Nonlinear Analysis of Structures-1

 References:
1-W.F. Chen, D.J. Han, "Plasticity for Structural Engineers”, Springer-Verlag, 1988
2-W.F. Chen, “Plasticity in Reinforced Concrete”, McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1982.
3-K.J. Bathe, “Finite Element Procedures in Engineering analysis”, Prentice –Hall Inc., 1982.
4- M. Bakhoum, "Structural Mechanics", volumes I, and II, ISBN 977-00-3200-x, Cairo, Egypt,
1992.
5- J. Bonet, R. D. Wood, "Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics for Finite Element Analysis", ISBN
0-521-57272-X, Cambridge University Press 1997.

1- Tour of Nonlinear Analysis

1.1. Introduction
This part reviews nonlinear structural problems by looking at the manifestation and
physical sources of nonlinear behavior. The term response is a pictorial characterization of
nonlinearity of a structural system. Response is a graphical representation of the fundamental
concept of equilibrium path. This concept permeates the entire path because of both its intrinsic
physical value and the fact that incremental solution methods are based on it. Nonlinearities are
classified according to their source in the mathematical model of continuum mechanics and
correlated with the physical system. Examples of these nonlinearities in practical engineering
applications are given next.

1.2. Equilibrium Path and Response Diagrams

The concept of equilibrium path plays a central role in explaining the mysteries of
nonlinear structural analysis. This concept lends itself to graphical representation in the form of
response diagrams. The most widely used form of these pictures is the load-deflection response
diagram. Through this representation many key concepts can be illustrated and interpreted in
physical, mathematical or computational terms.

1.2.1. Load-deflection response

The gross or overall static behavior of many structures can be characterized by a load-
deflection or force-displacement response. The response is usually drawn in two dimensions as
an x -y plot as illustrated in Figure 1. In this figure a “representative” force quantity is plotted
against a “representative” displacement quantity. If the response plot is nonlinear, the structure
behavior is nonlinear.
It should be noted that a response diagram generally depicts relationships between
inputs and outputs. Or, in more physical terms, between what is applied and what is measured.
For structures the most common inputs are forces and the most common outputs are
displacements or deflections. It should be noted that a deflection is the magnitude or amplitude
of a displacement, whereas displacements are vector quantities deflections are scalars. Also, this
type of response should not be confused with what in structural dynamics is called the response
time history. A response history involves time, which is the independent variable, plotted usually
along the horizontal axis, with either inputs or outputs plotted vertically. The qualifier
“representative” implies a choice among many possible candidates. For relatively simple
structures the choice of load and deflection variables is often clear-cut from considerations such
as the availability of experimental data. For more complex structures the choice may not be
obvious, and many possibilities may exist. The load is not necessarily an applied force but may
be an integrated quantity: for example the weight of traffic on a bridge, or the total lift on an
Nonlinear Analysis 1
airplane wing.

1.2.2. Terminology
A continuous curve shown in a load-deflection diagram is called a path. Typically the
path is smooth (that is, it has a continuous tangent) except at exceptional points discussed later.
This property can be briefly stated as: paths are piecewise smooth.

Representative (a) Representative (b)

load load
Critical point

Secondary path

Equilibrium path Fundamental or

primary path
Initial linear
Representative response Representative
deflection deflection
Reference state Reference state

Figure (1). Response diagrams: (a) typical load-deflection diagram showing equilibrium path; (b)
diagram distinguishing fundamental (primary) from secondary equilibrium path.

