Carbon and Its Compounds fea <> E Have you observed the ‘lead’ (which is, in fact, graphite and n | tead) in your pencil? Have you seen diamonds, coal or chara | Gompare their appearances andl properties OCCURENCE @ As you have learnt, carbon is an element with the symbol C, atomic number 6, Mass fig, 91st number 12 and electronic configuration 2, 4. of carbonat Carbon is an important element found in all living andm non-living things. It is found both in the free state (that is, as an element) and in the combined state (that is, a5: compound). Compounds derived from living matter are organic while those that are not are inorganic. Carbon is essential to life. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water combine to produce carbohydrates.1 is the source of carbon for plants and animals. When livi things die, the carbon compounds from their bodies a” released back into nature. This is known as the carbon cycle, Carbon is also present in the Sun and other stars, andi" the atmospheres of many planets in the form of ca"b0" dioxide. In the free state, carbon occurs as diamonds graphite, charcoal and so on. In the combined state from forming a part of al living things, carbon is ls? Present in several non-living things as hydrocarbons (su as in natural gas and crude oil) and as carbonates (s4°" *@.nchalk and limestone). Carbon also forms yxides (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide snd so on) and other compounds. Table 9.1 Organic carbon compounds Some examples of daily-life products containing carbon compounds are paper, wooden furniture, soaps and food items. Petroleum products that are widely used as fuels are hydrocarbons. Table 9.2 Inorganic carbon compounds are ee an ethane GH, propane GH ‘carbon dioxide benzene Sua carbon monoxide co imethylalcohol CH,OH Beane A sodium carbonate Na,co, ethyl alcohol GH,OH {qpmesnserspeueanatiennt —_________} copper carbonate cuco, formic acid HCOOH tt Sp a cuRGOH zinc carbonate pie S| GAHo, calcium carbonate calcium bicarbonate ca(HHco,), Allotropes of Carbon Elemental carbon occurs in different forms that are all in the solid state but are Physically distinct from one another. Their chemical properties are identical as they are allmade of the same element. When these forms are heated strongly, they all form Carbon dioxide. Co OO 2 carbon oxygen carbon dioxide Diamond and graphite look remarkably Unlike each other, though they are made up ntirely of the same element, carbon. Allotropy or allotropism (from the Greek “Ord allos, meaning ‘other’, and tropos Meaning ‘form’) is the property of an element to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state. The different forms are known as allotropes of the element. The term allotropy is used for elements only, and not for compounds. Allotropes are formed when the arrangement of atoms within an element varies. Carbon has many allotropes. They can be divided into two classes—crystalline and amorphous. In some solids, the atoms are arranged in a symmetrical pattern which repeats itself. These are called crystals, When there is no regular arrangement of atoms, the solid is amorphous, @CRYSTALLINE ALLOTROPES Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and fullerene. In these allotropes, the arrangement of carbon atoms is symmetric. Diamond Diamond is the most well-known allotrope of carbon. In the natural state, diamonds. occur as dull stones. Once cut and polished, they sparkle in the light. Diamond is the purest form of carbon. Formation Natural diamonds These are formed from pure carbon about 150 km below the Earth’s surface. It takes millions of years for the high pressure and temperature to transform carbon into diamond. These diamonds come to the surface along with molten lava. Synthetic diamonds These are artificial diamonds made ina laboratory by a process similar to that which occurs naturally. Here, graphite is subjected to intense heat and pressure till it transforms into a diamond. Properties * Diamond is a colourless and transparent. crystal. * Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance. * Itis a poor conductor of electricity but an excellent conductor of heat. Fora substance to conduct electricity, it must have electrons that are free to move about. In diamond, all the four valence electrons of each carbon atom are used up in forming four covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms. Hence, there are no free electrons to conduct electricity. Among the naturally