SIGNAL CONDITIONING

MMJ25102-Instrumentation
Chapter 2
INTRODUCTION
• Signal conditioning used to process the output signal from
sensors of a measurement system to be suitable for the next
stage of operation.
• Most analog signals require some form of preparation before
they can be digitized.
• Signal conditioning is the manipulation of a signal in a way that
prepares it for the next stage of processing.
• Many applications involve environmental or structural measurement,

such as temperature and vibration, from sensors.

• These sensors, in turn, require signal conditioning before a data

acquisition device can effectively and accurately measure the signal.

TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING
1) Signal-Level and Bias Changes
2) Linearization
3) Conversions
4) Filtering and Impedance Matching
5) Concept of Loading
TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING
1) Signal-Level and Bias Changes

• One of the most common types of signal conditioning

involves adjusting the level (magnitude) and bias (zero

value) of some voltage representing a process variable.
• For example: some sensor output voltage may vary from 0.2 to
0.6 V as a process variable changes over a measurement
range. However, equipment to which this sensor output must be
connected perhaps requires a voltage that varies from 0 to 5 V
for the same variation of the process variable.
How to do signal level and bias changes?
1. Changing the zero to occur when the sensor output is 0.2V.
• can be done by simply subtracting 0.2 from the sensor output, which
is called a zero shift, or a bias adjustment.
2. A voltage that varies from 0 to 0.4 V.
• multiply the voltage by 12.5, so the new output will vary from 0 to 5
V as required.
• This process is called as amplification by a gain of 12.5

• In some cases, we need to make a sensor output smaller,

which is called attenuation.
 TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING
2) Linearization
• Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that
are not linearly related to the physical measurement. It is the process of
interpreting the signal from the sensor, can be implemented either with
signal conditioning or through software.

• For example, suppose a sensor output varied nonlinearly with a process

variable, as shown in Figure 1a.
• A linearization circuit, indicated symbolically in Figure 1b, would ideally be
one that conditioned the sensor output so that a voltage was produced
which was linear with the process variable, as shown in Figure 1c.
TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING

3) Conversions
• Often, signal conditioning is used to convert one type of
electrical variation into another.
• For example, sensors that exhibit changes of resistance with
changes in a dynamic variable. It is necessary to provide a
circuit to convert this resistance change either to a voltage or
a current signal.
TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING

• Signal Transmission 4-20mA:

• An important type of conversion is associated with the industrial
measurement and process control standard of transmitting signals as
4 to 20 mA current levels in wire.

•Advantages of 4-20mA signal:

 It is the simplest option to connect and configure.
 It uses less wiring and connections than other signals, greatly reducing
initial setup costs.
 Better for traveling long distances, as current does not degrade over
long connections like voltage.
 Since 4 mA is equal to 0% output, it is incredibly simple to detect a
fault in the system.
TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING

• Digital Interface: The use of computers in process control requires

conversion of analog data into a digital format by integrated circuit
devices called analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
• Analog signal conversion is usually required to adjust the analog
measurement signal to match the input requirements of the ADC.

• For example, the ADC may need a voltage that varies between 0
and 5 V, but the sensor provides a signal that varies from 30 to 80
mV. Signal conversion circuits can be developed to interface the
output to the required ADC input.

30-80mV 0-5V

Signal conversion cct

TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING
4) Filtering and Impedance Matching
• Filtering: to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal to get
a proper signal.
• Filters can change the amplitude and phase characteristics of a signal with
respect to frequency.
• Example of filters: high-pass, low-pass, or notch filters to eliminate
unwanted signals from the loop. Often, lowpass filters are used to block
out noise in electrical measurements, such as 50/60 Hz power.
 • Impedance matching: is an important element of signal conditioning
when transducer internal impedance or line impedance can cause errors in
measurement of a dynamic variable.
• Electrical impedance matching involves the design of the electric matching
circuit that connects the driving or receiving circuit to the transducer.