Each point in the path represents a possible configuration or state of the structure. If the path
represents configurations in static equilibrium it is called an equilibrium path. Each point in an
equilibrium path is called an equilibrium point. An equilibrium point is the graphical
representation of an equilibrium state or equilibrium configuration. See Figure 1(a).
The origin of the response diagram (zero load, zero deflection) is called the reference
state because it is the configuration from which loads and deflections are measured. It should be
noted, however, that the reference state may be chosen rather arbitrarily by appropriately
adjusting the load and/or deflection axes. This freedom is exploited in some nonlinear
formulations and solution methods to simplify explanations.
For problems involving perfect structures the reference state is unstressed and
undeformed, and is also an equilibrium state. This means that an equilibrium path passes through
the reference state, as in Figure 1(a). A perfect structure involves some form of idealization such
as perfectly centered loads or perfect fabrication. An imperfect structure is one that deviates from
that idealization in measurable ways.
The path that crosses the reference state is called the fundamental equilibrium path, or
fundamental path for short. (Many authors also call this a primary path.) The fundamental path
extends from the reference state up to special states called critical points which are introduced in
2.3.1. Any path that is not a fundamental path but connects with it at a critical point is called a
secondary equilibrium path or secondary path for short. See Figure 1(b). Qualifiers
“fundamental” and “secondary” are linked with the relative importance of these equilibrium
paths in design. Most structures are designed to operate in the fundamental path when in service,
with some sort of safety factor against reaching a critical point. But knowledge of secondary
paths may be important in some aspects of the design process, for example in the assessment of
structural behavior under emergency scenarios (e.g., a vehicle crash or a building hit by an

Nonlinear Analysis 2
earthquake), which may directly or indirectly affect safety.

1.2.3. Special Equilibrium Points

Certain points of an equilibrium path have special significance in the applications and
thus receive special names. Of particular interest to our subject are critical, turning and failure
points.

1.2.3.1. Critical points

Critical points are characterized mathematically as explained later. It is sufficient to
mention here that there are two types:
 Limit points, at which the tangent to the equilibrium path is horizontal, i.e. parallel to the
deflection axis, and
 Bifurcation points, at which two or more equilibrium paths cross.
At critical points the relation between the given characteristic load and the associated
deflection is not unique. Physically, the structure becomes uncontrollable or marginally
controllable there. This property endows such points with engineering significance from a design
standpoint.

1.2.3.2. Turning points

Points at which the tangent to the equilibrium path is vertical, i.e. parallel to the load
axis, are called turning points. These are not critical points and have less physical significance,
although they are of occasionally of interest in connection with the so-called “snap-back”
phenomena. Turning points may have computational significance, however, because they can
affect the performance of certain “path following” solution methods.

1.2.3.3. Failure points

Points at which a path suddenly stops or “breaks” because of physical failure are called
failure points. The phenomenon of failure may be local or global in nature. In the first case (e.g.,
failure of a noncritical structure component) the structure may regain functional equilibrium after
dynamically “jumping” to another equilibrium path. In the latter case the failure is catastrophic
or destructive and the structure does not regain functional equilibrium.
In this presentation, bifurcation, limit, turning and failure points are often identified by
the letters B, L, T and F, respectively. Equilibrium points that are not critical are called regular.

1.3. Linear Response

A linear structure is a mathematical model characterized by a linear fundamental
equilibrium path for all possible choices of load and deflection variables. This is shown
schematically in Figure 2.
The consequences of such behavior are not difficult to foresee:
1- A linear structure can sustain any load level and undergo any displacement magnitude.
2- There are no critical, turning or failure points.
3- Response to different load systems can be obtained by superposition.
4- Removing all loads returns the structure to the reference position.

The requirements for such a model to be applicable are:

 Perfect linear elasticity for any deformation
 Infinitesimal deformations
 Infinite strength
Nonlinear Analysis 3
 These assumptions are not only physically unrealistic but mutually contradictory. For
example, if the deformations are to remain infinitesimal for any load, the body must be rigid
rather than elastic, which contradicts the first assumption. Thus, there are necessarily limits
placed on the validity of the linear model. Despite these obvious limitations, the linear model can
be a good approximation of portions of the nonlinear response. In particular, the fundamental
path response in the vicinity of the reference state. See for instance Figure 1(b). Because for
many structures this segment represents the operational or service range, the linear model is
widely used in design calculations. The key advantage of this idealization is that the
superposition-of-effects principle applies.

Representative (a) (b)

Control parameter λ
load
goes on forever

Linear fundamental path Equilibrium path

Representative State parameter  or u

deflection
Reference state Reference state
Figure 2. Two response diagram specializations: (a) linear response; (b) parameterized form.

1.4. Tangent Stiffness and Stability

The tangent to an equilibrium path may be informally viewed as the limit of the ratio of
Force increment per displacement increment. This is by definition a stiffness or, more precisely,
the tangent stiffness associated with the representative force and displacement. The reciprocal
ratio is called flexibility or compliance. The sign of the tangent stiffness is closely associated
with the question of stability of an equilibrium state. A negative stiffness is necessarily
associated with unstable equilibrium. A positive stiffness is necessary but not sufficient for
stability. If the load and deflection quantities are conjugate in the virtual work sense, the area
under a load-deflection diagram may be interpreted as work performed by the system.

