CHEMISTRY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS–

CLASS 10
Introduction
Carbon is the third most important element after oxygen and hydrogen, for the existence of life on the earth.
It constitutes only 0.03% of earth’s crust. Over 400,000 compounds of carbon have been known, most of
which are produced naturally and some artificially by scientists. The bodies of all living beings are made up
of compounds of carbon. For fuel, food, clothing we have to depend entirely on carbon compounds. The vast
amount of energy needed to run factories is produced from carbon compounds like water gas, producer gas,
petroleum, etc.
It belongs to IV A group and second period in the periodic table. In 2 nd period carbon occupies position after
boron and before nitrogen. Carbon is a non–metal as it contains 4 electrons in the outermost shell. The other
elements of IV A group are silicon, germanium, tin and lead. Metallic character increases down the group.
This can be observed in IV A group as carbon is a non–metal; silicon and germanium are semi–conductors
whereas tin and lead are metals. This change from non metallic character to metallic character brings
diversity in the chemistry of these elements based on the group to which they belong.

Illustration: 1 Explain the occurrence of carbon.

Carbon exists in free as well as in combined state.
In free state, carbon occurs as diamond, graphite and coal. Diamond and graphite are pure
forms of carbon whereas coal is impure.

Illustration: 2 Explain the isotopes of carbon.

Carbon has 3 isotopes C–12, C–13 and C–14. The most stable isotope of carbon is C–12
whose abundance is 98.89%. Another stable isotope of carbon is C–13 present only 1.11%
in the atmosphere. C–14 is radioactive whose abundance is only 1.2×10 –10 %. Its half life
period is 5770 years and is used to calculate the age of rocks.

Allotropes of carbon
Allotropy is the phenomenon due to which an element exhibits different physical forms, which have same
chemical properties. The various physical forms of an element that exhibit allotropy are called as allotropes.
The main reason behind allotropy is different arrangement of atoms in the molecule of each allotrope.
Examples of some elements exhibiting allotropy are:
Sulphur: rhombic, monoclinic and plastic; Phosphorus: red and yellow
Like sulphur and phosphorus carbon also exhibits allotropy carbon has two important allotropic forms, for
Example diamond and graphite which are crystalline solids. In addition, carbon exists in non–crystalline
(amorphous) forms like coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and carbon black. Recently another important
allotropic form of carbon that is C60 has been discovered.

C12H22O11 11H2O + 12C

Diamond
Diamonds are found naturally in South Africa, India, South America and Russia. In India, diamonds are
found in the mines of Panna in Madhya Pradesh and Golconda in Karnataka. The dissolved carbon present
in molten magma inside the earth’s surface solidifies when pushed up to the earth’s surface. On
solidification, the iron present in the magma exerts great pressure on carbon and it crystallizes out in the
form of diamond.

Tetrahedral arrangement around each

Three dimensional structure of Diamond carbon atom

Structure and properties

i. In a given crystal unit, one carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms, such that
they form a regular tetrahedron.
ii. The bond angle is 109028’ and bond length is 1.54 A0.
iii. The whole crystal of diamond is a giant molecule, in which carbon atom lies in different planes.
iv. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance. Black diamond is the hardest.
v. A pure diamond is colorless, brittle solid and transparent to X–rays, ultraviolet rays and visible rays.
The polished gem has smooth surfaces.
vi. Its density is 3.51 g/cc and refractive index is 2.41 which add up to its gem value. Because of its high
refractive index it reflects light falling on its making it shine.
vii. It is bad conductor of electricity.
viii. It is insoluble in almost all solvents. Acids and bases do not affect diamonds.
ix. It is chemically inert. It burns in air at 900°C to form .
x. It the purest crystalline form of carbon.
xi. As the atoms are held firmly by strong covalent bonds, diamond possesses very high melting point
(36000C).

Uses of diamond
i. In jewellary due to high refractive index.
ii. For cutting glass as well as diamonds.
iii. Black diamond is used as a tip of boring drills.
iv. They are also used as needles for record players, bearings in watches and in making dies for
drawing wires.
v. They are also used in making laser beam in electronics.

Graphite
eria.
Graphite is found in Sri Lanka and Sib

Structure and properties

i. It is soft, greasy, dark grayish coloured crystalline solid.
ii. In graphite, each carbon atom is linked to three other carbon atoms in a hexagonal planar structure.
iii. The C–C bond length is 1.42 A0 and bond angle is 1200.
iv. The adjacent layers are held by weak van der Waal’s forces and the distance between two layers is
3.4 A0. Thus, two adjacent layers can easily slide over each other and hence graphite is soft and
possesses low density.
v. Its density is 2.5 g/cc.
vi. Due to presence of loosely held electrons, it acts as good conductor of electricity and heat.
vii. It is insoluble in ordinary solvents.
viii. It leaves a black mark on paper and is called black lead or plumbago.
ix. It is chemically more active than diamond. It ignites in air at 7000C to form .
Uses
(I) In making leads of pencils by mixing clay.
(II) As it is a good conductor of electricity, it is used in making electrodes. Graphite is chemically inactive with
acids.
(III) As a dry lubricant due to presence of weak bonds between two adjacent layers.
(IV) As a moderator in nuclear reactors i.e., to slow down the high energy neutrons.
(V) In making refractory crucibles which can withstand very high temperatures.

