UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

BUILDING SERVICES
CIVE 3218(5)
CIVE 2242D

LECTURE NOTES 2

FOUL DRAINAGE SERVICES

Naresh Sewdin

13 August 2013
Lecture Notes 2 Building Services

1. Scope

The scope of this section is to provide you with the basic principles for designing above
ground soil and waste systems which operate under gravity. It is applicable for drainage
systems inside dwellings, commercial, institutional and industrial buildings.

2. Introduction

Every building has a requirement for public health engineering enabling those support
features so necessary in life to be achieved with the minimum of fuss and bother. The
design of sanitary installations is controlled by reference to the Building Regulations
Document H and British Standards BS EN 12056. It is also essential to comply with
Local Authorities requirements (e.g. wastewater management authority, municipality,
etc).

3. Definitions

The following definitions relevant to drainage system from sanitary wares in buildings
are provided as follows:

3.1 General
 Waste water: Water which is contaminated by use and all water discharging into the
drainage system, e.g. domestic and trade effluent, condensate water and also
rainwater when discharged in a waste water drainage system.
 Domestic waste water: Water which is contaminated by use and normally discharged
from WC, shower, bath, bidet, wash basin, sink, floor gully.
 Trade effluent: Water after industrial use and processes contaminated/polluted water
including cooling water.
 Grey water: Waste water not containing faecal matter or urine.
 Black water: Waste water containing faecal matter or urine.
 Rainwater: Water resulting from natural precipitation that has not been deliberately
contaminated.
 Flood level: The maximum level to which waste water can rise within a drainage
system.
 Drainage system: A system composed of drainage equipment, and other components
collecting waste water and discharging by means of gravity; effluent lifting plant
may be part of a gravity drainage system.
 Combined system: A drainage system for both rain and waste water in a single pipe.
 Separate system: A drainage system for draining rain and waste water separately by
dedicated pipework.

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3.2 Pipes and fittings

 Sanitary pipework: Arrangement of discharge pipework, with or without ventilating
pipes, connected to a drainage system.
 Nominal diameter (DN): Numerical designation of size which is a convenient round
number approximately equal to the diameter in mm.
 Branch discharge pipe: Pipe connecting sanitary appliances to a discharge stack or
drain.
 Swept entry: Equal branch junction that is at 45° or less, or has a centre line radius
not less than the internal pipe diameter.
 Discharge stack: Main (generally vertical) pipe, conveying discharges from sanitary
appliances.
 Filling degree: Proportion of water depth (h) to the inside diameter (d).
 Ventilating pipe: pipe provided to limit the pressure fluctuations within the discharge
pipe system.
 Ventilating stack: Main vertical ventilating pipe, connected to a discharge stack, to
limit pressure fluctuations within the discharge stack.
 Stack vent: Extension of a vertical discharge pipe above the highest branch discharge
pipe connection that terminates in an end, open to the atmosphere.
 Air admittance valve: Valve that allows air to enter the system but not to escape in
order to limit pressure fluctuations within the sanitary pipework.

3.3 Appliances
 Sanitary pipework: Arrangement of discharge pipework, with or without ventilating
pipes, connected to a drainage system.
 Domestic sanitary appliances: Fixed appliances supplied with water and used
cleaning or washing. For example: baths, showers, wash basins, bidets, WCs,
urinals, sinks, dishwashers, washing machines.
 Non-domestic sanitary appliances: Special sanitary appliances used in commercial
kitchens, laundries, laboratories, hospitals, hotels, swimming-pools, etc.
 Floor gully: Discharge fitting intended to receive water from floors either through
apertures in a grating or from pipes connected to the body of the gully. A gully may
include a trap.
 Trap: Device that prevents the passage of foul air by means of water seal.

3.4 Calculation
 Discharge unit (DU): The average discharge rate of a sanitary appliance expressed
in litres per second (l/s).
 Frequency factor (K): Variable to take into account the frequency of use of sanitary
appliances (dimensionless).
 Waste water flow rate (Qww): Total design flow rate from sanitary appliances in a
drainage system or in a part of a drainage system in litres per second (l/s).
 Continuous flow rate (Qc): Flow rate of all continuous flows, e.g. cooling water, etc.,
in litres per second (l/s).