1.5. Parameterized Response

It is often useful to be able to parameterize the load-displacement curve of Figure 1 in
the following way. A control-state response involves two ingredients:
1- A control parameter, called λ, plotted along the vertical axis versus
2- A state parameter, called u or µ, plotted along the horizontal axis.
Where λ and u (or µ) characterize in some way the actions applied to the structure and the state
of the structure, respectively. A diagram such as that shown in Figure 2(b) is called a control-state
response. In practice the control parameter is usually a load amplitude or load factor, whereas the
state parameter is a displacement amplitude. Thus the usual load-deflection response is one form of
the control-state response.

1.6. Response Flavors

The response diagrams in Figure 3 illustrate three “monotonic” types of response: linear,

Nonlinear Analysis 4
hardening, and softening. In these diagrams symbols F and L identify failure and limit points,
respectively. The response shown in (a): linear until fracture, is characteristic of pure crystals,
glassy, as well as certain high strength composite materials that contain such materials as fibers.
The response illustrated by (b) is typical of cable, netted and pneumatic (inflatable) structures,
which may be collectively called tensile structures. The stiffening effect comes from geometry
“adaptation” to the applied loads. Some flat-plate assemblies also display this behavior initially
because of load redistribution as membrane stresses develop while the midsurface stretches. A
response such as in (c) is more common for structure materials than the previous two. A linear
response is followed by a softening regime that may occur suddenly (yield, slip) or gradually.
More “softening flavors” are given in Figure 4.
(a) (b) (c)
F F L

R R R
Figure 3. Basic flavors of nonlinear response: (a) Linear until brittle failure; (b) Stiffening or
hardening; (c) Softening.

The diagrams of Figure 4 illustrate a “combination of basic flavors” that can complicate the
response as well as the task of the analyst. Here B and T denote bifurcation and turning points,
respectively. The snap-through response (d) combines softening with hardening following the
second limit point. The response branch between the two limit points has a negative stiffness and
is therefore unstable. (If the structure is subject to a prescribed constant load, the structure “takes
off” dynamically when the first limit point is reached.) A response of this type is typical of
slightly curved structures such as shallow arches. The snap-back response (e) is an exaggerated
snap-through, in which the response curve “turns back” in itself with the consequent appearance
of turning points. The equilibrium between the two turning points may be stable and
consequently physically realizable. This type of response is exhibited by trussed-dome, folded
and thin-shell structures in which “moving arch” effects occur following the first limit point; for
example cylindrical shells with free edges and supported by end diaphragms.
(d) (e) (f) (g)

L L B B
T
F B

T T
L F F
L
L F

R R R R
Figure 4. More complex response patterns: (d) snap-through, (e) snap-back, (f) bifurcation,
Nonlinear Analysis 5
 In all previous diagrams the response was a unique curve. The presence of bifurcation
(popularly known as “buckling” by structural engineers) points as in (f) and (g) introduces more
features. At such points more than one response path is possible. The structure takes the path that
is dynamically preferred (in the sense of having a lower energy) over the others. Bifurcation
points may occur in any sufficiently thin structure that experiences compressive stresses.
Bifurcation, limit and turning points may occur in many combinations as illustrated in (g). A
striking example of such a complicated response is provided by thin cylindrical shells under axial
compression

1.7. Engineering Applications

Nonlinear Structural Analysis is the prediction of the response of nonlinear structures by
model-based simulation. Simulation involves a combination of mathematical modeling,
discretization methods and numerical techniques, and the finite element methods dominate the
discretization step. Table 1 summarizes the most important applications of nonlinear structural
analysis.
Table 1 Engineering Applications of Nonlinear Structural Analysis
Application Explanation

Strength analysis How much load can the structure support before
global failure occurs?
Deflection analysis When deflection control is of primary importance

Stability analysis Finding critical points (limit points or bifurcation

points) closest to operational range
Service configuration analysis Finding the “operational” equilibrium form of certain
slender structures when the fabrication and service
configurations are quite different (e.g. cables, inflatable
structures)
Reserve strength analysis Finding the load carrying capacity beyond critical
points to assess safety under abnormal conditions.
Progressive failure analysis A variant of stability and strength analysis in which
progressive deterioration (e.g. Cracking) is considered.