Fullerenes
One of the most interesting type of carbon molecules having 60 to 120 atoms is called fullerenes. In 1985,
three scientists H.W. Kroto, Smalley and Robert Curt made C 60 as a result of laser beam on a sample of
graphite and named it as ‘Buckminsterfullerene’. They named it so after an American architect Buckminster
fuller, who designed domes that had (20) hexagons and (12) pentagons. Buckminsterfullerene is made from
interlocking hexagonal and pentagonal rings of carbon atoms. Its structure is similar to soccer ball and
commonly called buck balls. It has been found that some fullerene based compounds of helium, neon, argon
are superconductors, i.e., they conduct electricity without any resistance.

They are also used in making laser beam in electronics.

Illustration: 3 Diamond is covalent, yet it has high melting point. Why?

Solution: Diamond has a three–dimensional network involving strong C—C bonds, which are very
difficult to break and, in turn has high melting point.

Illustration: 4 Why is graphite a better lubricant on moon than on earth?

Solution: Due to lack of gravity on moon.

Oxides of carbon: Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are the two oxides formed by carbon.

Carbon monoxide:
It is colourless, odourless, toxic gas that forms when carbon or hydrocarbon fuels are burned in limited
supply of oxygen. It is found in small amounts in volcanic gases, chimney gases, exhaust gases of internal
combustion engines and coal gas. The high toxicity of CO results from its ability to bond strongly to the iron
(II) atom of haemoglobin, the oxygen–carrying protein in red blood cells. Because haemoglobin has a greater
affinity for CO than for O2 by a factor of 200, even small concentrations of CO in the blood can convert a
substantial fraction of the O2–bonded haemoglobin, called oxyhaemoglobin, to the CO–bonded form, called
carboxy–haemoglobin, thus impairing the ability of haemoglobin to carry oxygen to the tissues:

Oxy–hemoglobin Carboxy–hemoglobin

It is a combustible gas but does not support combustion. It burns with blue flame to form . This is an
exothermic process.

It is a good reducing agent as it takes up oxygen and converts into CO 2. This property is utilized for
extraction of metals from their oxides.

Uses of CO:
i. It is used as fuel in the form of water gas (CO+H2) and producer gas (CO+H2+N2).
ii. CO is used in the manufacture of methanol, synthetic petrol, phosgene (COCl2).
iii. It is used as reducing agent in extraction of metals like iron, lead, and zinc.

Carbon dioxide:
It is present in the atmosphere to the extent of 0.03 to 0.05%. It comes to the atmosphere from human/
animal breathing, decay of vegetable matter, burning of carbon and matter containing carbon, etc. It is also
utilized by plants in photosynthesis. Thus, a carbon dioxide cycle is operated in the nature and the proportion
of CO2 in the atmosphere is maintained. It is found in combined state in the form of carbonates.
Methods of preparation:
i. By complete combustion of carbon in excess of oxygen.

ii. By the action of dilute mineral acids on carbonates and bicarbonates

iii. By heating carbonates and bicarbonates

iv. From fermentation: during fermentation, when molasses is converted into alcohol, a large amount of
CO2 is obtained as a by–product.

Glucose
Physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide:
Physical property:
i. It is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas.
ii. It is slightly soluble in water under ordinary pressure but at high pressures, the solubility is
high (increase in pressure increases the solubility of gas in liquid).
iii. It is heavier than air.
iv. Carbon dioxide is not poisonous, but it does not support life. Its harmful effects to life are
due to suffocation.
v. If CO2 under pressure is allowed to escape through a nozzle, a white solid, i.e., dry ice is
obtained. Solid CO2 is a soft, white, snow like substance (m.p is 78 0C). It sublimes and
leaves no residue. Solid CO2 is used as refrigerant under the commercial name drikold. It is
used in the transport of perishable food material.
vi. It is highly stable.

Chemical properties:
1. It is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. However, burning magnesium,
sodium or potassium continues to burn in the gas.

2. CO2 is an acidic oxide. It dissolves in water forming unstable carbonic acid. Thus it is also
known as anhydride of carbonic acid. It turns moist blue litmus paper red

3. It combines with alkalies to form carbonates and bicarbonates. Due to its acidic nature it turns
blue litmus paper into faint red.
+H2O
With excess of CO2, carbonate is converted into bicarbonate.

Lime water is turned milky on passing CO2 with the formation of insoluble calcium carbonate.

The milkiness disappears on passing more of CO2 with the conversion of calcium carbonate
into soluble calcium bicarbonate.

4. CO2 is converted by plants in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll pigment into glucose
and higher carbohydrates. This process is known as photosynthesis.

Uses of CO2:
i. It is used in the manufacture of aerated water and also in soda water.
ii. Solid CO2 (dry ice) is used in refrigeration.
iii. Carbogen is a mixture of O2 and CO2 (5–10%). It is used for artificial respiration in the case of
pneumonia patients and victims of CO poisoning.
iv. CO2 is used as fire extinguisher. A soda acid fire extinguisher contains concentrated solution of
sodium bicarbonate and a bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid. When the apparatus is
turned upside down the acid flows out of the bottle and reacts with sodium bicarbonate to produce
CO2.
v. CO2 is used by plants in order to prepare food.

Illustration: 5 What do you mean by carbonyls?

The carbon of carbon monoxide donates its lone pair of electrons to transition metals,
forming covalent compounds known as metal carbonyls. For Example, [Ni(CO) 4],
[Fe(CO)5],etc

Illustration: 6 Why dilute HCl is preferred to dilute H 2SO4 for the preparation of carbon dioxide from
marble?
In case of dilute H2SO4, CaSO4 is formed. This is deposited on the surface of marble and
acts as a protective layer. This stops the further reaction to liberate CO2.

Illustration: 7 How is excessive content of CO2 responsible for global warming?

