College of Engineering

Department of Electronics Engineering

Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

Switching Fundamentals, Multiplexing Techniques,

and switching techniques & QoS
Written Report

Submitted By:
Bernardo, Riccian Faith J.
Martinez, Michael Vince R.
Roman, Angelou M.

BS Electronics Engineering
ECE 0325-1

Submitted to:
Engr. Thaddeo S. Garcia
Network Switching

Network switching can be defined as when the process of guiding network traffic from one path to
another path or one device to another device. In computer networking, network switching is an essential
component that allows data to be sent very efficiently between various network devices over a network.

Switching Methods

This diagram categorizes different types of switched networks, including Circuit-Switched Networks,
Packet-Switched Networks, and Message-Switched Networks
CIRCUIT SWITCH NETWORK

The switching technique is a connection-oriented network that is divided into pieces and has a
dedicated path established between the sender and receiver providing a guaranteed data rate

The diagram represents a switched network, where multiple terminals (devices) connect to the
switch. Switches forwarded the data. Switch

3 acts as a central hub, linking multiple switches to manage data flow.

EXAMPLE OF CIRCUIT SWITCH

Circuit switching is a way of connecting two people for communication, mostly used in

traditional telephone networks (PSTN).

• Making a Call

When you dial a phone number, the system searches for a direct path (or circuit) to the person

you are calling.

• Setting Up the Connection

Once a path is found, a dedicated line is established between you and the other person. This

means the entire connection is reserved for your call.

• Talking in Real-Time

You and the other person can now talk without delay because the line is exclusively for your

conversation.

• Ending the Call

Once you hang up, the connection is released, and the line becomes available for others.
Phases of Circuit Switching

• CIRCUIT ESTABLISHMENT
• DATA TRANSFER
• CIRCUIT DISCONNECTION

CIRCUIT ESTABLISHMENT

A dedicated circuit between the source and the destination is established with the help of numerous
intermediate switching centres.

DATA TRASFER

The transfer of data and voice signals are possible between the source and the destination after the
establishment of the circuit. The connection between both end parties continues as long as they
communicate.
CIRCUIT DISCONNECTION

The disconnection in the circuit happens when one of the users initiates to disconnect. When the
disconnection takes place, all the intermediate links between the sender and receiver are removed.
MESSAGE SWITCHING

Message switching is a switching mechanism in which a message is sent as a single unit and
routed to intermediary nodes where it is stored and forwarded. The message switching approach does
not provide a dedicated path between the sender and receiver.

PROPERTIES OF MESSAGE SWITCHING

STORE AND FORWARD

The intermediate nodes have the responsibility of transferring the entire message to the next node.
Hence, each node must have storage capacity.
MESSAGE DELIVERY

Message delivery refers to the process of sending an entire piece of information (a message) from a
source node (sender) to a destination node (receiver) in a network. Each message must have a header
that contains the message routing information, including the source and destination. Each message
contains a header, which includes:

Source Address – Identifies where the message originates.

Destination Address – Identifies where the message should be delivered.

Routing Information – Helps intermediate nodes determine the best path to forward the message.

PACKET SWITCHING

Packet switching is a method used to move data across a packet switching network. Instead of sending
your data into one big piece, it breaks it down into smaller chunks called "packets”. " Each of these
packets can travel independently through the network, taking different paths to reach the same
destination. Sequence numbers will help the receiver to

• Reorder the packets

• Detect missing packets
• Send acknowledgement
There are two approaches in packet switching, The Datagram Approach and Virtual Circuit Approach.

DATAGRAM APPROACH

Datagram Packet Switching is also known as Connectionless switching. Each independent entity
is called as “datagram”. Datagram contains destination information, and the intermediary devices use
this information to forward datagrams to the right destination. In Datagram Packet Switching approach,
the path is not fixed. Intermediate nodes take the routing decision to forward the packets.
VIRTUAL CIRCUIT APPROACH

Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching. In the case of Virtual
circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the message are sent. In this approach, the
path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
What is Multiplexing

In general, a medium can carry only one signal at any moment in time. For multiple signals to
share one medium, the medium must somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the total
bandwidth. Multiplexing (also known as MUXing) is a method by which multiple analog message
signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The basic aim
of the Multiplexing is to share an expensive resource by putting-up multiple signals on the same
channel.