Envelope analysis A combination of previous analyses in which multiple

parameters are varied and the strength information
thus obtained is condensed into failure envelopes.

1.8. Sources of Nonlinearities

A response diagram characterizes only the gross behavior of a structure, as it might be
observed simply by conducting an experiment on a mechanical testing machine. Further insight
into the source of nonlinearity is required to capture such physical behavior with mathematical
and computational models for computer simulation.
For structural analysis there are four sources of nonlinear behavior. The corresponding
nonlinear effects are identified by the terms material, geometric, force B.C. and displacement
Nonlinear Analysis 6
B.C., in which B.C. means “boundary conditions”. To remember where the nonlinear terms
appear in the governing equations, it is useful to recall the fields that continuum mechanics deals
with, and the relationships among these fields. For linear solid continuum mechanics information
is presented in Figure 6. In linear solid mechanics or linear structural mechanics the connecting
relationships shown in Figure 6 are linear, and so are the governing equations obtained by
eliminating all fields but one. Any of these relations, however, may be nonlinear. Tracing this fact
back to physics gives rise to the types of nonlinearities depicted in Figure 7. Relations between body
force and stress (the equilibrium equations) and between strains and displacements (the kinematic
equations) are closely linked in a “duality” sense, and so the term geometric nonlinearities applies
collectively to both sets of relations. The force BC nonlinearities couple displacements and
applied forces (surface tractions and/or body forces) and thus bring the additional links drawn in
Figure 6. In the following sections these sources of nonlinearities are correlated to the physics in
more detail.

1.8.1. Geometric Nonlinearity

* Physical source. Change in geometry as the structure deforms is taken into account in setting
up the strain-displacement and equilibrium equations.
* Applications. Slender structures in aerospace, civil and mechanical engineering applications.
Tensile structures such as cables and inflatable membranes. Metal and plastic forming. Stability
analysis of all types.
* Mathematical model source. Strain-displacement equations, symbolically represented in
operator form as
ε = B(u). (1)

The operator B is nonlinear when finite strains (as opposed to infinitesimal strains) are expressed
in terms of displacements. Internal equilibrium equations:

Fb = −BT(τ). (2)

The term geometric nonlinearities models a myriad of physical problems:

 Large strain. The strains themselves may be large, say over 5%. Examples: rubber structures
(tires, membranes, air bags, polymer dampers), and metal forming. These are frequently
associated with material nonlinearities.
 Small strains but finite displacements and/or rotations. Slender structures undergoing finite
displacements and rotations although the deformational strains may be treated as infinitesimal.
Example: cables, springs, arches, bars, thin plates.
 Linearized prebuckling. When both strains and displacements may be treated as infinitesimal
before loss of stability by buckling. These may be viewed as initially stressed members. Example:
many civil engineering structures such as buildings and stiff (non-suspended) bridges.

1.8.2. Material Nonlinearity

* Physical source. Material behavior depends on current deformation state and possibly past
history of the deformation. Other constitutive variables (prestress, temperature, time, moisture,
electro-magnetic fields, etc.) may be involved.
* Applications. Structures undergoing nonlinear elasticity, plasticity, viscoelasticity, creep, or
in-elastic rate effects.

Nonlinear Analysis 7
 Displacement
BCs
Prescribed Displacements Body forces
displacement

Kinematic Equilibrium
Equations equations

Constitutive Force (Traction) Prescribed

Equations BCs Forces
Strains Stresses (or Tractions)

Figure 5. Fields in solid continuum mechanics and connecting relationships

û u=û
u fb
on Su

ε=Bu BTσ +fb =0

in V in V

τ=Eε τ = t^ t^
ε in V τ on St

Figure 6. Symbols and equations of Fig. 7 are written down for the linear case

Force B.C.
Displacement B.C. nonlinearities
nonlinearities

^
u u fb
Geometric
nonlinearities

Material
nonlinearities
^
ε τ t

Figure 7. Graphical depiction of sources of nonlinearities in solid and structural mechanics.