The excess CO2 content in the atmosphere, released due to excessive combustion, absorbs
heat radiated by earth. Some of the heat is dissipated into the atmosphere while the
remaining part is radiated back to the earth. As a result, temperature of the earth increases.
This is called green house effect.

Exercise:
1. Complete the following reactions:

a)

b)

c)

d)
2. Why pure diamond is colourless and acts as an electrical insulator?
3. Why impure diamond is used as abrasive?
4. Why solid CO2 is known as dry ice?
5. Differentiate between diamond and graphite.

Uniqueness of carbon:
The number of carbon compounds is more than five million. This number is far more than the number of
compounds of all other elements put together. The existence of such large number of compounds of carbon
is due to its uniqueness. The following points explained the reason for large number of carbon compounds.

(1) Tetravalency of carbon: Carbon has tetravalency through which it can combine with four similar atoms
or four different atoms. This results in the formation of large variety of compounds.

(2) Catenation: Carbon possesses maximum tendency for catenation. Catenation is the tendency of atoms
of an element to unite with each other forming a long open chain or closed chain of compounds of different
sizes.

Another important factor in this connection is the ability of carbon to form double and triple bonds between its
atoms, as in ethylene or acetylene.

This again results the formation of large number of compounds.

3. The ability of carbon to combine with other elements: Carbon can combine with other elements like H,
N, P, O, S, F, CI, Br, I, etc., giving rise to a large number of compounds.
The Classifications of Organic Compounds
Organic compounds are classified into two major groups – aliphatic and aromatic

Aliphatic compounds The term ‘aliphatic’ comes from the Greek word aliphos, meaning fat. Fats were the
first compounds of this type to be studied. These compounds may be open–chain (acyclic) or closed chain
(cyclic). The aliphatic cyclic compounds are also called alicyclic (alialiphatic) compounds

Open–chain or acyclic compounds

The compounds contain straight or branched chains of carbon atoms. Some common examples of open–
chain compounds are as follows.

Sometimes an atom of an element other than carbon can also occur in the chain.

Closed–chain or cyclic compounds: These compounds contain rings of atoms.

Aromatic compounds:
It was found that several organic compounds, containing rings with alternate single and double bonds, had a
characteristic aroma (a pleasing smell), Such compounds have properties different from those of aliphatic
compounds, and are known as aromatic compounds, However, it was found later that all compounds of this
class do not have a pleasing smell.
The aromatic compounds may be further subdivided into two types – homocyclic and heterocyclic.

Homocyclic aromatic compounds:

These compounds contain at least one benzene (C6H6) ring. A benzene ring is an especially stable ring of six
carbon atoms with alternate single and double bonds between them.
1 (4n+2) number of pi electrons.
2 unsaturated
3 planar
4 cyclic

The following are two examples of homocyclic aromatic compounds.

Heterocyclic aromatic compounds They contain an atom other than C in the ring system.
Hydrocarbons
In hydrocarbons like methane, ethane, propane and butane, we have seen that the C and H atoms are all
lined by single bonds, i.e., C–C and C–H bonds. Such compounds are called saturated aliphatic
hydrocarbons or alkanes. An inspection of their formulae (CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10, etc.) reveals that they can
be represented by a general formula CnH2n+2
C1H2 x 1+ 2  CH4 (methane)
C2H2 x 2 + 2  C2H6 (ethane)
C3H2 x 3 + 2  C3H8 (propane)
C4H2 x 4 + 2  C4H10 (butane)

Names of higher alkanes are derived from the number of C atoms present in them, e.g., C 5H12 is pentane,
and C6H14 is hexane and so on. Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are called so because they cannot add on
more atoms or molecules. This happens when all the bonds in a molecule are single.
If we remove two H atoms from the adjacent C atoms of ethane, a double bond will be formed between the
two C atoms.

Such aliphatic hydrocarbons that contain a double bond between two adjacent C atoms are called alkenes.
They are called unsaturated hydrocarbons as double bonds can open up to allow the addition of molecules
like H2, Cl2 or HCl. Alkenes contain two H atoms less than parent alkanes and hence are represented by the
general formula CnH2n.

Condensed
Molecular formula Name
formula
C2H2 x 2  C 2H4 Ethene (or ethylene)
C2H2 x 3  C 3H6 Propene (propylene)
If we again remove two H atoms from adjacent C atoms of ethene, a triple bond between the two C atoms
will result.

The product here is also an unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbon as the multiple bond can open up to add
molecules like H2, Cl2 or HCl. Such aliphatic hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond between two adjacent C
atoms are called alkynes. They contain two H atoms less than their corresponding alkenes and so can be
represented by the general formula CnH2n–2.

Condensed
Molecular formula Name
formula
C2H2 x 2–2  C2H2 Ethyne (or acetylene)
C2H2 x 3–2  C3H4 Propyne (methyl acetylene)
The aliphatic hydrocarbons can be classified as “Saturated” and “Unsaturated” hydrocarbons. Saturated
hydrocarbons contain only C–C single bonds, whereas unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types those
with at least one double bond, with a general or empirical formula C nH2n. These compounds are generally
called ‘Alkenes’ and those with at least one triple bond are called ‘Alkynes’ which have a general or empirical
formula CnH2n–2.

Alkyl radicals The removal of an H atom from an alkane molecule results in a radical, called an alkyl radical,
having a valency one.
Such radicals are represented by the symbol R– with the general formula CnH2n+1. Their names are derived
from the parent alkanes by substituting the suffix –ane by –yl as shown below.