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 Pumped water flow rate (Qp): Discharge rate of waste water pumps in litres per
second (l/s).
 Total flow rate (Qtot): The total flow rate is the sum of the waste water flow rate
(Qww) and continuous flow rate (Qc) and pumped water flow rate (Qp), in litres per
second (l/s).
 Hydraulic capacity (Qmax): Maximum flow rate of water permitted in a branch, stack
or drain in litres per second (l/s).
 Air flow rate (Qa): Minimum flow rate of air through a ventilating pipe or air
admittance valve, measured at 250 Pascal (Pa) pressure drop, in litres per second
(l/s).

4. System configuration

4.1 Importance of a good drainage system (above ground)

A good sanitary pipework system should be designed and installed to provide the
following attributes:

a) Prevents the transmission of foul air inside the building from the drainage system.
b) Minimise the frequency and risk of any blockages by providing adequate pipe
access to enable effective clearance to any such blockages.
c) Provide efficient conveyance of discharge from sanitary wares (e.g. sinks, wash
hand basins, WC, washing machine, urinals, dish washer, etc) to enable correct
functioning of each appliance, providing a ventilating stack where required.
d) Where the sewer is likely to surcharge, minimise the risk of flooding to any part
of a building where the floor level is located below the normal ground level.

Hence, sanitary discharge pipework should therefore be kept as short as possible with few
bends and with adequate gradient (fall).

4.2 System types

The systems may be divided into four system types, although there are variations in
detail within each system type:
a) System I - Single discharge stack system with partly filled branch discharge pipes
Sanitary appliances are connected to partly filled branch discharge pipes. The partly
filled branch discharge pipes are designed with a filling degree of 0.5 (50 %) and are
connected to a single discharge stack.

b) System II - Single discharge stack system with small bore discharge branch pipes
Sanitary appliances are connected to small bore branch discharge pipes. The small
bore branch discharge pipes are designed with a filling degree of 0.7 (70 %) and are
connected to a single discharge stack.

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c) System III - Single discharge stack system with full bore branch discharge pipes
Sanitary appliances are connected to full bore branch discharge pipes. The full bore
branch discharge pipes are designed with a filling degree of 1.0 (100 %) and each
branch discharge pipe is separately connected to a single discharge stack.

d) System IV Separate discharge stack system

Drainage systems type I, II and III may also be divided into a black water stack
serving WC’s and urinals and a grey water stack serving all other appliances.

4.3 Configurations

Each system can be configured in a number of ways, governed by the need to control
pressure in the pipework in order to prevent foul air from the waste water system
entering the building. The principle configurations are described below but combinations
and variations are often required.

i. Ventilation branch system known as ventilation system

This type of system is used in situations where there are large numbers of sanitary
appliances grouped together or alternatively in situations where appliances are
widely dispersed and close proximity of stacks to appliances is not possible. Trap
seals are safeguarded by extending discharge and ventilating stacks to the
atmosphere and by providing individual branch ventilation pipes.

Figure 2.1

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ii. Secondary ventilation stack branch system known as ventilation stack system
This type of system is used in situations where close groupings of appliances makes
it practicable to provide branch discharge pipes without the need for branch
ventilating pipes. Trap seals are safeguarded by extending the stacks to the
atmosphere and by cross connecting the discharge stack and ventilating stack.

Figure 2.2

iii. Primary ventilated stack system previously known as single stack system
This type of system is generally in situations where close grouping of appliances
makes it possible to eliminate both ventilating stacks and branch ventilating pipes.
However, the diameter of the discharge stack must be large enough to limit pressure
fluctuations to avoid the need for a ventilating stack.

Figure 2.3

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4.4 Waste traps

Every sanitary appliance should be provided with a trap, either an integral part of the
appliance or attached directly to the appliance outlet. The purpose of the trap is to
provide a non-mechanical barrier to prevent escape of foul air inside the building.

Figure 2.4

The water seal depth should therefore be large enough, after possible loss due to
evaporation and pressure fluctuations to prevent foul air from entering the building.