occurring solids, diamond has the highest melting point Diamonds do not react with any chemi reagents, including strong acids and bases. Uses Due to their hardness, diamonds are us to make cutting, drilling, and grinding tools and in the semiconductor industy When the rough diamond is cut and polished, it is called a gem. It sparkles? shines and is used in jewellery. Structure of diamond In diamond, each carbon atom forms fout covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms, in a tetrahedral arrangement. A tetrahedron is a three-dimensional shape with four triangular faces. There is one carbon at each of the four corners of the tetrahedron and one at its centre. Each the comer carbons is bonded to three o! carbon atoms of neighbouring tetrahes? This network of interconnected tetrahed! 2.Pa ree dimensional lattice’ in : nd. This arrangement of carbon atoms da nely stable and very hard to break isextl gis what makes diamond the forms the th apart. Thi hardest natural substance. covalent bonds _—®& eX, ooo? ove $$$, ‘carbon atom Fig, 9.2 Structure of diamond Jewellery product controller Jewellery product controllers work with tandmade and cast jewellery. They are involved ‘nthe cutting, polishing and setting of diamonds, ‘epaiting and finishing of jewels, identification of femstones, designing of jewellery, and so on. a, 4 t | Surat in india, s the world’s largest cutting ‘nd polishing centre of rough diamonds. About. 0% ofthe world’s diamonds are polished here | oes Of these are exported. Antwerp in ‘tum is known as the capital of the diamond | Sant An area within the city is called the } fsren Quarter or the Square Mile since about pont the world’s rough diamonds and 50% of \ Polished diamonds pass through it. sen *¥epeated arrangement of particles ina crystal Graphite Graphite Is another crystalline allotrope of carbon. Properties * Graphite is a soft, dark grey, lustrous and flaky solid. * Its the most stable allotrope of carbon and has a high melting point. It isa good conductor of heat and electricity. In graphite, each carbon atom forms only three covalent bonds. Hence only three valence electrons are used in bond formation while the fourth one is available on each carbon atom. These electrons help in conducting electricity. Uses * Graphite is used as an electrode since it is a good conductor of electricity and is insoluble in most solvents. « The layered structure makes graphite useful as pencil leads. While writing with a pencil, layers of carbon slide off from the point and get deposited on the paper. * The carbon layers slide over each other easily which makes graphite a good lubricant in machines, to keep the various parts moving smoothly. * Itis used to make synthetic diamonds. Structure of graphite In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in flat sheets that are just one atom thick. 2Each carbon atom is attached to three other carbon atoms forming a sheet of interlinked hexagons. The sheets are arranged in layers stacked one above the other and are held together by weak forces. Asingle sheet of carbon atoms is called graphene. carbon atom layers of ‘carbon atoms Fig. 9.3 Structure of graphite Fullerene Fullerenes are a form of carbon where the molecules have a spherical or cylindrical shape. Each fullerene molecule can contain 30 to 900 atoms of carbon. Fig. 9.4 Structure of fullerene Types Spherical fullerene Buckminsterfullereng is the best known example of a spherical fullerene. Each molecule is a spherical hollow cage made up of 60 carbon atoms and resembles a football. It has 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal faces. Its named after the architect Buckminster Fuller who designed similar dome like structures. Buckminsterfullerene is also known as ‘Buckyballs! or C,,. Cylindrical fullerene In cylindrical fullerenes, the carbon atoms are arranged) to form a hollow cylinder. These are also known as carbon nanotubes. Properties * Fullerenes are excellent conductors of heat and electricity. * They have high tensile strength, thats, the strength or resistance of a substance) against breaking when pressure is applied. They do not break easily and resist being stretched. Uses * Fullerenes are used in the treatment of cancers. * They are used in cosmetics. * They are good antioxidants. «They are also used as lubricants and surface coatings. * They are used as superconductors th? is, substances that conduct electricitY with hardly any resistance. They are used in the semiconductor