Parent alkane Alkyl radical (R―)

Formula (CnH2n+2) Name Formula (CnH2n+1) Name
CH4 Methane CH3― Methyl
C2H6 Ethane C2H5― Ethyl
C3H8 Propane C3H7― Propyl
C4H10 Butane C4H9― Butyl
C5H12 Pentane C5H11― Pentyl

Functional Groups and Different Classes (Families) of Compounds

Let us suppose we attach an group to an alkyl radical methyl , ethyl and propyl
radicals, we would get the compounds , and respectively. All these
compounds have more or less similar properties and are said to belong to a family, or a class of compounds,
known as alcohols. Hence these compounds are commonly known as methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol and
propyl alcohol respectively. Obviously, the structural feature that is responsible for similarity in properties is
the group.
If an group is attached to these radicals, we will get CH3–NH2, C2H5–NH2 and C3H7–NH2 respectively.
The properties of these compounds are again similar among themselves, but altogether different from those
of alcohols. This class of compounds are known as amines. Groups like –OH and –NH2 are called functional
groups.
An atom or a group of atoms of same structural feature which is responsible for the characteristic properties
of an organic compound is known as a functional group.

Some More Common Functional Groups are mentioned in Table

Example
Functions group Compound Family
Formula Name
–X (F, Cl, Br, I) Alkyl halide CH3–Cl Methyl chloride
R–X
(halide) or Haloalkane C2H5–Br Ethyl bromide
Methyl alcohol
CH3–OH
(or methanol)
–OH (hydroxide Ethyl alcohol
R–OH Alcohol C2H5–OH
or alcoholic) (or ethanol)
Propyl alcohol
C3H7–OH
or propanol)
CH3 – NH2 Methyl amine
–NH2 (amine) R–NH2 Alkyl amine
C2H5–NH2 Ethyl amine
CH3–O–CH3 Dimethyl ether
–O– (ether) R–O–R Ether C2H5–O–C2H5 Diethyl ether
CH3–O–C2H5 Methyl ethyl ether
The carbonyl group and the compounds derived from it The group with the structure >C = O is called the
carbonyl group. Several families of compounds like aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters etc., arise
from the carbonyl group on the placement of different groups or atoms on it. These are shown in Table.
While naming compounds containing the carbonyl group, we should remember that (i) when R is H, the
name starts with ‘form’ (e.g., formaldehyde, formic acid, etc.) and (ii) when R is CH 3, the name starts with
‘acet’ (e.g., acetone, acetic acid, etc.)

Families derived from carbonyl

Functional Compound Family Formula
group
Name Example
Aldehyde
Formaldehyde

Acetaldehyde
 Propanaldehyde

Ketone Acetone

Formic acid

Carboxylic acid

Acetic acid

Homologous Series
We have seen that the alkanes have a general formula CnH2n + 2 and each member differs from the next by a
fixed group –CH2 – (the methylene group).

We will soon learn that they have similar chemical properties. In other classes of compounds like alkenes,
alkynes, alcohols or acids, the same thing happens. Such a series of compounds is known as a homologous
series and the individual members are homologues.

Compounds having the same functional group and similar properties that differ from the adjacent members
by a –CH2– group constitute a homologous series.

We can have a homologous series for each class (or family) of compounds. A few of them are given in table.
Homologous series of alkanes:
Compound Formula (CnH2n + 2) Difference in formulae

Methane CH4
CH2
Ethane C2H6
CH2
Propane C4H8
CH2
Butane C4H10
CH2
Pentane C5H12

Homologous series of alkenes

Compound Formula (CnH2n) Difference in formulae
Ethene C2H4
CH2
Propene C3H6

Butene C4H8 CH2

Pentene C5H10 CH2

Homologous series of alkynes

Compound Formula (CnH2n – 2) Difference in formulae
Ethyne C2H2
CH2
Propyne C3H4
CH2
Butyne C4H6
Pentyne C5H8 CH2

Homologous series of alcohols

Compound Formula (CnH2n + 1 OH) Difference in formulae
Methanol CH3OH CH2
Ethanol C2H5OH CH2

Propanol C3H7OH CH2

Butanol C4H9OH CH2

Pentanol C5H11OH CH2

Characteristics of a homologous series

1. The members of a homologous series can be represented by a general formula, e.g., the alkanes by
CnH2n+2, alkene by CnH2n, alkynes by CnH2n–2 and alcohols by CnH2n+1OH.
2. Every member of a homologous series differs from the adjacent ones in composition by CH 2.This is
because every succeeding member of a homologous series arises by the replacement of an H atom in
preceding member by a CH2 group. For example, C2H6 (ethane) may be thought to arise from CH4 (methane)
as follows.

3. The molecular masses of two consecutive members of a homologous series differ by 14 (equivalent to
one CH2 group).
4. Generally, similar methods may be employed to prepare all the compounds belonging to a homologous
series.
5. The physical properties of the compounds of a homologues series change gradually as the molecular
mass changes. For example, the melting point, boiling point and density increase with molecular mass.
6. The chemical properties of the compounds belonging to the same homologous series are similar.

Isomerism: carbon compounds having same molecular formula but different structures are called isomers
and the phenomenon is called isomerism. Three isomers are possible for the compound with molecular
formula C5H12 (Pentane).

n – pentane

2 – methyl butane (isopentane)

2,2 – dimethyl propane (neo–pentane)

Isomerism:
Carbon compounds with same molecular formula but different structures are known as isomers and the
phenomenon is called isomerism.