The minimum acceptable seal depths should be as follows:

a) Traps with outlets for pipe up to and including 50mm diameter should have a
minimum water seal of 75mm.
b) Traps with outlets of pipes over 50mm diameter should have a minimum water
seal of 50mm.
c) Traps used on appliances with a trailing waste discharge such as baths and sinks,
when installed on ground floors may be fitted with a trap having a 38mm water
seal where the branch discharge pipe terminates at a gully.

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5. Pipe sizing using the Discharge Unit Method

In small domestic type systems, it is generally unusual to carry out mathematical

calculations due to the small number of appliances involved. However, in larger
domestic and commercial type buildings, most systems incorporate many different type
of appliances which may nevertheless finally connect to the same discharge pipe or
drain.

In these situations, it is necessary to allocate to each appliance with a numerical value

known as discharge units to make it easier to design these mixed systems. Discharge
units of a variety of sanitary appliances are given in Table 2.1. These values are given for
the purpose of calculation and are not related to discharge rates of sanitary appliances
quoted in product standards.

Table 2.1

The calculation procedures are as follows:

i. Selection of system type and configuration.
ii. Calculation of total wastewater flowrate for the building.
iii. Sizing of discharge stacks and ventilating pipes.
iv. Sizing of sewer drain pipe.

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5.1 Selection of system type and configuration

As per BS EN 12056-2:2000, section 4, p.9, System IV is selected with a soil stack

serving WC’s and urinals and a waste stack serving all other appliances.

Since there is need to control the pressure in the pipework in order to prevent foul air
from the sewer line entering the building, a secondary ventilated system configuration is
selected. That is, control of pressure is achieved by the use of separate ventilating stacks
in connection with stack vents.

5.2 Calculation of total wastewater flowrate for the building

Qww is the expected flowrate of waste water in a part or in the whole drainage system
where only domestic sanitary appliances (see Table 2.1) are connected to the system.

The total flowrate is calculated as Qtot = Qww + Qc + Qp

where Qww = wastewater flowrate (L/s)

Qc = continuous flowrate (L/s)
Qp = pumped flowrate (L/s)

Since there is no continuous flows in the building and since there is no discharge of
wastewater pumps in the foul drainage system, Qc = Qp = 0.

Hence, the total wastewater flowrate, Qtot = Qww = K√ (∑DU)

where K = frequency factor

∑DU = Sum of discharge units.

Typical frequency factors (K) associated with different usage of appliances are given in
Table 2.2.

Table 2.2

5.3 Sizing of discharge stacks and ventilating pipes

For the sizing of discharge stacks, the wastewater flowrate for each stack is calculated
using the same procedure as described in section 5.2.

Then, from BS EN 12056-2:2000, Table 12, p 23 (Table 2.3), the size of the discharge
stack is selected in such a way that the wastewater flowrate of the stack does not exceed
its hydraulic capacity.

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The sizes and limitations of secondary ventilated discharge stacks are given in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3

For sizing of ventilating pipes, the discharge unit method cannot give guidance on the
requirements as it is entirely based on hydraulic loadings and not on pressure developed
within the stack. In absence of the type of system, as a general rule, Table 2.4 provides
an approximate ventilating pipe and stack sizes. This is usually a safe assumption but can
lead in some cases to oversized ventilation systems.

General guide for sizing ventilating pipes and stacks

Size of branch discharge Size of branch ventilating
pipes or discharge stack pipe or stack
Smaller than 75mm 2/3D (25mm min)
75mm and above ½D

Table 2.4

5.4 Sizing of sewer drain pipe

For the sizing of sewer drain pipe, the total wastewater flowrate for the building as
calculated in section 4.2 above is used in conjunction with BS EN 12056-2:2000, Table
B.1, Pg 30 (Table 2.6) to determine the size of the drain pipe.