indus‘piamond : poor conductor of electricity :: graphite : ey Diao 34 atoms : graphite : ::lamond : Indric AMORPHOUS CARBON Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, charcoal, and soot. They do not have a crystalline structure since the carbon atoms. arearranged in a random manner. These forms of carbon are dull and crumble easily. Goal Formation Inthe absence of air, remains of plants and animals get converted to coal under high Pressure and temperature over millions Of years. As time progresses, the carbon Content in these remains keeps increasing. Thisis called carbonisation. The slow and complete conversion of plant a into coal under high pressure and “mperature is called coalification. pes of coal There 2re different types of coal which “mainly in the amount of carbon in them, Peat Remains that sank into water in swampy areas and lay buried under soil were compressed into peat. It contains only about 50% carbon and is spongy and porous. In some countries, peat is used as a domestic fuel for cooking. Lignite When peat gets compressed even more, it turns into lignite. This is a soft, fibrous, brown coal with 70% carbon. It is used in generating electricity. Bituminous coal With time and higher pressure from more layers of soil, lignite turns into bituminous coal. This form of coal is dark coloured with bright and dull bands and contains around 80% carbon. Bituminous coal is used as a fuel in power generation and for making coke. Anthracite Lignite and bituminous coal get converted to anthracite over time under great pressure and heat. Anthracite is made of about 85% carbon. It is black and has a high calorific value. Calorific value or heating value is the amount of heat released during the combustion of one unit of a fuel. Anthracite is also called hard coal. It is a rare form of coal and is expensive. 8 hhlignite Fig. 9.5 Formation of coal ses * Coal is used as a fuel in industries and in households. * Coke, coal tar, coal gas and ammoniacal liquor are produced by the destructive distillation of coal. * Coal is a source of compounds such as benzene and naphthalene. Destructive distillation Destructive distillation involves the heating of a substance in the absence of air. This causes its decomposition into different products. Some of the products obtained by the destructive distillation of coal are coke, coal tar, ammoniacal liquor and coal gas. Coke Coke is a solid residue left at the end of destructive distillation. It consists of 98% carbon. It is a fairly clean fuel and is therefore used in industries. It is also used in the extraction of iron. Coal tar It isa complex liquid mixture of carbon compounds. Earlier, it was used to prepare organic compounds such as 8. anthracite bituminous coal benzene and phenol. It is used in road construction and in the manufacture of dyes, plastics, pesticides and in skin medication. Ammoniacal liquor It is an impure soluti of ammonia, and is used to make nitroger fertilisers. Coal gas Itis a mixture of hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide and other gases. It was used as a fuel earlier, but h now been replaced by natural gas. It has high calorific value but pollutes the air. Charcoal Charcoal is a black porous solid. It is produced by the destructive distillation 0 some organic substances. Depending 0" the source from which they are produced different types of charcoal are formed. Aipes of charcoal Wood charcoal As the name suggests charcoal is prepared from wood. once th wood catches fire in a barrel, a lid is plac® thPero carry out the destructive distillation of coal : ' Materials required: powdered coal, distilled water, boiling tubes, Blass tubes, one-holed stopper, tworholed stopper, stand, Bunsen burner Method tube A coke 4, Place powdered coal in boiling tube A. 2, Take distilled water in boiling tube 8. coal gas: 3. Setup the apparatus as shown and heat the coal strongly. 