Thus, Multiplexing refers to the ability to transmit data coming from several pairs of equipment
(transmitters and receivers) called low-speed channels on a single physical medium (called the
high-speed channel). Whereas, a multiplexer is the multiplexing device that combines the signals
from the different transmitters and sends them over the high-speed channel.

A demultiplexer is the device which separates signal received from a high-speed channel into
different signal and sends them to receivers.

Four basic multiplexing techniques:

• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

• Time division Multiplexing (TDM)

• Code division Multiplexing (CDM)

• Space-division Multiplexing (SDM)

1. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is the technique used to divide the available bandwidth
into a number of smaller independent logical channels with each channel having a small
bandwidth. The method of using a number of carrier frequencies each of which is modulated by
an independent speech signal is in fact frequency division multiplexing

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is the technique used to divide the available bandwidth
into a number of smaller independent logical channels with each channel having a small
bandwidth. The method of using a number of carrier frequencies each of which is modulated by
an independent speech signal is in fact frequency division multiplexing
The frequency division multiplexing schemes used around the world are very standardized. A wide
spread standard is 12, 4000-Hz each voice channels (3000Hz for user, plus two guard bands of
500Hz each) multiplexed into the 60 to 108 KHz band. Many carriers offer a 48 to 56 kbps leased
line service to customers, based on the group.
• Single sideband modulation (SSB) is widely used in FDM for telephony.

• Voice signals require a bandwidth of approximately 4 kHz.

• Bandpass filters restrict each modulated signal to its assigned range.

• Filtered outputs are combined in parallel into a common channel.

• At the receiver, bandpass filters separate signals based on frequency.

• Demodulators recover the original message signals.

Advantages of FDM:
1. The users can be added to the system by simply adding another pair of transmitter modulator
and receiver demodulators.
2. FDM system support full duplex information (Both side simultaneous Communication) flow
which is required by most of application.
Disadvantages of FDM:

1. In FDM system, the initial cost is high. This may include the cable between the two ends and
the associated connectors for the cable.
2. A problem with one user can sometimes affect the others.

3. Each user requires a precise carrier frequency for transmission of the signals.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• TDM divides channel time into small time slots for each user.
• Users transmit messages during their assigned time intervals.
• Multiplexed data is organized into frames for transmission.
• Channel capacity is maximized by interleaving multiple messages.
• At the receiver, the combined message is separated.
• Individual message chunks are reassembled.
 Unfortunately, TDM can only be used for digital data multiplexing. Since local loops
produce analog signals, a conversion is needed from analog to digital in the end office.
Where all the individual local loops come together to be combined onto outgoing trucks.

Applications of TDM
• The PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy) system, also known as the PCM (Pulse
Code Modulation) systems
• The synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) / synchronous optical networking (SONET)
network transmission standards.
• TDM can be further extended into the time division multiple Channel (TDMA) scheme,
where several stations connected to the same physical medium, for example sharing the
same frequency channel, can communicate. Application examples include the widely used
GSM telephone system

Advantages of TDM
1. It uses a single link
2. It does not require precise carrier matching at both end of the links.
3. Use of the channel capacity is high.
4. Each to expand the number of users on a system at a low cost.
5. There is no need to include identification of the traffic stream on each packet.
Disadvantages of TDM
1. The sensitivity to other user is very high and causes problems
2. Initial cost is high
3. Technical complexity is more

3. CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

The concept of multiple access where we can allow several transmitters to send information
simultaneously over a single communication channel and it allows several users to share
bandwidth). CDMA uses spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where
each transmitter is assigned a code generally pseudorandom code) to allow multiple users
to be multiplexed over the same physical channel.