All waste or sewer pipes to have the following invert level fall:

Pipe size Fall on pipe

≤ 110mm diameter 1:55
≤ 160mm diameter 1:90
≤ 200mm diameter 1:120
≤ 250mm diameter 1:150
Table 2.5

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Table 2.6

6. Sample Question

Determine the size of the sewer and waste discharge stack, ventilating stack and branch
discharge pipes for a 4 storey commercial office building in which 4 WCs (6L), 6 wash
basins, 2 urinals with flush valves, 3 floor traps and 1 cleaners sink are closely grouped
on each floor.

7. Pipe materials

The selection of materials should be such that they are suitable for that particular systems
application and should conform to a relevant British Standard. The choice of materials
will depend on the size and function of the pipework, the temperature and constituents of
discharge and ambient conditions. Other considerations are the weight, physical strength,
ease of assembly and maintenance requirements of the pipework.

There are a number of materials suitable for soil and waste pipework. The most common
types being the following:

a) Cast iron
Cast iron to BS 416 is widely used for soil and waste systems and has the
advantage of resisting mechanical damage better than most other materials. The
pipes are heavy and require good support, but do not expand and contact as much
as copper and plastic pipes. The pipes are protected from corrosion by a
manufacturer’s applied bituminous coating both internally and externally.

b) Copper
Copper to BS EN 1057 is an adaptable metal of medium weight. It can be
obtained in long lengths which can reduce the number of joints in the system. The
thermal expansion of copper is higher than that of cast iron and expansion joints

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may be required. The copper pipe is strong, rigid and resists attack from most
discharge wastes.

c) Plastics
There are a number of thermoplastic materials suitable for soil and waste pipes.
These include unplasticised polyvinylchloride (uPVC to BS EN 1329),
polypropylene (PP to BS EN 1451) and polyethylene (PE to BS EN 1519). All
these materials are light in weight, easy to handle and highly resistant to
corrosion. Their coefficients of expansion are however much higher than of
metals. Proper and adequate allowance must be made for thermal movement.

uPVC is the most commonly used plastic for large diameter discharge and
ventilating pipes. However, softening is unsuitable where large volumes of water
are discharged at temperatures exceeding 60oC. The short term full bore
discharge from some appliances may be at a much higher temperature, e.g. some
types of washing machine discharge water at 80oC or even higher.

The figure below summarises the common materials used for soil and waste drainage
purposes.

Figure 2.5

8. Bedding and backfilling

The choice of bedding and backfilling depends on the depth at which the pipes are to be
laid and the size and strength of the pipes. Class A bedding gives a bedding factor of 2.6
which means that a rigid drain pipe laid in this manner could support up to 2.6 times the
quoted BS strength. Class B bedding is more practical, considerably less expensive and
quicker to use. This has a more than adequate bedding factor of 1.9. If used with plastic
pipes, it is essential to bed and completely surround the pipe with granular material to
prevent the pipe from distortion.

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Figure 2.6

9. Drainage below ground

9.1 Importance of a good drainage system (below ground)

An adequate system of drainage shall be provided to carry foul water from appliances
within the building to one of the following, listed in order of priority-

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a) a public sewer; or, where that is not reasonably practicable,

b) a private sewer communicating with a public sewer; or, where that is not
reasonably practicable,
c) either a septic tank which has an appropriate form of secondary treatment or
another wastewater treatment system; or, where that is not reasonably practicable,
d) a cesspool.

The type of external drainage system selected for a building will be determined by the
local wastewater authority (WMA) established sewer arrangements. In Mauritius, a
separate system (Effluents from sanitary appliances conveyed to a foul water sewer
network and rain water conveyed to a separate road drain or soakaways) is applicable.

Figure 2.7

9.2 Septic tank and cesspools

i) Requirements
Any septic tank and its form of secondary treatment, other wastewater treatment
system or cesspool, shall be so sited and constructed that –
a) it is not prejudicial to the health of any person;
b) it will not contaminate any watercourse, underground water or water supply;
c) there are adequate means of access for emptying and maintenance;
d) where relevant, it will function to a sufficient standard for the protection of
health in the event of a power failure.