Classification of isomerism…

Structural isomerism
Structural isomerism arises due to
(i) Different functional groups, giving rise to functional–group isomerism,
(ii) Different carbon skeletons, giving rise to chain isomerism, and
(iii) Different positions of the functional group in the same carbon chain, giving rise to position isomerism.
Chain isomerism
Minimum number of carbon atoms required = 4.
Examples:

and

and

Position isomerism
Minimum number of carbon atoms required = 3. Functional groups that exhibit position isomerism are –OH, –
NH, –OR, –NHR, –NR2, C=C, CC, –X, –NO2 etc.,

Examples (a) The position of functional group differs

Propanol and
(–OH attached to the Isopropanol
terminal C–atom) (–OH attached to the
central C–atom)
(b) The position of the double or triple bond differs
(i)
and
But–1–ene But–2–ene
(ii)
and
But–1–yne But–2–yne

Functional isomerism
Functional isomerism is exhibited by alcohols and ethers, aldehydes and ketones, etc.
Examples (a)

and

Propionaldehyde Acetone
(b)
and
Ethyl alcohol Dimethylether

Metamerism
The compounds with same molecular formula but different alkyl group attached to the same functional group
on its either side are called metamers.
Examples
and
Ethoxy ethane Methoxy propane

and
2–pentanone 3–pentanone
Metamers also position isomers.

Ring chain isomers

If one isomer has open chain structure and the other has cyclic structure then isomers are known as ring
chain isomers
Examples
 Propene
Cyclopropane

But–1–yne
Cyclobut–1–ene
Tautomerism
The isomers formed by migration of acidic hydrogen atom from  – carbon to electronegative atom bonded
by multiple bonds are called tautomers and this phenomenon is known as Tautomerism.

Keto form Enol form

Illustration: 8 Write the possible isomers for the compound with molecular formula C4H10.

n–Butane 2–Methyl propane (isobutane)

Illustration: 9 Write the isomers for the compound with molecular formula C4H8O

(Butanal) (2 – Butanone)

Sources of carbon compound:

The principal natural sources of carbon are plants and carbonaceous materials like wood, natural gas, coal,
petroleum.

Coal: It is the primary source used as fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. Coal forms
one of the source of many carbon compounds. When coal is burnt at 500–1000 0C without contact to air, it
gets converted into a variety of solids, liquids, and gaseous carbon compounds. This process is known as
coal distillation or pyrolysis or carbonization of coal.
Distillation of coal gives carbon compounds like coke, coal–tar, light oil and coal–gas. Coke and coal–gas
are used as fuels. Coal–tar and light oil give many carbon compounds. Coal–tar is used to prepare phenols,
pyridines, naphthalenes and road tar. Light oils are used to prepare benzene and methylated benzenes. All
these chemicals are used in the manufacture of artificial petrol, dyes, medicines, explosives, pesticides etc.
During burning it gives the largest amount of heat than compared to the other varieties of coal.
There are several types of coal. They differ from one another in respect of their carbon content. Anthracite is
the oldest variety of coal containing 95% carbon. It is a brilliant coal. During burning it gives the largest
amount of heat than compared to the other varieties of coal. The second and the most common variety is
bituminous or stone coal and contain 82% carbon. Lignite is another type of coal which contains 70%
carbon.

Petroleum:
Petroleum is a mixture of several carbon compounds formed in nature by decomposition of animal and plant
remains.
It is a dark coloured oily liquid with a characteristic smell.
It is lighter than water and insoluble in water.
It occurs in large quantities in the depths of the earth between certain sedimentary layers. It is obtained by
drilling holes in the earth and is refined to give important petrochemicals like LPG, jet fuels, naphtha,
kerosene, petrol, diesel oils, lubricants, waxes, asphalt, medicinal compounds etc.

Illustration: 10 What do you mean by ‘store of sun’?

Coal is formed inside the earth by the decomposition of plant and animal bodies in the
absence of air. The plants and animal bodies transform solar energy during their growth.
After conversion of wood into coal this energy is still retained. Hence coal deposits are
called store of sun.
Illustration: 11 Give the deposits of coal and oil deposits.
The most important coal fields in India are at Ranigunj in West Bengal, Jharia and Bakaro in
Bihar, Kothagudem and Ramagundam in Andhra Pradesh. Rich deposits of oil are present
in the Middle East countries, Venezuela, USSR, USA etc. In India some oil deposits are
present in Assam, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
.
Study of Hydrocarbons
Carbon compounds containing exclusively carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are
classified into the following types.

Classification on the basis of carbon chain

Based upon carbon chain organic compounds are of two types.
(i) Open chain compounds
(ii) Closed chain compounds
In open chain compounds carbon atoms are linked to one another in chains which may be straight or
branched but not closed (rings).

n–Butane (Straight chain) Methyl propane (Isobutane–Branched Chain)

2 – Methyl propane (Straight chain)

Open chain compounds are also called aliphatic hydrocarbons

In closed chain compounds carbon atoms are linked to one another or atoms of some other elements to
form a cycle or closed chain. If they have one ring they are monocyclic and if they have more than one
ring they are polycyclic compounds.
Cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, cycloalkynes and their derivatives have closed chains.

Examples of cycloalkanes are

Or Or

Examples of cycloalkenes are

Cyclopentene Cyclobutene Cyclopropene

Examples of cycloalkynes are

Closed chain compounds like Cycloalkanes. Cycloalkenes, Cycloalkynes and their derivates show
similar properties to aliphatic compounds. And hence they are called alicyclic compounds.
If the chain of cyclic compounds contains only carbon atom it is called homocyclic whereas the chains
contain other atoms like O, S, N etc. are called heterocyclic compounds.

These are homocyclic compounds.