4, After a few minutes, bring a lighted splint near the tip ‘of the glass tube from tube B. Observations and conclusions: A vapour forms when the coal | Isheated. It passes through the water in tube B. Coal tar, a - thick black liquid, settles at the bottom of tube B. Ammonia smmonlacal liquor Bunsen burner | dssoes in the water to form ammoniaca liquor, Coal gas i Fig. 9.6 Destructive distillation of coal released from tube B. dist cite t ‘burns with a yellow flame, The black residue left in tube Ais coke, over it to prevent air from entering. All Charcoal has a large surface area that is the moisture and the volatile impurities porous. It can adsorb’ colour from solutions are removed and what remains is wood and also odours and gases. It is converted to charcoal, activated charcoal to Improve its adsorption Bone charcoal Bone charcoal is produced capacity. byheating animal bones in a limited supply of air. It contains only 12% carbon, the Femaining being calcium compounds. These lcium compounds are dissolved in acid and tered to leave behind a black powder full of carbon, ses of charcoal Sugar, ‘82 charcoal_ Charcoal can be produced Charcoal is used: 5 the destructive distillation of cane sugar °' dehydration of cane sugar with sulphuric 2d, Thie “ld. Thisis called sugar charcoal. + asa fuel. * to decolourise solutions and to remove strong odours. GH,0, 25 12¢ + 11H,0 « in water purifier filters. re sugar carbon water * in gas masks to adsorb harmful gases. ~~ ‘ew sugar produced in sugar mills by crushing Sugarcane adsorption aphenomena in whicha substance holds ‘molecules of another substance on its surface bee:* inthe preparation of water gas. * inthe manufacture of gunpowder. Aim: To show that charcoal is a decolourlsing agent Materials required: two transparent bowls, water, red food colour, charcoal tablets Method 1. Take water in the two bowls. 2. Add the colour to both the bowls. 3, Add charcoal to one of the bowls. 4 Observe the coloured water after a day, Observations and conclusions: You will notice that the water in the bow! with charcoal turns from red to colourless. The water in the other bowl remains red. shows that charcoal is a decolourising agent. arbon Black or Lampblack When certain fuels are burned in limited supply of air, they form soot due to partial combustion. This is called carbon black and contains about 98% carbon. Wises of carbon black Carbon black is used: + asa pigment in making black paint and shoe polish. + in making printing ink cartridges. + in making rubber automobile tyres. + inmaking kaajal that is used as a cosmetic eyeliner. ‘Alm: To show that charcoal Is a good y adsorbent of gases Materials required: round bottom flask, iron sulphide, stand, two-holed stopper, delivery tu thistle funnel, dilute hydrochloric acid, Bunsen burner, charcoal tablets, gas jar, one-holed stopper Method, | 1, Take Iron sulphide in a round bottom flask } fixed toa stand. 2, Cover the round bottom flask with a two-holed cork. Pass the thistle funnel and the delivery tube through the cork. ‘Add drops of the acid through the funnel a heat the round bottom flask. Observe the smell in the air after the reaction, Place charcoal tablets in a gas jar closed wit @ one-holed cork. 6. Insert the other end of the delivery tube in the gas jar. 7% Observe the smell in the gas jar after some time, | Observations and conclusions: Hydrogen [sulphide smelling like rotten eggs is released in the reaction. However, itis adsorbed by charcoa ‘and hence the smell vanishes. thistle funnel | iron sulphide charcoal tablets Fig. 9.7 Adsorption by charcoal | | |A CHECKPOINT 4. ose the correct option. 1. The formula of acetic acid is 4) HCOOH b) C,H,OH 9) CH,COOH 4) CH,0, HO, 2 Theallotrope of carbon used in making carting tools is 4) coal «) fullerene b) graphite 4) diamond 3 isa rare and expensive type of coal, 4) Anthracite 6) Bituminous coal b) Lignite 4) Peat 4. Ablack solid formed by the destructive distillation of coal is 4) coaltar 9) coke b) graphite 4) charcoal 5. The purest form of carbon is __- 4) diamond b) charcoal ©) coke d) coal & Fillin the blanks. |. Graphite, coal and fullerene are —____— of carbon, 2 Allth allotropes of carbon form carbon diotide when heated with ___—- 3. In amorphous allotropes of carbon, the toms ae in sendin is a good decolourising agent. is used as a pigment in shoe polish, Short answer questions 1 ‘What is the reason for the hardness of diamond? Diamonds found in nature are dull stones. What makes diamonds used in jewellery sparkle and shine? Why is graphite used in pencil lead and as a lubricant? Whats the shape of buckministerfullerene? How many carbons does each molecule contain? What is amorphous carbon? Give three examples. D. Long-answer questions. 1: 2 Explain allotropes. What are the two types of allotropes of carbon? Explain their crystal structures. What is the reason for the difference in properties beoween diamond and graphite? What are the different types of charcoal? Mention the different uses of charcoal, How are the different types of coal formed?