• For example: piezoelectric transducer: An impedance matching & tuning unit is a

necessary device to change the complex impedance of the transducer in a specific
narrow frequency range to match the input impedance of a preamplifier for maximum
and efficient power transfer from the mechanical to the electric
TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING

5) Concept of Loading
• One of the most important concerns in analog signal conditioning is
the loading of one circuit by another.
• This introduces uncertainty in the amplitude of a voltage as it is
passed through the measurement process.
• Figure shows such an element modeled as a voltage Vx and a resistance Rx.
Now suppose a load, RL, is connected across the output of the element as
shown in Figure. This could be the input resistance of an amplifier.

• A current will flow, and voltage will be dropped across Rx . It is easy to

calculate that the loaded output voltage will thus be given by;

• This equation shows how the effects of loading can be reduced. Clearly, the
objective will be to make RL much larger than Rx, that is RL>>Rx, . The
following example shows how the effects of loading can compromise our
measurements.
 Example:

From Figure 3a:

VT (20mV / °C ) × 50
= = °C 1.0V

Vout 10
= =Vin 10(1.0
=V ) 10V

However, due to the loading effect, the

voltage output not equal to 10V.

From Figure 3b:

 5k Ω 
Vin VT 1 −
= 
 5k Ω + 10k Ω 

= (1V ) 1 −
5k Ω  Loading is important mostly when signal

 5k Ω + 10k Ω  amplitudes are important.
= 0.67V
How to avoid this problem?
PASSIVE CIRCUITS
• A passive component is an electronic component which can
only receive energy, which it can either dissipate, absorb or
store it in an electric field or a magnetic field.
• Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to
operate.
• Common examples of passive components include:
•Resistors
•Inductors
•Capacitors
•Transformers
• Example application used of passive circuits:
• Divider circuits, Bridge circuits and Filtering circuits.
PASSIVE CIRCUITS
1) Divider Circuits
• The elementary voltage divider shown in Figure often can be used to provide
conversion of resistance variation into a voltage variation. The voltage of such
a divider is given by the well-known relationship:

• Either R1 or R2 can be the sensor whose resistance

varies with some measured variable.
PASSIVE CIRCUITS
Limitation of using divider as resistance to voltage variation
conversion.
1. The variation of VD with either R1 or R2 is nonlinear; that
is, even if the resistance varies linearly with the measured
variable, the divider voltage will not vary linearly.
2. The effective output impedance of the divider is the
parallel combination of R1 and R2 . This may not
necessarily be high, so loading effects must be
considered.
3. Current flows through both resistors; that is, power will
be dissipated by both, including the sensor. The power
rating of both the resistor and sensor must be
considered.
 PASSIVE CIRCUITS
• Example 2:
PASSIVE CIRCUITS
2) Bridge Circuits
• Bridge circuits are used to convert low impedance variations
like resistors, capacitors & inductors into small voltage
variations. One of the advantages of the bridge for this task is
that it can be designed so the voltage produced varies around
zero.
• Bridge circuit produce a small variation of voltage output. This
means that amplification can be used to increase the voltage
level for increased sensitivity to variation of impedance.
PASSIVE CIRCUITS
• Wheatstone Bridge

• The simplest and most common bridge circuit is the dc Wheatstone

bridge, as shown in Figure .
• This network is used in signal-conditioning applications where a
sensor changes resistance with process variable changes.
• D is a voltage detector: used to compare the
potentials of points a and b of the network.
• For our initial analysis:
• assume the detector impedance is
infinite—that is, an open circuit.
• In this case, the potential difference, ΔV,
between points a and b is simply:
∆V = Va − Vb (3)

• Va is determined from the voltage divider R1 and R3: Va = VR3 (4)

R1 + R3

• Vb is determined from the voltage divider R2 and R4: V = VR4 (5)

b
R2 + R4
• Subs. (4) and (5) into (3): VR3 VR4
∆V
= − (6)
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
R3 R2 − R1 R4
∆V =
V (7)
( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 )
 R3 R2 − R1 R4
∆V =
V (7)
( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 )

• When the bridge is null , ΔV=0. (Zero voltage across detector)

• Equation (7) becomes:

R2 R3 = R1 R4 (8)

Equation (8) indicates that whenever a Wheatstone bridge is

assembled and resistors are adjusted for a detector null, the
resistor values must satisfy the indicated equality. (balance
condition)
Equations (7) and (8) underlie the application of Wheatstone
bridges to process-control applications using high-input
impedance detectors.
PASSIVE CIRCUITS

Equation (8) indicates that whenever a Wheatstone

bridge is assembled and resistors are adjusted for a
detector null, the resistor values must satisfy the
indicated equality.

