represent the
L4? sin a)y and determined bythe factors
resultant intensity iscosgivenBrespect
by Fig.ively. The
sin?
a
3.22 (c).
valueMissing
of e, orders. Suppose
the for some
simultaneously following conditions are
satisfied:
(at b) sin = n
-3 -2T - 0
2n 3n
a sin = p. interference maxima... (1)
(a)

diffraction minima
Thus the positions of . (2)
maxima
at the correspond to the
certain interference
same positions ondifraction minima 0 2r 3n 4r
result, the the screen.
in this interference patterm will be As a SIn
A2
(b) B

direction 9. missing
a+b Dividing Eq. (1) by Eq. (2), we get A
a

If a = b, then (c)
n/p =2 or n= 2p.
Ifp=1,2,
Thus the
3, etc., then n
=2,4, 6 etc.
Fig. 3.22.

with diffractionorders 2,4,6of etc., ofthe interference maxima will be

minima lst, 2nd, 3rd, etc., missing. That is, they will coincide
3.12. Plane order_.)
An Transmission
arrangement Diffraction of
ofa large numberGrating
one another by equal consisting
opaque spaces is called a parallelslits of equalwidth and
It is
constructed
plane glass plate. by ruling
equidistant diffraction grating. separatedfrom
any two lines is The ruled parallel lines
lines are opaque to light. with a fine diamond point on an
to These
transparent light. The spaces are called the called opacities. The space in optically
are
transmission
Theory
grating.
: Consider a transparencies. Such a grating between
is called
CD, EF... are the parallel beam of light incident
portion be b. Then the transparent slits. Let the width of eachnormally
slit be
on a grating XY (Fig.
3.23). AB,
in the distance (a + b) is called the grating a and the width of each
of the consecutive slits
light issuing fromseparated by the distance (a+ b) are constant or grating element. Theopaque points
the spaces will go called the
the wavelength of light, part straight on. But
of this light spreads out in all as the `corresponding points'
width of spaces is comparable . Most
(i) Suppose a directions, on leaving the slits. to
telescope
Then the rays issuing out with its axis normal to the grating is placed in the path of
the lens L. All the rays normally are brought to focus at a point O lying on the
diffracted light.
a central bright band reaching are in phase with each other. Hence the rays principal axis of
O
(central maximum).
(ii)The rays diffracted at an reinforce producing
in different phases. Draw AK angle with the grating normal reach P, on passing
path difference between the rays perpendicular to the direction of the diffracted light. through
Then CN
the lens
is the
diffracted from the
The path difference CN= AC sin = (a+ b) sintwo corresponding points Aand Cat an angle .
0.
If this path difference is an even
multiple of N2, then the point P will be bright.
Hence for maximum intensity, we have
(a+ b) sin =tnh
Diflraction 89

Screen
X

P,
A
B

AB = a: BC = b
Y

Fig. 3.23.
where n is an integer, 0, 1,2, 3, etc. n is
called
The point P will be dark if (a+ b) sin the order of the interference maximum.
=+ (2n + 1)N2.
Thus the diffracted rays from any pair of
or destructive interference at a point P correspondingpoints ofthe slits will produce constructive
N2. This condition holds true for all the according as the path difference is an even or
odd
slits in the entire grating surface. We findrays from the corresponding points of any pair ofmultiple of
adjoining
For n =0, we get central maximum attherefore that brightness and darkness are alternate.
O. When n =0, sin 9 =0 and =0.
Hence, when there is no diffraction, the light travels
straight and is said to be of zero order.
For n =t1, sin 0, =t
(a+ b)
This gives the condition for the first order
principal maximum intensity point on either side of
0, i.e., at P, and P. The intensity at P, is less than the intensity at O.
22
For n = t2, sin , =t
(a+ b)
This gives the direction of the second order
principal maxima.
32
For ±3, sin 0, = t
(a+b)
This gives the Iilorder principal maximum and so on.
Let monochromatic light be incident normally on a grating. || order
Then there will be a central bright image of the source with R2
| order
bright images on either side corresponding to different orders.
Let white light be incident normally ona grating. Then the Zero Order
central image is white, since for n= 0, we have =0 irrespective
of 2. When n= 1,sin0, =N(atb). Hencethe angle of diffraction order
will change with the wave length. Since , >,, 6,>0, Each R2
wavelength gives rise to its own principal maximum in each I| order
order. Hence each order willconsist of a spectrum.
Fig, 3.24.
 92
Optics and. Spectroscay
Here, (a +b) is called grating element. If the grating element (a +b) and the angle of
Afor order n are detemined, then Acan be
() Deternmination of (a +b) : On
Nbe the number of ulings per inch. Thenevery
calculated.
grating, the number of rulings per inch is
dif racl
in Determination of angle of (a + b) =0,0254/N metre.
diffraction : Adjust a spectrometer (Fig. 3.26) for
writ en.
L
luninate the slit with the source whose
telescope. Rotate the telescope by 90° and fix wavelength is required. Take the direct woth
are vertical and the ruled it. Mount the reading
of
grating on the prism table so that the nul
the prism table. Rotate the surface is at the centre of
of the slit refiected by the prism table until the image Ditfraction
grating coincides with
intersection of the cross-wires in the telescope. Take the Grating
the reading of the prism
by 45° in the proper table. Rotate the prism table Collimator Telescope
the grating is normal fromdirection so that the plane of
the
prism table. In this position, thecollimatorisand fix the Fig. 3.26.
the incident light (Fig. grating normal to
3.27).
Collimator
45 °
90
90
45°

Telescope

(a) (b) ( c) (d)

Fig 3.27.
Bring the telescope to take the directreading. Get the first order spectrum in the telescope. Make
the cross-wire coincide with the various spectral lines one after another. Take the reading in each
case. The difference between this and the direct reading gives the angle of diffraction. The angle of
diffraction may be found for the spectrum on the other side of the normal as well as for other orders
of spectra. The readings are tabulated as shown below:
Order Colour Vernier Reading
20
Left Right

Let be the mean angle of diffraction for a wavelength in the nth order. Thus knowing
(a+b), and n, can be calculated.
Minimum deviation method: The telescope is turned and the central bright image of thetable slit is
image is located. The prism is
located. The telescope is turned further away and the first order of the collimator. This is continued
towards the axis
rotated in such a direction as to shift the image
reaches its limiting position. The telescope is turned using the fine motion screw until
image
until the
of the crosswires coincides with the image. The reading R,on the circular
the point of intersection
scale js noted.