Nonlinear Analysis 8
* Mathematical model source. Constitutive equations that relate stresses and strains. For a
linear elastic material

τ = E ε , or ε = C τ, (3)

in which the elasticity matrix E contains elastic moduli and the compliance matrix C = E-1 (if E
is nonsingular) contains compliance coefficients. The engineering significance of material
nonlinearities varies greatly across disciplines. They seem to occur most often in civil
engineering that deals with inherently nonlinear materials such as concrete, soils and low-
strength steel. In mechanical engineering creep and plasticity are most important, frequently
occurring in combination with strain-rate and thermal effects. In aerospace engineering material
nonlinearities are less important and tend to be local in nature (for example, cracking and
“localization” failures of composite materials). Material nonlinearities may give rise to very
complex phenomena such as path dependence, hysteresis, localization, shakedown, fatigue,
progressive failure.

1.8.3. Force BC Nonlinearity

* Physical Source. Applied forces depend on deformation.
* Applications. The most important engineering application concerns pressure loads of fluids.
These include hydrostatic loads on submerged or container structures; aerodynamic and
hydrodynamic loads caused by the motion of aeriform and hydroform fluids (wind loads, wave
loads, and drag forces). Of more mathematical interest are non-conservative follower forces, but
these are of interest only in a limited class of problems, particularly in aerospace engineering.
* Mathematical model source. The applied forces (prescribed surface tractions t and/or body
forces b) depend on the displacements:

t = t(u), b = b(u). (4)

The former dependence (of surface forces) in (4) is more important in practice.

1.8.4. Displacement BC Nonlinearity

* Physical source. Displacement boundary conditions depend on the deformation of the
structure.
* Applications. The most important application is the contact problem, in which no-
interpenetration conditions are enforced on flexible bodies while the extent of the contact area is
unknown. Non-structural applications of this problem pertain to the more general class of free
boundary problems, for example: ice melting, phase changes, flow in porous media. The
determination of the essential boundary conditions is a key part of the solution process.
* Mathematical model source. For the contact problem: prescribed displacements d depend on
internal displacements u:

d = d(u), (5)

in which u is unknown. More complicated dependencies can occur in the free-boundary

problems in which finding the boundary extent is part of the

Nonlinear Analysis 9
 Problems to be solved (1)
1- Explain the difference, if any, between a load-deflection response and a control-state
response.
2- Can the following occur simultaneously: (a) a limit and a bifurcation point, (b) a bifurcation
and a turning point, (c) a limit and a turning point, (d) two bifurcation points coalescing into
one? If you answer “yes” to an item, sketch a response diagram to justify that reply.
3- Nonlinearities are classified according to physical source into geometric, material, force
boundary conditions, and displacement boundary conditions. For each of the following
mechanical systems indicate the source(s) of nonlinearity that you think are significant; note that
there may be more than one.
(a) a long, slender elastic pipe bent under end couples while the pipe material stays elastic. See
Figure E1.1.
(b) an inflating balloon. See Figure E1.2.
(c) a cable deflecting under action of wind forces while its material stays elastic. See Figure
E1.3.
(d) a forming process in which hot metal is extruded through a rigid die. See Figure E1.4.
(e) a metal anchor is drilled into the soil to serve as a cable support; the hole is then filled with
concrete. See Figures E1.5 and E1.6. The question refers to the soil-drilling process,
ignoring dynamics.
4- Can you think of a mechanical component that has the load-deflection response diagram
pictured in Figure E1.7? (Explain why). Hint: Think of a helicoidal spring.
Slender tube bent applied by end
couples applied by an eccentric
force pair

Figure E1.1. Slender elastic pipe bent under end couples

Wind wind load

Cable

Figure E1.2. Inflating balloon.

FigureE1.3. Cable deflecting under wind force

Nonlinear Analysis 10
 Die

Hot metal

Figure E1.4. Hot metal extruded trough a rigid die.

Figure E1.5. Drill element of a cable anchor.

(a) (b)

Hole

Concrete grouting

Figure E1.6. Configuration of cable anchor after drilling in the soil.

Nonlinear Analysis 11
Axial force B

II
III

R
Axial deflection (shortening)
Figure E1.7. A “mystery” response diagram

Nonlinear Analysis 12