Equations (7) and (8) underlie the application of

Wheatstone bridges to process-control applications
using high-input impedance detectors.
 PASSIVE CIRCUITS
Example 3
 PASSIVE CIRCUITS
Example 4
PASSIVE CIRCUITS
• Galvanometer Detector
• The use of a galvanometer as a null detector in the bridge circuit introduces
some differences in our calculations because the detector resistance may
be low and because we must determine the bridge offset as current offset.

When a galvanometer is used for a null

detector, It is convenient to use the
Thevenin equivalent circuit of the
bridge.
 Video on Thevenin theorem: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=veAFVTIpKyM
• Thévenin voltage, Vth is the open circuit different between point a and
point b. This same as ΔV:
R3 R2 − R1 R4
VTh = V (9)
( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 )
• The Thévenin resistance is found by replacing the supply voltage by
its internal resistance and calculating the resistance between
terminals a and b of the network. We may assume that the internal
resistance of the supply is negligible compared to the bridge arm
resistances.
R1 R3 R2 R4 (10)
RTh
= +
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
• The Thévenin equivalent circuit for the bridge enables us to easily
determine the current through any galvanometer with internal
resistance, RG , as shown in Figure . In particular, the offset current, IG
is:
VTh (11)
IG =
RTh + RG
PASSIVE CIRCUITS
• Example:
PASSIVE CIRCUITS

The negative sign on the current simply means that the current flows through the
galvanometer from right to left (i.e., from point b to point a in the circuit of Figure
AC Bridges
• The bridge concept described in this
section can be applied to the matching
of impedances in general, as well as to
resistances.
• In this case, the bridge is represented as
in Figure 10 and employs an ac
excitation, usually a sine wave voltage
signal.

Figure 10
Bridge Applications

• The primary application of bridge circuits in modern process-

control signal conditioning is to convert variations of
resistance into variations of voltage.
• This voltage variation is then further conditioned for interface
to an ADC or other system.
Sensor : Load
cell

Signal
processor:
Signal conditioning micro controller

Digital display
PASSIVE CIRCUITS
• RC Filters
• To eliminate unwanted noise signals from measurements, it is
often necessary to use circuits that block certain frequencies or
bands of frequencies. These circuits are called filters.
• A simple filter can be constructed from a single resistor and a
single capacitor.
 Low-pass RC Filter
The simple circuit shown in Figure is called a low-pass RC filter. It
is called low-pass because it blocks high frequencies and passes
low frequencies.

The critical frequency, fc of a low-pass

RC filter occurs when Xc = R where:

The output-to-input voltage ratio for any

signal frequency:
 A high-pass filter
A high-pass filter is one that significantly attenuates or rejects all
frequencies below and passes all frequencies above fc.

The critical frequency, fc of a low-pass

RC filter occurs when Xc = R where:

The output-to-input voltage ratio for any

signal frequency:
Band-Pass RC Filter
• A band-pass filter passes all signals lying within a band
between a lower-frequency limit and an upper-frequency
limit and essentially rejects all other frequencies that are
outside this specified band.

A band-pass RC filter can be made from

cascaded high-pass and low-pass RC filters:

The output-to-input voltage ratio for any

signal frequency:
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
• As the op amp became familiar to the individuals working in
process-control and instrumentation technology, a large
variety of circuits were developed with direct application to
this field.
• This section presents a number of typical circuits and their
basic characteristics, together with a derivation of the circuit
response assuming an ideal op amp.
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
• Voltage Follower : Figure shows an op amp circuit with unity gain
and very high input impedance.
• Very high input impedance (>100 Mega Ohm)
• Current output is limited to the short circuit current of the op amp,
• Lower output impedance is typically much less than 100 Ohm.

This circuit has unity gain

but very high input
impedance.
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
• Inverting Amplifier: Equation shows that this circuit inverts the input
signal and may have either attenuation or gain, depending on the ratio of
input resistance,R1 , and feedback resistance,R2 .
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
• Summing Amplifier: A common modification of the
inverting amplifier is an amplifier that sums or adds two or
more applied voltages.