By contrast, time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while
frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form of
spread-spectrum signalling, since the modulated coded signal has a much higher data
bandwidth than the data being communicated. This allows more users to communicate on
the same network at one time than if each user was allotted a specific frequency range.
Remember that CDMA is a digital technology, so analog signals must be digitized before
being transmitted on the network.
4. SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

When we want to transmit multiple messages through any of the communication media,
the ultimate goal is to maximize the use of the given resources (e.g. time and frequency in
general). It involves grouping many separate wires into a common cable enclosure. A cable
that has, for example, 50 twisted pairs inside it can support 50 channels. SDM has the
unique advantage of not requiring any multiplexing equipment. It is usually combined with
other multiplexing techniques to better utilize the individual physical channels. For
example, if there are six persons in the office and all of them want to talk at the same time,
this will give rise to interference between the conversations.

To reduce the interference they may divide themselves into three groups of two, such that
the conversation is between each pair of people. If the pairs continue talking whilst sitting
next to each other, the interference would still be present. The best way for each pair to
converse with minimal interference would be to sit a few feet away from the other pairs
(within the same room) and converse. They would still be sharing the same medium for
their conversations but the physical space in the room would be divided for each
conversation. This is the simplest example of Space Division Multiplexing.

• Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM) uses separate point-to-point wires in wired

communication.
• Examples: Stereo audio cables and multipair telephone cables for PSTN.
• Switched star networks, like analog telephone access networks, use SDM.
• In wireless communication, SDM is achieved through phased array antennas.
• Examples: MIMO, SIMO, and MISO multiplexing.
III. Quality of Service (QoS)

A. Definition and Importance

• What is QoS in networking?

It is a capability of network to provide quality services. It manages traffic to reduce packet

loss and delays.

The primary goal of QoS is to provide priority to a specific type of data. For example, real
time transmission such video, audio, online games, needs priority for file transfer

Quality of service (QoS) is the use of mechanisms or technologies that work on a network to
control traffic and ensure the performance of critical applications with limited network
capacity. It enables organizations to adjust their overall network traffic by prioritizing
specific high-performance applications.

Using QoS in networking, organizations have the ability to optimize the performance of
multiple applications on their network and gain visibility into the bit rate, delay, jitter, and
packet rate of their network. This ensures they can engineer the traffic on their network and
change the way that packets are routed to the internet or other networks to avoid
transmission delay. This also ensures that the organization achieves the expected service
quality for applications and delivers expected user experiences.

B. QoS Parameters

• Packet loss: This occurs when network connections get congested, and routers
and switches begin losing packets.

Imagine you order 10 items online, but due to heavy traffic and overwhelmed couriers, only
8 arrive. The missing 2 items represent packet loss—some data doesn’t make it to its
destination due to congestion

Online Gaming : If you're playing a fast-paced online game and notice your character
freezing or teleporting, this could be due to packet loss.

• Jitter: This is the result of network congestion, time drift, and routing changes. Too much
jitter can reduce the quality of voice and video communication. Jitter is the difference
between the time it takes of first packet and to the next packet.

Suppose you order food from the same restaurant three times. The first order arrives in 30
minutes, the second in 50 minutes, and the third in 20 minutes. This inconsistency in
delivery time is like jitter, where data packets arrive at uneven intervals, affecting real-time
communication like video calls. The lower the jitter much better.

Voice & Video Calls : If you're on a VoIP call and hear choppy or robotic audio, it's
caused by high jitter.
• Latency: This is how long it takes a packet to travel from its source to its destination. The
latency should be as near to zero as possible.

If you order a package from a local shop, it arrives in 10 minutes, but if it’s from another
country, it takes 5 days. This delay in travel time is latency—how long it takes for data to
move from the sender to the receiver. Ideally, just like with deliveries, we want latency to be
as low as possible.

Browsing & Downloads: If a webpage takes forever to load or a file download lags, it's
due to high latency.

• Bandwidth: This is a network communications link’s ability to transmit the majority of data
from one place to another in a specific amount of time.

Imagine a highway. The more lanes (higher bandwidth), the more cars (data) can travel
smoothly at the same time. But if there’s only one lane (low bandwidth) and too many cars
(data), congestion happens, slowing everything down.

Home Internet : If multiple people are watching Netflix, downloading files, and gaming
at the same time, the network may slow down due to limited bandwidth.

• Mean opinion score: This is a metric for rating voice quality that uses a five-point scale, with
five representing the highest quality.