Benzene Methylcyclopentane

These are heterocyclic compounds

Cyclopropanol Furan Thiophone Pyridine

Classification of carbon compounds based on functional group

All organic compounds are characterized by the presence of a functional group. The functional group is an
atom or a group of atoms that causes a compound to behave in a particular way, i.e.., it is the
functional group that gives rise to homologous series. Some of the more important functional groups and the
classes compounds to which they give rise are shown in the following table.

Functional group General formula of the

Class of compounds
Formula Name compounds
Carbon – carbon
Alkanes R–H
single bond

Alkenes Double bond R – CH = CH

Alkynes Triple bond R – C  CH

Alkyl halides –X Halogen R – CH2 – X
Alcohols –OH Hydroxyl group R – CH2 – OH

Aldehydes and
Carbonyl group
ketones

Carboxylic acids Carboxyl group R – CH2 – COOH

Esters Ester group

Amines –NH2 Amino group R – NH2

Ethers –O– Ether group R – O – R1

Amides Amide group

Cyanides Cyano group R – C  N

Nitro – compounds –NO2 Nitro group R – CH2 – NO2
Sulphonic acid
Sulphonic acid –SO3H C6H5 – SO3H
group
Isocyanide –NC Carbylamine group R – CH2 – NC
Nitroso –ONO [–O–N=O] Nitrite group R – NH2 – ONO

When these functional groups are present in organic compounds they show typical properties which can be
tested in laboratory very easily.
For Example, when a piece of sodium metal is added to alcohol, it reacts vigorously and liberate hydrogen
gas. This property is independent of carbon atoms in alcohol but depends on –OH group.
Aldehydes form a silver coating on the walls of the test–tube when silver nitrate is added to the aldehyde in
the presence of ammonia solution (Tollen’s reagent). Thus this reaction is due to the –CHO group present in
aldehydes.

Saturated hydrocarbon
Carbon has tetravalency. If all the valencies of carbon are satisfied then the hydrocarbon is referred to as
saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes. In these compounds, the carbon atoms are linked to each other or with
hydrogen atoms. Alkanes are also called paraffins. The general formula of alkane is C nH2n+2, where n =
number of carbon atoms in the parent chain of alkane. Methane is the first member of alkane series. On
removal of one H – atom from alkane the corresponding alkane will form alkyl.

Preparation of methane
1. Methane is prepared by the hydrolysis of aluminium carbide.

(Al4C3 – Methanide)

2. Methane is obtained by heating the mixture of sodium acetate and soda time.
Soda–lime is the mixture of sodium hydroxide and quick lime.
 3. Methane is also obtained by reducing methyl iodine by the reducing agent. Here the reducing
agent is Zu–Cu couple in ethyl alcohol. Zn–Cu in presence of ethyl alcohol produces nascent
hydrogen, which reduces methyl iodide to methane.

Physical properties of alkanes:

1. Based upon the number of carbon atoms in alkanes, they exist in three states.
No. of carbon atoms in alkane State
1–5 Gases
6 – 10 Liquids
Above 10 Solids
2. Alkanes are insoluble in water. Methane is collected by downward displacement of water
3. They are used as fuels as they are highly combustible.
4. 70% of natural gas is methane. Natural gas also contains20% H 2 and 10% ethane, propane and
butane. Natural gas is the by–product during the mining of petroleum.
5. Coal gas contains 25%–––40% methane. Coal gas is found in coal mines.
6. Large amount of methane is found in gober gas, sewage gas and biogas. The above gases are
obtained by the microbial decomposition of cattle dung, human excreta, garbage, farm residues
etc.

Chemical properties of alkanes

1. Combustion: Alkanes undergo complete combustion and produces CO2, water and liberates heat.

2. Substitution reaction: Alkanes undergo substitution reaction. Methane reacts with halogens such
as chlorine and bromine in the presence of sunlight or on heating and gives varieties of products.

Uses of alkanes
 Alkanes are used as the starting materials for the synthesis of various organic compounds
 Hydrogen, ethanol and methanol etc. are obtained from alkane
 Higher alkanes are used us solvents
 Alkanes are used as fuels
 Natural gases, kerosene, petrol liquid petroleum gas etc contains mixture of alkanes. Liquid
petroleum gas (LPG) contains large amount of butane and less amount of propane.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons containing one or more double bonds or triple bonds between two carbons atoms are
called unsaturated hydrocarbons. Four valencies of carbon are not satisfied in unsaturated
hydrocarbons. So, they undergo addition reaction and form saturated hydrocarbons. They combine
readily with hydrogen, halogen etc. to form saturated hydrocarbons. Alkenes and alkynes are two
important classes of unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Alkenes
Carbon compounds containing at least one double bond between any two carbon atoms are called
alkenes General formula of alkenes is CnH2n.

Alkenes Molecular formula

Ethene C2H4
Propene C3H6
Butene C4H8
Pentene C5H10

Preparation of ethene or ethylene

Ethene (C2H4) is obtained when chloroethane reacts with alcoholic potassium hydroxide (KOH).

Properties and uses of alkenes

Physical properties of alkenes:
 Alkenes up to 3 carbon atoms are gases , alkenes having 4 – 13 carbon atoms are liquids and
alkenes containing above 13 carbon atoms are solids
 They are insoluble in water.
 On burning in presence of oxygen produce CO2 and H2O.
 Alkenes are highly inflammable

Chemical properties of alkenes

 Reaction with hydrogen: Ethene reacts with hydrogen in presence of nickel catalyst to from ethane.
 Ethene ethane
 Reaction with chlorine: Ethene reacts with chlorine to form 1, 2 – dichloro ethane.

 Polymerization: Alkenes undergo polymerization to form long chain compounds known as polymers.
Ethene in its liquid states undergoes polymerization forming polyethylene or polythene.