Figure 31
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
Example: Develop an op amp circuit that can provide an
output voltage related to the input voltage by:

1. use a summing amplifier with on one input and 5 V on the other.

2. The gains will be selected to be 3.4 and 1.0, respectively.
3. Add a second amplifier to invert the negative sign from summing amplifier.
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
• Non inverting Amplifier : The gain of this circuit is found by
summing the currents at the summing point, S, and using the fact that
the summing point voltage is Vin, so that, no voltage difference
appears across the input terminals.

From ohm’s law:

Figure 33
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
• Example:
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
Differential instrumentation amplifier:
• An ideal differential amplifier provides an output voltage with respect to
ground that is:

• where A is the differential gain and both Va and Vb are voltages with respect
to ground. Such an amplifier plays an important role in instrumentation and
measurement.
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
• Differential Amplifier The most common circuit for this amplifier is shown
in Figure 34.
• Notice that the circuit uses two pairs of matched resistors, R1 and R2.
When the matching is perfect and the op amp is ideal, the transfer
function for this amplifier is given by:

Figure 34
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
• The circuit of the last Figure 34 has a disadvantage in that its input
impedance is not very high and, further, is not the same for the two inputs.
• For this reason, voltage followers is added on the input to provide high
input impedance. The result is called an instrumentation amplifier.

Figure 35
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation Amplifier:
• Differential amplifiers with high input impedance and low output
impedance are given the special name of instrumentation amplifier.
• Normally used as a host of applications in process-measurement
systems, principally as the initial stage of amplification for bridge
circuits.
• Figure 35 shows one type of instrumentation amplifier in common use.

Figure 35
OPAMP CIRCUITS IN
INSTRUMENTATION
Example: A sensor outputs a range of 20.0 to 250 mV as a variable varies
over its range. Develop signal conditioning so that this becomes 0 to 5 V. The
circuit must have very high input impedance.
This problem is involved with the linear relationship between sensor output (signal
conditioning input) and the signal conditioning output.
Therefore, linear equation can be written as:

Vout mVin + Vo
=
Where, m = slope and represent the gain (m>1) or attenuation (m<1).
Vo = interception point.

=
Find m and Vo: 0 m(0.02) + Vo (1)
=5 m(0.25) + Vo (2)
Slope: Intercept point:
m = 21.7, V0 = −0.434V
 Linear equation:
Vout 21.7Vin − 0.434
=
- Rearrange the equation to the standard form as summing amplifier voltage
output:
R2
Vout
= (V2 − V1 )
R1 Voltage follower

Vout 21.7(Vin − 0.02)

= Summing amplifier

Zener diode: to
keep the bias
voltage (0.02V)
always constant.
Voltage follower
FIGURE 36
Signal conditioning circuit for resistance sensor.
Example:
Figure shows a bridge circuit for which R4 varies from 100 Ω to 102 Ω.
Show how an instrumentation amplifier could be used to provide an
output from 0 V to 2.5V. (Assume that R1 = 1k Ω)

Instrumentation amplifier
Offset voltage from the bridge
circuit:  
Rbridge3 Rbridge 4
∆V = (Va − Vb ) = V  − 
R
 bridge1 + Rbridge3 Rbridge 2 + Rbridge 4 
 100 102 
5 − 
 100 + 100 100 + 102  From the instrumentation amplifier
output:
= −24.75mV R2
Negative sign (Vb > Va ) =Vout (V2 − V1 )
R1
Vout Ramp 2
In order to get 2.5V at 102Ω, =A =
differential gain, A: (V2 − V1 ) Ramp1
 2.5V 
A =  101 Select Ramp1 = 1 kΩ:
 24.75mV  R2
101 =
1k Ω
R=
2 101× 1k Ω
= 101k Ω
Signal conditioning circuit for resistance sensor.

Vout : 0 V to 2.5V
R4 : 100 Ω to 102 Ω

Bridge circuit
Instrumentation amplifier
Reference

• Curtis D. Johnson. “Process Control Instrumentation

Technology”, Prentice Hall, 8/E, 2005 ISBN-10:
0131194577 • ISBN-13: 9780131194571
Thank You