The above requirements will be met if:

a) wastewater treatment systems:
i. have sufficient capacity to enable breakdown and settlement of solid
matter in the wastewater from the buildings;
ii. are sited and constructed so as to prevent overloading of the receiving
water.
b) cesspools have sufficient capacity to store the foul water from the building
until they are emptied;
c) septic tanks and wastewater treatment systems and cesspools are constructed
and sited so as to:
i. have adequate ventilation;
ii. prevent leakage of the contents and ingress of subsoil water.

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ii) Cesspool
A cesspool is an acceptable method of foul water containment where main drainage
is not available. It is an impervious chamber requiring periodic emptying, sited
below ground level. The building regulations require a minimum capacity below
inlet level of 18000 L. A cesspool must be impervious to rainwater, well ventilated
and have no outlets or overflows. It should be sited at least 15m from a dwelling.

The capacity is based on 150 litres per person per day at 45 day emptying cycles.
Hence for a four-person house, the capacity is (4 x 150 x 45) 27000 Litres (27 m3).

Figure 2.8

iii) Septic tank

Where main drainage is not available, a septic tank is preferable to a cesspool. A
septic tank is self-cleansing and will only require annual desludging. It is in effect a
private sewage disposal plant which is common for buildings in rural areas or areas
where the public sewer network is not available.

The tank is a watertight chamber in which the sewage is liquefied by anaerobic

bacterial activity. This type of bacteria lives in the absence of oxygen which is
ensured by a sealed cover. The capacity is determined from the simple formula:

C = (180 x P) + 2000

where C is the capacity in litres

P is the no of persons served.

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Figure 2.9

Drainage fields and mounds are a less conspicuous alternative to use biological filter for
secondary processing of sewage. Disposal and dispersal is through a system of perforated
pipes laid in a suitable drainage medium.

Location:
 Min 10m from any watercourse or permeable drain.
 Min 50m from any underground water supply.
 Min distance from a building:
1. <5 people 15m
2. 6-30 people 25m
3. 31-100 people 40m
4. >100 people 70m
 Downslope of any water source.

Ground quality:
 Preferably granular, with good percolation qualities. Subsoils of clay composition
are unlikely to be suited.
 Natural water table should not rise to within 1m of distribution pipes invert level.
 Ground percolation test procedure:

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1. Dig several holes 300x300mm, 300mm below the expected distribution

pipe location.
2. Fill holes to a 300mm depth of water and allow to seep away overnight.
3. Next day refill holes to a 300mm depth and observe time in seconds for the
water to fall from 225mm depth to 75mm. Divide time by 150mm to
ascertain average time (Vp) for water to drop 1mm.
4. Apply floor area formula for drainage field:

 At = p x Vp x 0.25

where At = floor area (m2)

p = no of persons served
e.g. 40 min (2400 secs) soil percolation test time in a system
serving 6 persons:
Vp = 2400/150 = 16
At = 6 x 16 x 0.25 = 24m2.
 Vp should be between 12 and 100. Less than 12 indicate that untreated effluent
would percolate into the ground too rapidly. A figure greater than 100 suggests
that the field may become saturated.

Figure 2.10

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Figure 2.11

9.3 Soakaway

Where a surface water sewer is not available, it may be possible to dispose of rainwater
into a soakaway. A soakaway will only be effective in porous soils and above the water
table. Water must not be allowed to flow under the building and soakaways should be
positioned at least 3m away. A filled soakaway is inexpensive to construct, but it will
have limited capacity. Unfilled or hollow soakaways can be built of precast concrete or
masonry. Soakaway capacity can be determined by applying a rainfall intensity of atleast
50mm per hour to the following formula:

C = (A x R)/ 3

where C : capacity of soakaway in m3.

A : area of drained in m2.
R : rainfall in metres per hour.

e.g. Considering a drained area of 150m2, C = (150 x 0.050)/3 = 2.5 m3.

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Figure 2.12

9.4 Typical underground drainage services

 Gully trap

Figure 2.13

 Sewer manhole

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Figure 2.14

 Grease trap

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Figure 2.15

 Septic tank

Figure 2.16

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Discharge branches

1. Unventilated discharge branches

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2. Ventilated discharge branches

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Discharge stacks

1. Primary ventilated discharge stacks

2. Secondary ventilated discharge stacks

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