Where ‘n’ is any number but more than one ethylene molecules.

Uses of alkenes
Ethylene mixed with air is used as anesthetic. It undergoes addition reaction.
Ethene is used in the preparation of alcohols. Ethene is used in the preparation of ethane,
1,2–dichloroethane, chloroethane, ozonides, ethylene glycol, and ethane hydrogen sulphate.
Alkenes are used in the production of polymers.

ALKYNES:
Carbon compounds containing at least one triple bond between any two carbon atoms are called alkynes.
General formula of alkynes is CnH2n–2.

Alkynes Molecular formula

Ethyne C2H2
Propyne C3H4
Butyne C4H6
Pentyne C5H8

Preparation of ethyne: The common name of ethyne is acetylene. It is prepared by the hydrolysis of
calcium carbide.

Properties and uses of alkynes

Physical properties of alkynes:
1. Lower alkynes containing up to 3 carbon atoms are gases. Those with 4 to 11 carbon atoms are
liquids and above are solids.
2. These are colourless and odourless.
3. They are insoluble in water.
4. They are used as fuels. On combustion they produce large amount of heat.

Chemical properties of alkynes:

1. Alkynes undergo addition reactions. They combine with hydrogen, halogen etc, to form saturated
compounds.

2. Combustion of alkynes in presence of oxygen forms carbon dioxide and water.

Uses of alkynes:
1. It is used in welding. Oxy–acetylene flame produces a temperature of 3500C which is used for cutting
and welding metals. Acetylene is used in the preparation of ethane, ethene, 1,1,2,2–
tetrachloroethane, 1,1–dibromoethane, benzeneozonides, cuprous acetylides silver acetylides, etc.
2. It is used for artificial ripening of fruits.

Illustration: 12 Why alkanes are known as paraffins?

Solution: Saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes are also knows as paraffins derived from the Latin word,’
parum’ (little) and ‘affinis’ (affinity) that is with little affinity towards reagents like acids, bases,
oxidizing agents and reducing agents.

Illustration: 13 Write the molecular formula for butyl, pentyl and hexyl.
Solution: Butyl  C4H9 Pentyl  C5H11 Hexyl  C6H13

Illustration: 14 What do you mean by addition reaction? Give one Example.

Solution: This type of reaction is characteristics of the compounds containing double or triple bond. The
following Example shows the addition of chlorine to the double bond of alkene.
Illustration: 15 Define the word polymerization.
Solution: Polymerisation is a process in which simple molecules combine with each other or with the other
molecules to form a long chain compound. For Example, ethylene molecules combine with each
other to form polyethene. Acetylene polymerises to form benzene

Polyethene

Benzene
Test for alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes

Hydrocarbons
Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes
Tests
Test with Br2 water
No change in colour of Decolourisation of Decolouristation of
(reddish brown
Br2 water Br2 water bromine water
solution)
Test with alkaline
No change in the
KmnO4 (Baeyer’s Decolourisation of Decolourisation of
colour of Baeyer’s
reagent) (purple in Bayer’s reagent Baeyer’s reagent
reagent
colour
Test with Tollen’s
White precipitate of
reagent (Ammoniacal No reaction No reaction
alkylinides
silver nitrate)

Illustration: 16 How would you separate propene from propyne?

The mixture containing propene and propyne when passed through a solution of
ammoniacal silver nitrate, propyne will precipitate out as silver propynide and propene will
pass unchanged.

Precipitate
Illustration: 17 Explain how Br2 reacts with ethene and ethyne.
Ethene reacts with bromine to form 1, 2–dibromoethane.

1, 2–dibromoethane

Ethyne reacts with bromine to form 1, 1, 2, 2–tetrabromo ethane.

1,2–dibromoethane 1,1,2,2–tetrabromoethane

Exercise
1. Explain the method of preparation of alkane. How does methane react with chlorine and oxygen?
2. Explain the method of preparation of alkene. How does ethene react with chlorine, oxygen, and
hydrogen?
3. Explain the method of preparation of acetylene. How does it react with chlorine, oxygen, and
hydrogen?
4. Write the uses of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.

ETHANOL & ETHANOIC ACID

Some Important Carbon Compounds – Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid
Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid are some of the most important carbon compounds.

Ethanol
The common name of Ethanol is Ethyl Alcohol. It is generally called as simply Alcohol because it is the
active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
Consuming of a small quantity of dilute ethyl alcohol causes drunkenness, however taking of even a small
quantity of pure alcohol may prove lethal.
Pure alcohol is known as absolute alcohol.

Physical Properties of Ethanol:

Ethanol is a volatile and colourless liquid.
Ethanol is liquid at room temperature.
Ethanol has a pleasant smell.
Melting point of Ethanol is – 1140C and boiling point is 78.370C.
Ethanol is soluble in water in all proportions.
Ethyl alcohol (Ethanol) is very good solvent. Ethanol is used in many medicines, such as tincture iodine,
cough syrups, etc.

Chemical properties of Ethanol

Reaction of Ethanol with sodium
Ethanol gives sodium ethoxide when reacts with sodium along with hydrogen gas.

Reaction to give Unsaturated Hydrocarbon

Ethanol gives ethylene (Ethene) when reacts with Hot concentrated H2SO4 along with water. Concentrated
sulphuric acid can be regarded as dehydrating agent as it removes water from Ethanol.

Ethanoic Acid
Ethanoic acid is another one of the most important produces of carbon. The common name of ethanoic acid
is Acetic acid.
The 5% – 8% solution of acetic acid in water is called Vinegar. Vinegar is used as food preservative in
pickles.
The melting point of ethanoic acid is 16.850C [290K].
Acetic acid often freezes during winter season in cold climate and thus it is called glacial acetic acid also.
Similar to all other organic acids, acetic acid is also a weak acid.