Think of a taxi ride where passengers rate their experience from 1 to 5 stars:

VoIP Services : If you rate a VoIP call 5/5 for crystal-clear sound but another call 2/5 due
to distortion and dropouts, you're using MOS.
Techniques to improve QOS

- Quality of service needs to be improved for reliable delivery of data

1. Scheduling
a. Fifo Queuing – First in First out Queuing
Packets are waiting to the buffer of queue and tell the node if it is ready to process .
If the arrival rate is higher than the processing rate the queue will fill up and the new
packets will be discarded.
b. Priority Queuing
There are two types of queue 1. High Priority Queue (waiting area) 2. Low Priority
Queue (waiting area) . First packet will be put into high priority class, other file
transfer will be put into low priority queue. Packets in the high priority queue will be
process first. While packets from low priority queue will be process last. Priority
queue provides better quality of service than the FIFO queue. Higher priority queue
can reach the destination with less delay.
Starvation happens when there is a continuous flow of packet in the high priority
queue the packets in the low priority queue will never have a chance to be process
 c. Weighted Fair Queuing
This is based on the weight of the high priority of the queue. Higher priority means a
higher weight
2. Traffic shaping – control the amount and rate of traffic send to network
a. Leaky bucket - Ensures a steady and smooth data flow rate, preventing sudden
bursts of traffic.
b. Token Bucket - Allows for bursts of data when needed while controlling the long-
term average rate. This allows for bursts of data instead of limiting transmission to a
constant rate.
3. Admission Control - In networking, Admission Control restricts new connections if the
network is already congested. Admission Control blocks excess traffic to maintain smooth
performance for existing users.
Imagine a restaurant with limited tables. If all seats are full, the manager doesn’t accept
more customers to ensure good service for those already dining.
4. Resource reservation – A system pre-allocates resources to ensure high-priority data gets
through without delays.
Imagine booking a VIP table at a restaurant. Even if the place is crowded, you’re guaranteed
a seat because you reserved it in advance.

Why is QoS important?

Without QoS, network data can become disorganized, clogging networks to the point where
performance degrades or, in certain cases, the network shuts down completely.

QoS is important because enterprises need to provide stable services for employees and
customers to use. Quality of service determines quality of experience (QoE). If the services an
organization provides are not reliable, customer and employee relationships may be put at risk.

Additionally, data integrity and security are more likely to be compromised in a company with a
poor QoS. In general, employees and customers depend on communication services to do their
jobs. When QoS suffers, quality of work and QoE suffer as well.

How does QoS work?

Benefit of QoS?

The main benefit of QoS is that it ensures the availability of an organization's network and the
applications that run on that network. It provides the safe, efficient transfer of data over that
network. QoS also allows organizations to use their existing bandwidth more efficiently, instead
of upgrading network infrastructure to expand bandwidth.

More specific benefits include the following:

• Mission-critical applications have access to the resources they require.

• Administrators can manage traffic better.

• Organizations can reduce costs by eliminating the need to purchase new network
infrastructure.
 • User experience is improved.

Switching Techniques QoS Impact Best For

Circuit Switching High reliability and low delay, Voice & Video Calls
but inefficient for data
transmission (e.g., if no data
is being sent, the reserved
path is still occupied).
Packet Switching Efficient, but can experience Best for Internet & Data
packet loss, jitter, and latency Transfer
if the network is congested.
Messaging Switching Ensures error-free delivery Best for Email & Store-and-
but has high delays (not ideal Forward Services
for real-time
communication).

Circuit Switching = Best for real-time (low latency, high reliability).

Packet Switching = Best for efficiency (flexible but may have delay).

Message Switching = Best for accuracy (error-free but slow).

V. Conclusion and Recommendations

VI. References

https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/small-business/resource-center/networking/network-
switch-
how.html#:~:text=Switches%20are%20key%20building%20blocks,and%20talk%20to%20each%20
other.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/message-switching-techniques/

https://byjus.com/physics/circuit-
switching/#:~:text=The%20switching%20technique%20is%20a,providing%20a%20guaranteed%20
data%20rate.

https://www.techtarget.com/searchunifiedcommunications/definition/QoS-Quality-of-Service