Reactions of Ethanoic Acid

Esterification Reaction
Esters are formed most commonly after the reaction of an acid and alcohol. Esters have sweet fragrance
and are used in making of perfumes and used as flavoring agent.
When ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of an acid as a catalyst, it gives ethyl acetate (ester).

Saponification:
On the other hand when ester is treated with sodium hydroxide, it gives alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic
acid. This reaction is called saponification as it is used in manufacturing of soap.

Sodium acetate is called sodium ethanoate also.

Reaction of Ethanoic acid with a base
When ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide, which is a base, it gives sodium acetate and water.

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Hydrogen carbonates

Ethanoic acid gives respective acetate, carbon dioxide and water.
When Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate, it gives sodium acetate, water and carbon dioxide.

When Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydrogen carbonate, it gives sodium acetate, water and carbon
dioxide.

DETERGENT
Most commonly, "detergent" refers to mixtures of chemical compounds including alkylbenzenesulfonates,
which are similar to soap but are less affected by "hard water." Modern detergent formulations – the entire
product vs. just the surfactant – contain several components. Three main ingredients are builders (50% by
weight, approximately), the alkylbenzenesulfonate surfactant (15%), and bleaches (7%).

Detergent structure

Builders
Builders are water softeners. These chemical compounds are agents that remove calcium ions by
complexation or precipitation. Typical builders are sodium carbonate, complexation agents, soap, and
zeolites. They function by sequestering or precipitating the problematic ions. One of the most common
builders is sodium triphosphate, which is used on very large scale for this application.

Bleach
The main targets of bleaches are of vegetable origin include chlorophyll, anthocyanin dyes, tannins, humic
acids, and carotenoid pigments. Most bleaches in laundry detergents are oxidizers, e.g. sodium perborate or
sodium hypochlorite, Additionally, other agents are added as "bleach activators", to enhance the
effectiveness of the bleaching agent, a popular one is tetraacetylethylenediamine.

Enzymes
Many laundry detergents contain enzymes. The amounts of enzyme can be up to about 2% by weight of the
product. These agents are required to degrade recalcitrant stains composed of proteins, fats, or
carbohydrates. Each type of stain requires a different type of enzyme, i.e. protease for proteins, lipases for
greases, and amylases for carbohydrates.

Other ingredients
Many other ingredients are added depending on the specific application. Such additives modify the foaming
properties of the product by either stabilizing or counteracting foam. Other ingredients increase or decrease
the viscosity of the solution, or solubilize other ingredients. Corrosion inhibitors counteract damage to
washing equipment. "Dye transfer inhibitors" prevent dyes from one article from colouring other items.
"Antiredeposition agents" are used to prevent fine soil particles from reattaching to the product being
cleaned. Carboxymethyl cellulose is used for this purpose.
A number of ingredients affect aesthetic properties of the item to be cleaned or the detergent itself before or
during use. These agents include optical brighteners, fabric softeners, and colourants. A variety of perfumes
are also components of modern detergents, provided that they are compatible with the other components
and do not affect the colour of the cleaned item. The perfumes are typically a mixture of many compounds, a
popular component being cyclohexyl salicylate, which is related to oil of wintergreen.

SOAP
Soaps for lubrication greases
Soaps are key components of most lubrication greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium and lithium
soaps in a mineral oil. Lithium–based greases are particularly important. Many other metal ions are used,
including aluminum, sodium, and mixtures of various metal ions. Such soaps are sometimes classified as
thickeners, meaning that they elevate the viscosity of the oil. In ancient times, lubricating greases were
prepared by the addition of lime to olive oil.

Soap structure

Mechanism of cleansing soaps

When used for cleaning, soap serves as a surfactant in conjunction with water. The cleaning action of this
mixture is attributed to the action of micelles, tiny spheres coated on the outside with polar carboxylate
groups, encasing a hydrophobic (lipophilic) pocket that can surround the grease particles, allowing them to
dissolve in water. The hydrophobic portion is made up of the long hydrocarbon chain from the fatty acid. In
other words, whereas normally oil and water do not mix, the addition of soap allows oils to dissolve in water,
allowing them to be rinsed away. Synthetic detergents operate by similar mechanisms to soap.

Effect of the alkali

The nature of the soap depends on the alkali metal. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide are
firmer. Potassium soaps, derived from potassium hydroxide are softer or often liquid. Historically, potassium
hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other wood ashes. Lithium soaps also tend to be
harder – these are used exclusively in greases

Effects of fats
Traditional Marseille soap
Soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally soaps are derived from triglycerides (vegetable and animal
fats). Triglyceride is the technical name for these triesters of fatty acids. Sodium tallowate, a common
ingredient in much soap, is derived from rendered beef fat. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are
palm oil, where the product is typically softer. If soap is made from pure olive oil it may be called Castile soap
or Marseille soap. The term "castile" is also sometimes applied to soaps with a mix of oils, but a high
percentage of olive oil.
Aside from olive oil, other saponifiable oils and fats include coconut, palm, cocoa butter, hemp oil, and shear
butter to provide different qualities. For example, olive oil provides mildness in soap. Coconut oil provides
lots of lather. Coconut and palm oils provide hardness. Sometimes castor oil can also be used as a
humectant. Most common, though, is a combination of coconut, palm, and olive oils. Smaller amounts of
unsaponifiable oils and fats that do not yield soap are sometimes added for further benefits.

MICELLE FORMATION